CHAPTER 3 - CONDUCTIVE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Conductivity & Ohms Law Conductivity the ease with which a material is capable

e of conducting an electric current (). According to this property, there are 3 types of materials: - conductors; - semiconductors; - insulators; Metals are the best conductors, typically having

Insulators have the conductivity low

Semiconductors have intermediate conductivity

Ohms Law: states that the ratio of U to I remains constant independent of the magnitude or direction of I. Some ceramic materials called varistors (thermistors) do not obey Ohms law. Any material with a non-linear U(I) characteristic is called non-ohmic.

density of current (

Where: l length of the sample A cross section area of the sample, perpendicular on the direction of I
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This form of Ohms law has the following advantages: 1. It is expressed in terms of a material parameter ( ) that, unlike R, doesnt depend on sample dimensions. 2. Its a local expression (i.e. its valid in every point of the material) 3. Its a vector relation, showing that 2 vectors quantities are parallel and proportional everywhere in the material. In anisotropic material (usually in non-cubic crystal structure) is a 9component tensor.

Conductivity in metals. Classical free electrons theory The first model: the electrons have a particle nature. We can explain the resistance of a material by means of collision of the drifting electrons and certain lattice atoms. The more collisions we encounter, the greater the resistance is. The second model: the electrons have a wave nature. This model considers that the matter waves are scattered by lattice atoms. scattering process of radiation (dissipation on small particles in all directions). It can be coherent or un-coherent. Coherent scattering: the scattering senders are periodically arranged and there is a slight phase relationship between the scattered waves. The first theory is the classical free electron theory of conductivity in metals. The idea on which Drude theory is based is that many electrons in metals are nearly free. Thats why he postulated the existence of a free electron gas or plasma, composed of the valence electrons of the individual atoms in a crystal. If we have a monovalent element (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr), it is assumed that each atom contains 1 electron to this plasma.
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- friction (damping force) Due to this 2 forces, the electrons will be accelerated until the velocity will be saturated.
v vd

)]

The relation time can be interpreted as the average time between 2 consecutive collisions.

This equation shows that conductivity is large for large number of free electrons in a large relaxation time. The relaxation time is proportional to the average time between 2 consecutive collisions. - mean free path Advantages - for metals is in very good accordance with experimental results - for insulators and semiconductors we need more precise theory (quantic) Conductivity in metals and non-metals - in equilibrium no electric field - when an electric field is applied At equilibrium the valence electrons perform random motions with no preferred velocity in any direction.

V(k)x

If an electric field is applied

V(k)x 4

The Fermi sphere/circle is displaced in a direction opposite to the electric field. This displacement takes place because some electrons propagating in opposite direction to the field E receive from it a maximum increase in their energy, thats represented by the electrons in the double shaded crescent in the right part having higher energy. These electrons are those which contribute to the electric conductor. Therefore, the Drude classical theory of conduction must be modified. The main difference between Drudes theory and quantum theory is that Drude assumed that all electrons drift under the influence of an electric field with a relatively modest velocity. Quantum mechanics shows instead that only specific electrons participate in conduction and these electrons drift with a higher velocity, named Fermi velocity . The conductivity in quantum mechanics

This equation shows that the conductivity depends according to the quantum mechanical model on the Fermi velocity , the population density per unit volume and relaxation time. This equation is more meaningful than the one in classical theory, showing that not all free electrons are responsible for conduction (shown by the fact that depends on and not merely on any v) and instead the conductivity in metals depends to a large extend on the population density of the electrons near the Fermi surface (or sphere in 3D).

Electrical resistivity in metals and alloys Metal Electrical Conductivity

Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Iron Alloy Electrical Conductivity Brass (70% Cu, 30% Zn) Platinum Plain steel Stainless Steel Mothiessens Rule

1.

- where

constants

2. Influences of the temperature A constant; function of both impurity and host metal.

CHAPTER 4 - SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between the conductivity of a conductor and the conductivity of an insulator . The electric properties of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of even small concentration of impurities. Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electric behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent to the pure material. When the electric charge is dictated by impurity atoms the semiconductor is said to be doped or extrinsic. Intrinsic semiconductor Structure
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At 0 K it has a completely filled valence band, separated from an empty conduction band by a relatively narrow band gap (smaller than 2 eV). Elemental semiconductors Si (1.1 eV) Ge (0. eV) Compound semiconductor materials having intrinsic behavior can be: - III-V compounds: GaAs, InSb - II-VI compounds: CdS, ZnTe - ternary compounds: HgCdTe, GaAsP Band Gap (eV) Si Ge GaP GeAs InSb CdS ZnTe 1.11 0.67 2.25 1.42 0.17 2.40 2.26 2.2 Electron Density 0.14 0.38 0.05 0.85 7.7 0.03 0.03 Hole Mobility 0.05 0.18 0.002 0.45 0.07 0.01

Material Elemental III-IV Compounds II-VI Compounds

Ternary elements dont have a precise value of the band gap because the proportion of the elements may differ (x = 0.20.4) so the properties differ too. Intrinsic semiconductors, for every electron excited into the conduction band a missing electron is left behind in the valence band. This missing electron is treated as a positively charged particle called hole. The charge of a hole is . Intrinsic conductivity | | N, P concentration of electrons/holes mobility of electrons/holes | |

The mobility of holes is smaller than the mobility of electrons in a semiconductor.

In intrinsic semiconductors if an electron jumps in conduction band, a hole remains in valence band. In extrinsic semiconductors if an electron jumps to the impurity level, number of electrons will be smaller than the number of holes. Extrinsic semiconductors The electrical behavior of an extrinsic semiconductor is determined by impurities. These impurities, when they are present (even in small concentration) introduce excess electrons or holes. Doping means addition of controlled amount of impurities in order to increase the number of charge carriers in a semiconductor. There are 2 types: n-type extrinsic semiconductor In order to obtain a n-type semiconductor we need an impurity atom with a valence of V to be added as a substitution impurity (P, As, Sb). Only 4 of the 5 valence electrons of impurity atom can participate in the bounding. The 5th electron is loosely bound and therefore it can be easily removed from the impurity atom, becoming a free electron (conduction electron). For each of these loosely bounded electrons there exists a single energy level or energy state located within the forbidden band gap just below the bottom of the conduction band. For each excitation event a single electron is supplied or donated to the conduction band. Since each electron is excited from an impurity level, no corresponding hole is created within the valence band. | | The electrons in a n-type extrinsic semiconductor are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers. p-type extrinsic semiconductor An opposite effect is produced by the addition to Si or Ge of trivalent substitution impurity (group III Al, Br, Ga). One of the covalent bands around each of these atoms is deficient in an electron. Such a deficiency can be viewed as a hole that is weakly bound to the impurity atom. This hole can be illustrated from the impurity atom by the transfer of an electron from adjacent band. Each impurity atom of this type introduces an energy level within the band gap alone, but very close to the top of the valence band.
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A hole is created within valence band by the thermal excitation of an electron from the valence band into this impurity electron state. With such a transition only one carrier is produced, a hole in the valence band, a free electron is not created in either impurity level or conduction band. The impurity of this type is called acceptor because is capable of accepting electrons from valence band, leaving behind holes. | | Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

CHAPTER 5 - DIELECTRIC MATERIALS Dielectric materials are insulators, as they have a large energy gap between the valence and conduction band. Thus, the electrons in the valence band cant jump in the conduction band. Therefore the resistivities for these materials are very high. Dielectric materials exhibit or can be made to exhibit an electric dipole structure, that is a separation between positive and negative electrically charged entities on a molecular/atomic level. The 2 important applications are: - capacitors for the storage of electrical charges - electrical insulators for preventing electricity transfer The most important properties - Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) - tangent of loss angle Other important properties: - feroelectricity - piezoelectricity - electrostriction - piroelectricity; Capacitors When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate becomes positively charged, the other one negatively charged with a corresponding electric field directed from the positive to negative. The capacity C is related to the quantity of charge stored in each plate and V is the voltage applied across the capacitor.
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For the case of the plane capacitor with vacuum between the plates the capacity will be A the area of the plates l distance between the plates - permittivity of vacuum When introducing a dielectric between the plates, the capacity will become where is the material permittivity. represents the increase in charge storing capacity by insertion of the dielectric medium between the plates. Field vectors and polarization For each dipole an electric dipole moment is associated. q magnitude of each dipole charge d the distance between charges In the presence of the electric field a force will act on the dielectric dipole in order to orient it in the direction of the field.

+ +

The surface charge density D or the quantity of charge per unit area of capacity plates

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Polarization The increase of charge density above the value of vacuum because of the presence of dielectric

Types of polarization

Polarization the alignment of permanent or induced atomic or molecular dipole moments with an externally applied electric field. There are 3 types of induced polarization: - electronic displacement - ionic displacement - bipolar orientation Dielectrics are materials characterized by states of electric polarization. The state of electric polarization can be: a) temporary (induced) depends on local b) permanent does not depend on A. 1. Electronic displacement polarization The limited and elastic motion the electron shells on the dielectric atoms
-

+ -

It is a general property of materials. Generally materials which show only electronic displacement polarization are called non-polar materials.
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2. Ionic displacement polarization The limited and elastic motions of the ions of the dielectric under the action of the electric field.

This polarization mechanism is specific for dielectrics with prevailing ionic bonds. 3. Bipolar orientation The orientation of the existing electric moments on the direction of the applied field.

When , only under the influence of thermal energy, the electric moments are random. The dipolar orientation polarization is specific for materials which have electric moments, polar materials. Total polarization

Not all three mechanisms are present in a material. For example, Pi wont exist in a material with covalent bonds (no ions are present). B. 1. Spontaneous (Pyroelectric) Represents the ordering of the electric moments of the dielectric on temperature domains in the absence of the electrical external field. 2. Piezoelectric Represents the phenomenon that appears under the action of the mechanical strains applied on the structure. Complex relative permittivity and tangent of loss angle Complex relative permittivity can be expressed as

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D complex representation of the electric flux density E complex electric field intensity The real part of the complex relative permittivity characterizes the dielectric from the point of view of polarization ability whereas the imaginary part characterizes the dielectric from the point of view of energy losses in the material. Tangent of loss angle

The inverse of

is called the quality factor of the dielectric

Frequency dependence of the dielectric constants In many practical situations the current is alternatively, that is an applied voltage on electric field changes direction with time. With each direction reversal the dipoles attempt to reorient with the field. This process requires some finite time. For each polarization type a minimum reorientation time exists, which depends on the ease with which the dipoles are capable of realignment. A relaxation frequency is the reciprocal of this minimum reorientation time. When a polarization mechanism ceases to function there is an abrupt drop in the dielectric constant. Otherwise for each polarization mechanism is virtually frequency independent. The absorption of electric energy by the dielectric material under an alternating field is called dielectric loss. This loss can be significant for electric field frequencies close to the relaxation frequency. At the frequency of utilization a low dielectric loss is desired.

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Dielectric material types A number of ceramics and polymers are used as insulators or in capacitors. Many of the ceramics including mica, porcelain, have the electric constants within range of 6 10. These materials also exhibit a high degree of dimensional stability and mechanical strength. Typical applications - power line and electric insulation - switches - light receivers The titanate ceramics such as barium titanate ( ) can be made to have extremely high dielectric constants which render them especially useful for some capacitors applications. The magnitude of the dielectric constant for most polymers is smaller than for ceramics, generally between 2 and 5. These materials are commonly used for insulation of wires, cables and motors, and in addition for some capacitors. Other electrical charge of dielectric materials Dielectrics can be classified according to their properties in the following categories: 1. - insulating materials 2. - capacitor materials, electricity storage 3. Ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics, piroelectrics and electrostriction used for their special functions a) Ferroelectricity Some dielectrics present a behavior of polarization vs. applied electric field very similar to the behavior of B vs. H for ferromagnetic materials. This type of PE graph is called ferroelectric hysteresis loop. Ferroelectricity takes place in this material below a temperature called Curie temperature. Examples of materials displaying ferroelectricity: - barium titanate - Rochelle salt - potassium di-hydrogen-phosphate - potassium niobate
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- lead zirconate-titanate (PZT) Ferroelectrics have extremely high dielectric constants, even at relatively low applied field frequencies (at room temperature for is almost 5000). Consequently capacitors made from these materials can be significantly smaller compared to capacitors made from other materials. b) Piezoelectricity and electrostriction When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, the polarization may modify the dimensions of the material. This dimension change is called electrostriction. On the other hand when a dimensional change (mechanical strains) is imposed on some dielectrics polarization occurs and a voltage field is created. Dielectric materials displaying this type of behavior are called piezoelectric, which means pressure electricity. Piezoelectric materials are used in transducers which are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical strains or vice versa. Familiar applications include microphones, pick-ups, ultrasounds generators, sonar detectors. (the pick-up cartridge, as the stylus traverses the grooves on a record, a pressure variation is imposed on a piezoelectric material located inside the cartridge which is then transformed into an electric signal and amplified before going to the speaker) Examples of piezoelectric materials - lead zirconate - ammonium di-hydrogen-phosphate - quartz Generally this property is characteristic for materials having crystal structures with a low degree of symmetry. c) Piroelectricity Piroelectric materials are a special class of piezoelectric materials. By heating the material, external expansion creates a deformation which produces a change in the extend of polarization and thus, a voltage results across the sample. PROPERTY CAUSE Ferroelectricity Physical property of a material plus electrical field applied and removed
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EFFECT Polarization that remains after the electric field is removed

Electrostriction Electric field Piezoelectricity Dimensional change Piroelectricity

Dimensional change Electric field plus polarization Temperature change, dimensional Polarization plus electric change field

CHAPTER 6 - MAGNETIC MATERIALS Magnetism is the phenomenon by which the materials assert an attractive or repulsive influence on other materials. Examples of materials: - iron - steel All substances are influenced to a certain degree by the presence of the magnetic field. The externally applied magnetic field is designated by H. If the magnetic field is generated by means of a solenoid or a cylindrical coil consisting of N closely spaced turns having the length l and carrying a current of magnitude I The magnetic induction denoted by B represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance that is subjected to an H field. H: applied field B: internal field induced by applied field

is called permeability, which is a property of a specific moment through which the H field passes and in which B is measured.
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The relative permeability of a material is a measure of the degree through which the material can be magnetized or the ease with which a B field can be induced in the presence of an external H field. The magnetic moment (magnetic dipole moment) is a vector that characterizes the magnets over all the magnetic properties. For a bar magnet the direction of a magnetic moment points from the magnets north pole to its south pole. Magnetization is another magnetic quantity and is defined

The magnetization of the magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume. It is a vector field rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment) because different areas in the magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths. In the presence of an H field, the magnetic moments tend to become aligned to the field and to reinforce it because of the magnetic field. The term is a measure of this contribution.

is called magnetic susceptibility

Analogy between electric and magnetic parameters BD HE ... MP Origins of magnetic moments Each electron in an atom has magnetic moments that originate from 2 sources: - one is related to the orbital motion around the nucleus - the second one: the electron may also be thought of a spinning around an axis

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This second magnetic moment originates from this electron spin. Spin magnetic moments may be only in up direction (spin up) or in down direction (spin down). The fundamental magnetic moment is the Bohr-Procopiu magnet

For each electron in an atom the spin magnetic moment is The first orbital magnetic moment is Magnets Description of magnet behavior

Ferro and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought as magnets. They are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. They are the only ones that can retain the magnetization and become magnets. Ferrimagnetic materials are similar, but weaker. The susceptibility is very large: . Paramagnetic materials (Al, Pt) are weakly attracted to a magnet. This effect is hundreds of thousands weaker and it can only be determined by using very sensitive instruments or by using very strong magnets. Diamagnetic materials are the ones that are repelled weakly by both poles of a magnet. Compared to para and ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances Ca, Cu and plastic are even more weakly repelled by magnets. The permeability of diamagnets is smaller than . All substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetization are diamagnetic. This includes most substances. In order to emphasize this weak repulsion force one must use extremely strong super conducting magnets. Diamagnetism Is a very weak form of magnetism that is not permanent and persists only while an external field is being applied. The magnitude of the induced magnetic
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moments is extremely small and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Thus the relative permeability is less than 1 (slightly) and the magnetic susceptibility is less than 0. It was found bay Lenz that a current is induced in a wire loop whenever a bar magnet is moved towards or from this loop. The current thus induced causes in turn a magnetic moment which is opposite to the current one. Diamagnetism may be explained by postulating that the external magnetic field induces a change in the magnitude of the inner atomic currents, that is the external field accelerates (decelerates) the orbital electron so that their magnetic moment is in the opposite direction to that of the external magnetic field. In other words, the responses of the orbit electron counteract the external field. So far, we considered only electrons that are bounded to the ?. However metals also have free electrons, which are forced to move in a magnetic field in a circular path. This leads to a ? contribution to the diamagnetic moment the circulating free electrons cause a magnetic moment. Paramagnetism In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, that is atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly 1 electron in them. The unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. Where an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it. For a diamagnetic material, in the absence of the magnetic field no dipoles exist. In the presence of a field, dipoles are induced and there are aligned opposite to the field direction. For a paramagnetic material, in the absence of a paramagnetic field, the orientations of diatomic magnetic moments are random, such that the material as a whole presents no net macroscopic magnetization. When an external field is applied the dipoles align themselves with the external field; they enhance it giving rise to a relative permeability and to a relatively small but positively magnetic susceptibility.
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Both (dia and para) are considered to be non-magnetic because they exhibit magnetization only in the presence of the external field. Ferromagnetism Certain metallic materials posses a permanent magnetic moment, in the absence of an electric external field and have very large and permanent magnetization. These are the characteristics of ferromagnetism and they are displayed by the transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni) and by the rare earth metals (Gd Gadolinium). Magnetic susceptibility can be as high as and we can write

because No net magnetic moment is associated with the ions. However, each ion possesses a non-zero magnetic moment predominantly of spin origin. These ions are arranged in the crystal structure in such way that the moments of adjacent ions are antiparallel and thus cancel one another. As a consequence the solid as a whole possesses no net magnetic moments. Ferrimagnetism Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent magnetization called ferrimagnetism. The macroscopic magnetic characteristics of ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic are similar. The distinction lies in the source of the net magnetic moments. Cubic ferrites The ions are magnetically neutral. The spin moments of all ions are antiparallel as in ferromagnetic so they cancel one another and have no net contribution to the magnetization of the solid. All the ions have their moments aligned in the same direction and this total moment is responsible for the net magnetization. Cubic ferrites having also other composition may be produced.

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Cation

Net spin magnetic moment (Bohr-Procopiu mg) 5 4 5 3 2 1

The saturation magnetizations for ferromagnetic materials are not so high as for ferromagnets. On the other hand, ferrites having ceramic materials are good electrical insulators. For some magnetic application such as frequency transformers, a low electrical conductivity is most desirable. The influence of temperature on magnetic behavior Raising a temperature of a solid results in an increase in the magnitude vibration of atoms. The increased thermal motion of atoms tends to randomize the direction of any moment that may be aligned, resulting in a decrease of the magnetic spin for both ferro and ferri magnetic materials. The saturation magnetization is maximum at 0 K where the thermal vibrations are minimum. With increasing temperature, the saturation magnetization diminishes gradually and then abruptly drops to 0 at Curie temperature. Domains and hysteresis Any ferro and ferri magnetic material that has a temperature below Curie temperature is composed of small volume regions in which all magnetic dipole moments are aligned in the same direction. Such a region is called domain and each one is magnetized to its saturation magnetization. Adjacent domains are separated by domain boundaries or walls (block walls). For ferrimagnets and ferromagnets the flux density B and the field density H are not proportional. If the material is initially unmagnetisez, then varies as a function of H. The curve begins at the origin and as H is increased, the B field begins to increase slowly, then more rapidly, finally leveling off and becoming
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independent of H. This maximum value of B is the saturation induction Bs. The slope of B vs. H curve at H=0 is specified as a material property and is called the initial permeability . As the external field is applied, the domains are oriented in directions favorable to the applied field (or nearly aligned to it) grow at the expense of those that are unfavorably oriented. This process continues with increasing field intensity until the specimen becomes a single domain, thus saturation being achieved. From saturation as the H field is reduced by reversal field direction, the curve does not retrace its original path. A hysteresis effect is produced. At 0 H field there exists a residual B field called remanence for the remanent induction Br. The material remains magnetized in the absence of the external H field. The explanation for this phenomenon is the resistance to moment of domain walls that occurs in response to the increase of the magnetic field in the opposite direction. When the applied field H reaches 0, there is still some net volume, fractions of domains oriented in the former direction which explains the existence of the remanence Br. In order to reduce the B field of the specimen to 0, an H field of magnitude Hc must be applied. Hc is called coercitivity (or coercitive field). Upon continuation of the applied field in this reverse direction saturation is achieved in the opposite sense. A ? reversal of the field up to the point of initial saturation completes the symmetrical hysteresis loop. This B vs. H curve represents a hysteresis loop ? to saturation.

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