OVERVIEW

In this section will:

ROOM FIRES

review the behaviour of fires in rooms emphasize post-flashover fires which have more impact on fire resistant building elements

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PRE-FLASHOVER FIRES
Fires in rooms include a pre-flashover stage which may extend to a post-flashover stage Pre-flashover is important in designing buildings for life safety

Burning Items in Rooms

Burning objects may behave differently when burning inside a room than in the open air The plume of hot gases above a burning object will hit the ceiling and spread horizontally to form a hot upper layer Early in the fire, the burning rate is enhanced by radiant feedback from the hot upper layer Later in the fire, the rate of burning may be severely reduced because of limited ventilation
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Room Fires
Early stages of fire in a room

Room Fires
The figure shows a fire in a room A single item of furniture is burning with no flame spread to other fuel Combustion is initially sustained with oxygen in room, then from air entering through the opening The energy released by the fire:
pulls cool air into the room entrains cool air into the fire plume pushes combustion products out through the top of the opening

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Room Fires
Diluted combustion products (cool air) form a hot upper layer that thickens as the fire grows At the ceiling, hot gases flow horizontally along the underside of the ceiling (known as ceiling jet) Hot gases in ceiling jet usually trigger detectors Combustion products will start to flow out the opening when the interface drops below the soffit With insufficient ventilation openings, the fire will die down due to lack of oxygen
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Room Fires
Factors affecting fire growth in a room are:
Nature of linings on walls, floors and ceilings Ventilation Furniture arrangement Size of the room

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Pre-flashover Fire Calculations

To ensure safe egress of building occupants, the following needs to be calculated:
rate of fire growth depth and temperature of the hot upper layer in the fire room and adjacent corridors activation time of detection and suppression systems

FLASHOVER
When the fire grows without intervention, temperatures in the hot upper layer will increase At a critical heat flux level, all exposed combustible items in the room begin to burn Transition from a localized fire to burning of all combustible items represents flashover Flashover can only occur in an enclosed space

Calculations are made by hand or using models

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Conditions Necessary for Flashover

Conditions for flashover to occur:
sufficient fuel and ventilation for fire to develop to a significant size ceiling must be able to trap hot gases geometry of the room must allow the radiant heat flux from the hot layer to reach critical ignition levels at the level of the fuel items

Conditions Necessary for Flashover

Flashover occurs when hot layer temperature is about 600C resulting in radiant heat flux of about 20 kW/m2 at floor level Critical value of heat release Qfo (MW), referred to as Thomas flashover, is: Qfo = 0.0078 At + 0.378 Av Hv At is total internal surface area of the room (m2), Av is the area of the window opening (m2), and Hv is the height of the window opening (m)
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Conditions Necessary for Flashover

For a t2 design fire, time to flashover, tfo, can be roughly estimated as: tfo = k / Qfo k is the growth constant Conservatively, it can be assumed that all windows break at the time of flashover

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the radiant heat flux at floor level in a room with a hot upper layer at 600C. Assume that the smoke in the upper layer has an emissivity of 0.7. Assume that the area of the ceiling is large relative to the room height, so that the configuration factor is 1.0.

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Emitter temperature: T = 600C = 873 K Configuration factor: = 1.0 Emissivity: = 0.7 Stefan-Boltzmann constant: = 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 Radiant heat flux: q" = T4 = 1.0x0.7x5.67x10-8x8734/1000 = 23.1 kW/m2
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WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Using Thomas' Flashover Criterion, calculate the heat release rate necessary to cause flashover in a room 6.0 m by 4.0 m in floor area, and 3.0 m high, with one window 2.0 m high by 3.0 m wide. Length of room: l1 = 6.0 m Width of room: l2 = 4.0 m Height of room: Hr = 3.0 m
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WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Area of internal surfaces: At = 2(l1l2+l1Hr+l2Hr) = 2 (6x4+6x3+4x3) = 108 m2 Height of window: Hv = 2.0 m Width of window B = 3.0 m Area of window: Av = BHv = 3.0x2.0 = 6.0 m2 Heat release for flashover: Qfo = 0.007At + 0.378Av Hv = 0.007x108+0.378x6.0x 2.0 = 3.96 MW
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POST-FLASHOVER FIRES
In the post-flashover phase, the most important data for structural fire design is the temperature in the room as well as the burning rates Post-flashover fires may be either ventilation controlled or fuel controlled

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Ventilation Controlled Burning

Usually, post-flashover fires are ventilation controlled, i.e., rate of burning depends on the size and shape of ventilation openings In a ventilation controlled fire, flames extend outside the openings due to lack of air in the fire room

Ventilation Controlled Burning Rate of burning

For ventilation controlled fires, the rate of burning is limited by the volume of cold air entering and of hot gases leaving the room For a room with an opening, Kawagoe gave the rate of burning of wood fuel m (kg/s) as: m = 0.092 Av Hv Av is the area of the window opening (m2) and Hv is the height of the window opening (m)

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Ventilation Controlled Burning Rate of burning

This burning rate relationship is approximate May not be appropriate for fuel other than wood Despite the approximation, Kawagoes equation forms the basis of most post-flashover fire calculations Knowing the total mass of fuel available, Mf (kg), the duration of burning period tb (s) is: tb = Mf / m

Ventilation Controlled Burning Rate of burning

The approximate heat release rate, Qvent (MW), for steady-state burning is Qvent = m Hc Hc is heat of combustion of the fuel (MJ/kg) Knowing the energy content of fuel available for combustion, E (MJ), the duration of the burning period tb (s) can be given by: tb = E / Qvent

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WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the ventilation controlled heat release rate for a post-flashover fire in the room of Worked Example 2, if the burning wood has a heat of combustion of 16 MJ/kg. Rate of burning: m = 0.092 AvHv = 0.092x6.0x2.0 = 0.781 kg/s Heat of combustion: Hc = 16 MJ/kg Heat release rate: Qvent = m Hc= 0.78x16 = 12.48 MW
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the duration of burning if the available fuel load energy density is 800 MJ/m2 floor area. Fuel load energy density: ef = 800 MJ/m2 Floor area: Af = 6.0x4.0 = 24 m2 Total energy: Ef = ef Af = 800x24 = 19200 MJ Duration of burning: tb = Ef / Qvent = 19200/12.48 = 1536 s (25.6 min)
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Ventilation Controlled Burning Rate of burning

A more general equation for burning rate was proposed by Law as: m = 0.18 Av Hv W/D (1- e-0.036) = At Av / Av Hv W is the compartment width (m), D is the compartment depth (m), and At is the total area of the internal surfaces of the compartment (m2) Kawagoe's equation is a simple form of Laws equation
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the ventilation controlled heat release rate and duration of burning for the room of the previous examples, using Law's equation. Assume that the window is in the long side of the room. Room width: W = 6.0 m Room depth: D = 4.0 m Opening factor: = (At-Av)/AvHv = (108-6)/62 = 12.0 m-1/2
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Rate of burning: m = 0.18AvHv W/D (1-e-0.036) = 0.18x6x2x6/4 (1-e-0.036x12) = 0.657 kg/s Heat release rate: Qvent = m Hc = 0.657x16 = 10.5 MW Duration of burning: tb = Ef /Qvent = 19200/10.5 = 1829 s (30.5 min)

Ventilation Controlled Burning Ventilation factor

The amount of ventilation in a fire compartment is described by the ventilation factor Fv (m0.5) as: Fv = AvHv / At Av is the area of the window opening (m2), Hv is the height of the window opening (m), and At is the total internal area of the bounding surfaces including openings (m2)

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Ventilation Controlled Burning Multiple openings

So far, burning rate equations were for a single window opening in one compartment wall With several openings, the same equations can be used, with Hv, Av and At as: Hv = (A1H1 + A2H2 + ...) / Av Av = A1+A2+...= B1H1 + B2H2 + ... At = 2(l1l2 + l1Hr + l2Hr) See following Figure for definition of dimensions
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Ventilation Controlled Burning Multiple openings

Calculation of ventilation factor for more than one window

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Fuel Controlled Burning

In large well-ventilated rooms containing fuel items with limited area of combustible surfaces, the rate of burning may be fuel controlled The rate of burning in this case is similar to that occurring for fuel items burning in the open air, with additional radiation from the hot upper layer or hot wall and ceiling surfaces Most fires become fuel controlled in the decay phase
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Fuel Controlled Burning

The average heat release rate from fuel controlled fires can be calculated provided the total fuel load and duration of burning are known For typical domestic furniture fires with a free burning duration tb of 20 min, Law gave a crude equation for heat release rate Qfuel (MW) as: Qfuel = E / 1200 E is the total fuel load (MJ) Burning duration is usually not known
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Fuel Controlled Burning

When the burning rate of a fuel item is controlled by the available surface area, Drysdale estimated the heat release rate Qfuel (MW) as: Qfuel = qi" Afuel Hc / Lv qi" is the incident radiation reaching the surface of the fuel (MW/m2), Afuel is the exposed fuel surface area (m2), Hc is the heat of combustion (MJ/kg), and Lv is the heat of gasification (MJ/kg)

Fuel Controlled Burning

qi" (incident radiation) in a post-flashover fire is generally assumed to be about 70 kW/m2 Lv (heat of gasification) is the energy required to pyrolize a unit mass of fuel, ranging from:
1.7 to 5.9 MJ/kg for wood 1.2 to 3.7 MJ/kg for plastics

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WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the fuel controlled heat release rate for wood fuel in a post-flashover fire if 30 m2 of wood is exposed to a radiant heat flux of 60 kW/m2. Assume that the wood has a heat of gasification of 6.0 MJ/kg.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Incident heat flux: qi" = 0.06 MW/m2 Area of fuel: Afuel = 30 m2 Heat of combustion: Hc = 16 MJ/kg Heat of gasification: Lv = 6.0 MJ/kg Heat release rate: Qfuel = qi" Afuel Hc / Lv =0.060x30x16/6= 4.80 MW

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Fuel Controlled Burning

Babrauskas reports that for burning of slabs of wood, the surface regression rate p is:

Fuel Controlled Burning

The heat release rate Qfuel (MW) is: Qfuel = p Afuel Hc is the density of the fuel (kg/m3) Knowing the total amount of fuel E (MJ) and assuming constant heat release rate, the duration of the burning period tb (s) is: tb = E / Qfuel

p = 8.5 to 10.0 x 10-6 m/s (for thick slabs) p = 2.2 x 10-6 D-0.6 m/s (for thin slabs)
D is the thickness of the slab of wood (m)

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WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the fuel controlled heat release rate for the wood in the previous example, using Babrauskas' equations for the regression rate, for thick slabs of wood and thin wood slabs 50 mm thick. Wood density is 400 kg/m3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Thick slab of wood Regression rate: p = 9.0x10-6 m/s Density: = 400 kg/m3 Area of fuel: Afuel = 30 m2 Heat of combustion: Hc = 16 MJ/kg Heat release rate: Qfuel = p Afuel Hc = 9.0x 10-6x400x30x16 Qfuel = 1.73 MW (lower than in previous example)
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WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Wood 50 mm thick Thickness of slab: D = 0.05 m Regression rate: p=2.2x10-6 D-0.6=2.2x10-6x0.05-0.6=13.3x10-6 m/s Heat release rate: Qfuel = p Afuel Hc Qfuel = 13.3x10-6x400x30x16 = 2.55 MW

Fuel Controlled Burning

For both ventilation and fuel controlled burning, not all of the combustible material in the room may be burning immediately So, a fuel fraction, ranging from 0.5 to 0.9, needs to be introduced to reduce the available fuel for burning

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Post-Flashover Temperatures
As part of structural design for fire safety, it is important to estimate temperatures in postflashover fires Temperatures in post-flashover fires are usually over 1000C The temperatures depend on the balance between the heat released within the room and all the heat losses

Post-Flashover Temperatures Measured temperatures

Measured temperatures in post-flashover fires in many of experimental studies have shown scatter between results of different studies Below is a Figure showing the shapes of typical measured time-temperature curves The curves are for real rooms with door/window openings and distributed fuel loads Also shown is the ISO 834 standard curve used for fire-resistance testing
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Post-Flashover Temperatures Measured temperatures

Experimental time temperature curves

Post-Flashover Temperatures Measured temperatures

Based on temp. measurements, Law developed an empirical equation for max. temp. Tmax (C) as: Tmax = 6000 (1 - e-0.1) / = (At - Av) / AvHv For low fuel load, this maximum temperature may not be reached and can be reduced as: T = Tmax(1 - e-0.05) = L / Av (At Av) L is the fire load (kg, wood equivalent)
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WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the maximum temperature for the room of Worked Example 3, using Law's equations. From Worked Example 4 Opening factor: = 12.0 m-1/2 Maximum temperature: Tmax = 6000 (1-e-0.1x)/ = 6000 (1-e-0.1x12)/12 = 1210C
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WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Check reduction factor for fuel load Total fuel load: Ef = 19200 MJ Calorific value of wood: Hc = 16.0 MJ/kg Fuel load (wood equivalent): L = Ef / Hc = 19200/16.0 = 1200 kg Area of windows: Av = 6.0 m2 Area of internal surfaces: At = 108 m2

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WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Temperature parameter: = L / Av(At - Av) = 1200/ 6 (108-6) = 48.5 Reduced maximum temperature: T = Tmax (1-e-0.05) = 1210 (1-e-0.05x48.5) = 1103C

Post-Flashover Temperatures Swedish curves

The Swedish time-temperature curves for real fire exposure were developed by Magnusson and Thelandersson in 1970 These are referred to as the Swedish fire curves The Swedish curves are derived from heat balance calculations The following figure show the curves

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Post-Flashover Temperatures Swedish curves

Time-temperature curves for different ventilation factors and fuel load

Post-Flashover Temperatures Swedish curves

Each group of curves is based on a specific ventilation factor, for different fuel load (MJ/m2 of total surface area) For each group:
the rate of burning is the same because it is controlled by the opening size but increasing the fuel load leads to longer and hotter fires before the decay period begins

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Post-Flashover Temperatures Swedish curves

The curves can also be shown for a constant fuel load and with varying ventilation factor (openings) - see Figure below The figure indicates that well-ventilated fires burn faster at higher temperatures and for a shorter duration as opposed to poorly ventilated fires

Post-Flashover Temperatures Swedish curves

Time-temperature curves for varying ventilation and constant fuel load (MJ/m2 total surface area)

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WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Estimate a time-temperature curve for the previous room using the Swedish curves. Area of window: Av = 6.0 m2 Height of window: Hv = 2.0 m Area of internal surfaces: At = 108 m2 Floor area: Af = 24.0 m2

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Ventilation factor: Fv = Av Hv / At = 6.0x2.0/108 = 0.079 m-1/2 Fuel load (floor area): ef = 800 MJ/m2 Fuel load (total area): et = ef Af / At = 800x24.0/108 = 178 MJ/m2 From the Swedish curves, temperature values can be roughly interpolated, giving a maximum temperature of about 950C after 20 min and dropping to 350C after one hour
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Post-Flashover Temperatures Rate of temperature decay

The rate of temperature decay in a post-flashover fire is not easy to predict The decay rate depends mainly on:
the shape and material of the fuel the size of ventilation openings the thermal properties of lining materials

Post-Flashover Temperatures Rate of temperature decay

For liquid fuels in a pool, the burning phase will end suddenly as the fuel is consumed For solid fuels like wood, decay phase is longer When the burning surface area reduces, the fire will become fuel controlled Ventilation effects are seen in large openings that allow rapid heat loss from the fire compartment

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Post-Flashover Temperatures Rate of temperature decay

The effect of the thermal properties of the construction materials is not easy to quantify Materials of:
low thermal conductivity insulate compartment and result in higher temperatures when burning occurs in the decay period low thermal inertia store less heat, leading to a rapid rate of decay (usually the dominant effect)

Computer Models
Many computer models have been developed for calculating temp. in post-flashover room fires:
Most are single-zone models which consider the room to be a well-mixed reactor Two-zone models may be used Field models are not easily applied due to excessive turbulence

All computer models are based on heat balance (see figure below)

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Computer Models
Heat balance for a post- flashover room fire

Computer Models
Components of heat flow in a compartment fire (produced and lost) heat produced by combustion of the fuel qC heat conducted into the surrounding structure qW heat radiated through the opening qR heat carried out of the opening by convection of hot gases and smoke qL

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Computer Models Swedish method

Magnusson and Thelandersson (1970) calibrated the heat release rate to produce theoretical temp. similar to fire tests observed in short duration Authors extrapolated their computer model to much higher fuel loads and longer duration periods than the available test data

Computer Models Lie method

Lie (1995) used values from Kawagoe's burning rate to perform heat balance calculations for post-flashover fires with a range of ventilation factors and different wall lining materials Lie proposed a set of approximate equations for design purposes, including the duration of burning and arbitrary decay rates Lie's curves are crude for rooms with small windows
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Computer Models COMPF2

Babrauskas (1979) developed, COMPF2, a single-zone computer program for calculating temp. in post-flashover room fires Only program that can calculate the rate of temperature reduction in the decay period for varying types and shapes of fuel

Computer Models Two-zone models

FASTLite and FIERAsmoke Post-flashover calculations are based C-FAST model FASTLite calculates ventilation controlled and fuel controlled heat release rates, then uses the lower of the two in the simulation

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DESIGN FIRES
To design a structure to resist exposure to fire, there is always a need to define a design fire Methods of defining design fires include: hand calculations published curves parametric fire equations

Hand Methods
A simple and crude method is to assume that the fire has a constant temp. throughout the burning period (see Figure below) This provides sufficient accuracy for simple designs The maximum temperature and duration of the burning period can be estimated using equations described previously

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Hand Methods
Design fire with constant temperature

Published Curves
Temperatures may be read from published curves using, for example: Swedish curves (Figures shown earlier) curves using COMPF2 (see Figure below)

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Published Curves
Time-temperature curves from COMPF-2

Eurocode Parametric Fires

The Eurocode (EC1, 1994) uses an equation for parametric fires, derived to give a good fit to the burning period of the Swedish curves The equation produces a time-temperature relationship for any combination of fuel load, ventilation openings and wall lining materials

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Eurocode Parametric Fires Equation for burning period

The Eurocode equation for temp. T (oC) is: T = 1325 (1-0.324e-0.2t*-0.204e-1.7t*-0.472e-19t*) t* is a fictitious time (hours) given by: t* = t t is the time (hours) and is given by: = (Fv / Fref)2 / (b/bref)2 b is thermal inertia = kcp (Ws0.5/m2K), bref is the reference value of kcp
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Eurocode Parametric Fires Equation for burning period

Fv is the ventilation factor (m) given by: Fv = Av Hv / At Fref is the reference value of the ventilation factor In the Eurocode, Fref = 0.04 and bref = 1160 giving:

EC = (Fv / 0.04)2 / (b / 1160)2 The Eurocode parametric fire curve is close to the ISO 834 curve for the special case where: Fv = Fref and b = bref
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Eurocode Parametric Fires Equation for burning period

Larger ventilation openings or highly insulated compartments will result in higher room temperatures Smaller ventilation openings or poorly insulated compartments will result in lower temperatures

Eurocode Parametric Fires Multiple layers of materials

The previous equations is applicable for walls and ceiling of the fire compartment made from one layer of material For multiple layers of different materials, the Eurocode gives another formula taking into account the effective value of the b term for multiple layers (see details in the textbook)

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Eurocode Parametric Fires Duration of burning period

The equation for the duration of the burning period td (hours) in the Eurocode is: td = 0.00013 et / Fv td = 0.00013 E / AvHv et is the fuel load (MJ/m2 total surface area) E is the total energy content of the fuel (MJ)

Eurocode Parametric Fires Decay rate

The Eurocode uses a reference decay rate (dT/dt)ref equal to: 625C per hour for fires with a burning period less than half an hour, and decreasing to 250C per hour for fires with a burning period greater than 2 hours This decay rate is shown in the following Figure

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Eurocode Parametric Fires Decay rate

Temperature decay rate in Eurocode parametric fires

Eurocode Parametric Fires Decay rate

The Eurocode formulation may be unsatisfactory in extreme cases (e.g., large or small openings) Feasey and Buchanan (2000) proposed another equation for the design decay rate given by: DT/dt = (dT/dt)ref Fv /0.04 / b/1900

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WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Use the Eurocode parametric fire equations to calculate the duration and the maximum temperature for a fire in a room 4.0 m x 6.0 mm in area, 3.0 m high, with one window 3.0 m wide and 2.0 m high. The fire load is 800 MJ/m2 floor area. The room is constructed from concrete with thermal conductivity k = 1.6 W/m-K, density = 2300 kg/m3, and specific heat cp = 980 J/kg-K. Use bref = 1900 as recommended by Buchanan.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Thermal inertia of concrete: b = kcp = 1900 W-s0.5/m2-K Length of room: l1 = 6.0 m Width of room: l2 = 4.0 m Floor area: Af = l1 l2 = 6.0x4.0 = 24.0 m2 Height of room: Hr = 3.0 m Area of internal surfaces: At = 2(l1l2+l1Hr+l2Hr) = 2(6x4+6x3+4x3) = 108 m2
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WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Window height: Hv = 2.0 m Window width: B = 3.0 m Window area: Av = Hv B = 2.0x3.0 = 6.0 m2 Ventilation factor: Fv = Av Hv /At = 0.079 m-1/2 Fuel load energy density: ef = 800 MJ/m2 Total fuel load: E = ef Af = 800x24 = 19200 MJ Duration of parametric fire: td =0.00013 E/(AvHv) =0.00013x19200/(6.02.0) td =0.294 hour (17.6 min)
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WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Fictitious duration: t* = td (Fv / 0.04)2 /(b/1900)2 = 0.294(0.079/0.04)2/(1900/1900)2 = 1.15 hrs Maximum temperature: T = 1325 (1-0.324e-0.2t*-0.204 e-1.7t*-0.472e-19t*) = 1325 (1-0.257-0.029-0) = 946C

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WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Duration is less than 30 minutes, so reference decay rate is: (dT/dt)ref = 625C/hour Decay rate: dT/dt =(dT/dt)ref Fv /0.04/ b/1900 = 625 0.079/0.04/ 1900/1900=878C/hour The time to drop 946C at this rate is: 946/878 = 1.08 hours Total duration from flashover to extinction is: 0.29 + 1.08 = 1.37 hours (1 hour 22 minutes)
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Eurocode Parametric Fires Time-temperature curves

The Figure below shows modified Eurocode timetemperature equations plotted for a range of ventilation factors, fuel loads and materials The curves are shown for three fire loads and for two types of construction Curves show the dependence of fire temperatures on the thermal properties of the bounding materials

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Eurocode Parametric Fires Time-temperature curves

Parametric time-temperature curves (fuel load is 400, 800 and 1200 MJ/m2 floor area)

Eurocode Parametric Fires Time-temperature curves

The fire loads are 400, 800 and 1200 MJ/m2 floor area, for a room 5 x 5 x 3 m The materials are normal weight concrete and gypsum plaster board A typical commercial office building with a mixture of these materials on walls and ceiling would give curves between the two curves

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Additional Ventilation Openings

Ventilation controlled fires are affected by size and location of openings With ceiling openings, combustion products exit at ceiling openings and cool air enters windows This increases the ventilation to the fire

Additional Ventilation Openings

The expression below gives the effects of ceiling vents in terms of the following ventilation factor (AvHv)fict = AvHv + 2.3Ahh Ah is the horizontal opening area in ceiling, and h is the vertical distance from window opening mid-height to the compartment ceiling The above expression is applicable only for values of Ahh / AvHv in the range 0.3 to 1.5

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WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Recalculate the heat release rate from Worked Example 3 with a ceiling opening of 3.0 m2. Assume window is mid-way between mid-height floor and ceiling Area of ceiling opening: Ah = 3.0 m2 Height above window mid-height: h = 1.5 m Window area Av = 6.0 m2 Window height Hv = 2.0 m2
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WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Modified opening parameter: (AvHv)fict = AvHv + 2.3 Ah h = 6.02.0+2.3x3.01.5 = 16.9 m3/2 Rate of burning: m = 0.092 (Av Hv)fict = 0.092x16.9 = 1.55 kg/s Heat of combustion: Hc = 16.0 MJ/kg Heat release rate: Qvent = m Hc = 16.0x1.55 = 24.8 MW The ceiling opening almost doubles the rate of burning and the heat release rate
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