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Part 2 of 4

Essentials of

DIGITAL VIDEO STORAGE

Accurately capturing clear digital video images is only half the battle. Effectively managing and safeguarding those images for future viewing requires selecting storage media optimally suited for the application.
By Bob Wimmer
Video Security Consultants [email protected]

AT A GLANCE
Video images require a lot of storage space

Image size = pixel width

X pixel rows X bit depth / 8 / 1,024

nyone who has lived at the same location for more than five years can relate to this statement: Too much stuff and not enough room. This holds true for video as well. Welcome to the second chapter in the four-part Digital Video for D.U.M.I.E.S. series (see page A2 of the March issue for Part 1 of the series, Essentials of Digital Video Compression). D.U.M.I.E.S. stands for dealers, users, managers, installers, engineers and salespeople. This installment, brought to you by Honeywell, explains the different methods of storing digital information and explores emerging authentication techniques.

Primary storage media are digital

audiotape, digital linear tape, digital versatile disc and hard drive disk

How to Calculate the File Size of an Image

Even when compressed, a video signal requires a fairly large amount of storage space. The term relating to the amount of storage is known as the image file size. The file size is the amount of storage required for one single image of video. File sizes may range from 500 bytes to more than 30 kilobytes (KB) for a single image. The following information is used to calculate the size of one image of uncompressed video: Number of horizontal pixels (width) Number of vertical rows (vertical) Bit depth (8 bit, 16 bit, etc.) Image file size = (pixel width X pixel rows X bit depth) / 8* / 1,024**
* - represents an 8-bit byte ** - equals the number of bytes per kilobyte

Random arrays of independent

disks guard against lost data

IP-based systems use network attached storage and storage area networks

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As an example, let us calculate the file size of a 640 X 480 image with a 24-bit depth: 640 X 480 X 24 = 7,372,800 / 8 = 921,600 / 1024 = 900K Lets go one step further and determine the amount of storage for this example for just 1 second, which consists of 30 images: 1 second of uncompressed video = 900K X 30 Storage required = 27MB /second This example surely explains the need for video compression as explored in Part 1 of this series. With that explained, we can now move on to the many different forms of storage incorporated throughout the industry. (Note: The listing is alphanumerical and does not indicate the authors choice or preference.)

How a Helical Scan System Works

Head rotation (2,000 rpm)
Verify B Write B
Verify A

Write A

Tape

Data recorded in angled strips across tape

DAT technology uses a 4mm tape that incorporates a technique called helical scan recording (a method of reading/writing data to tape via a rotating head/drum assembly). This is the same form of recording method used in standard videocassette recorders.

DAT Provides High Capacity

Digital audiotape (DAT) was originally conceived as a CD-quality audio format. In 1998, Sony defined the Digital Data Storage (DDS) standard, transforming the format into one that could also be used for digital video and data storage. DAT technology uses a 4mm tape that incorporates a technique called helical scan recording (a method of reading/writing data to tape via a rotating head/drum assembly). This is the same form of recording method used

Layered DVD Technology and Storage Capacities

Single-sided, single-layered (~5GB)

Single-sided, double-layered (~9GB)

Double-sided, double-layered (~18GB)

For the most part, DVRs incorporating DVD storage technology use MPEG-2 compression. At the present time, double-sided, double-layered DVDs offer 16 to 18GB of storage per disc.

in standard videocassette recorders. For this reason, it is generally only used in environments where high capacity is the primary requirement. The tape in a helical scan system is pulled from a two-reel cartridge and wrapped halfway around a cylindrical drum containing two read heads and two write heads, arranged alternately. The read heads verify the data written by the write heads. The cylinder head is tilted slightly in relation to the tape, and spins at 2,000 rpm. Short diagonal tracks are written across the width of the tape, about eight-times longer than the width, and contain about 128KB of data with error correction. DAT tapes are available in two formats: DDS and DataDAT. The DDS protocol is the most common, and is represented by several standards, all of which are backward compatible. DAT is often used for archiving or backing up data with storage capacity of up to 40GB. However, because of the wide wrap angle of the tape and the consequent degree of physical contact, both the head and the media are prone to wear and tear.

except the tape is 1/ 2-inch wide and the DLT drives offer a faster data transfer rate than other tape drive achieving rates of 2.5MBps. Today, we have the next generation of technology known as super digital linear tape (SDLT). With storage up 160GB (320 compressed) and data transfer speed in the 16MBps range, this form of storage offers an extremely cost-effective method for archiving large amounts of data for extended periods of time.

DVDs Are More Durable Than Tape

A digital versatile disc (DVD) is similar to a CD, but has a much larger data capacity. A standard DVD holds about seven-times more data than a CD. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is encoded in the form of small pits and bumps in the tracks of the disc. A DVD consists of several layers of plastic, totaling about 1.2mm thick. Each layer is created by injection molding polycarbonate plastic. This process forms a disc that has microscopic bumps arranged as a single, continuous and extremely long spiral track of data. For the most part, DVRs incorporating DVD storage technology use MPEG2 compression. At the present time, double-sided, double-layered DVDs offer 16 to 18GB of storage per disc.
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Linear Tape Is Cost-Effective

Developed by Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC), digital linear tape (DLT) uses the same basic format as DAT,

Hard Drive Assembly

Controller Platters

Actuator w/Read/Write Heads Disk-based solutions are typically better suited to backup and, particularly, recovery operations, whereas tape is extremely cost-effective for archiving.

man Co. of Newtown, Conn., more and more companies are turning to disk-based media for backup and recovery. In those settings, tape is used primarily as an archiving technology, and the amount of data that needs to be archived is growing rapidly. Disk-based solutions are typically better suited to backup and, particularly, recovery operations, whereas tape is extremely cost-effective for archiving. Moreover, an intermediate disk layer can provide a steadier stream of data to the tape drive, thus improving performance.

formation from it. The sliders are mounted onto arms, all of which are mechanically connected into a single assembly and positioned over the surface of the disk by the actuator. A logic board controls the activity of the other components and communicates with the rest of the digital recorder.

IDE Cheaper, But SCSI Better

Integrated drive electronics (IDE) are the most common types of incorporated drives used by DVR manufacturers. These types of drives put most of the electronics on the drive itself. The encoding and decoding and the control signals are done on the circuit board under the drive. The adapter card just relays the signals from the drive to the digital recorder. However, with the need for faster processing speeds than IDE drives can deliver, some manufacturers, especially in high-end DVR systems, have switched to what is known as a small computer systems interface (SCSI) drive assembly. SCSI is a much more advanced interface than IDE and has several advantages. SCSI drives are independent; their bus is completely separate from the usual PCI or ISA found in IDE designed digital recorders. They also do not rely on the basic input output system (BIOS) to communicate with the system, instead using a special adapter card.

Hard Drive Operation Explained

All disk drives operate on magnetic principles and are based on the basic physics principle that states as electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is generated around that conductor. This magnetic field then influences the magnetic material in the field. A hard disk uses round, flat disks called platters, coated on both sides with a special media material designed to store information in the form of magnetic patterns. The platters are mounted and stacked onto a spindle. The platters rotate at a high speed (3,200 to 7,200 rpm), driven by a special spindle motor. Special electromagnetic read/write devices called heads are mounted onto sliders and used to either record information onto the disk or read in-

The advantages of DVDs are that they are not prone to the wear and tape noise that sometimes affects DAT and DLT storage units. However, they are limited in the amount of storage available per disc.

Hard Drives Combine Best Aspects

One of the most popular forms of storage media is the hard disk drive (HDD). The advantages of HDD compared to tape can be explained with a few basic statements. First, with a tape, you have to fastforward or reverse to get to any particular point on the tape, which can take several minutes of time. On a hard disk, you can move to any point on the surface of the disk almost instantly. In a tape storage unit, the head assembly is always in contact with the actual tape media. Hard drives, on the other hand, never actually touch the storage media. This prevents the wear and tear that normally is commonplace in all tape storage devices. Finally, information on a hard disk is stored in extremely small magnetic packets of information compared to tapes. The size of these packets is made possible by the precision of the platter and the speed of the medium (~7,200 rpm). Because of these differences, todays hard drives are able to store large amount of information in a very small space. According to J.P. FreeA4 www.securitysales.com JULY 2004

Disk Mirroring Illustrated

Compressed Video Output

Disk 1 Write

Disk 1 Mirror

Disk mirroring is a technique in which data is written to two duplicate disks simultaneously. With this method, if one disk fails the system can automatically switch over to the other drive without causing any loss of recorded or retrieved video information.

You can connect as many as seven SCSI devices to the adapter, without the computers knowledge. The adapter keeps track of the data flow across the SCSI bus. Each device gets its own SCSI address. Each device can talk with the other SCSI devices across the bus, all independent from the computer, which, in a nutshell, means SCSI drives increase the operating speed and performance of a computing device. Which one is the right for you? IDE drives are less costly, and have a slower transfer rate and less flexibility (unable to expand above four drives in a system) than SCSI drives. SCSI drives, on the other hand, offer faster transfer speeds and greater system flexibility. However, all this comes with an increase in equipment costs. The bottom line is if you want it cheap and simple with good performance, use IDE drives. If you want maximum performance and flexibility and have the money to pay for it, then use SCSI.

on the application and degree of fault required for that application. Mirroring is a technique in which data is written to two duplicate disks simultaneously. With this method, if one disk fails the system can automat-

ically switch over to the other drive without causing any loss of recorded or retrieved video information. Striping is a method of combining multiple drives into a single logical storage unit. Striping involves parti-

Comparison of RAID-0, -2 and -3 Configurations

RAID-0: Striped disk array
Compressed video information

Comeo

pres-

sed

Vid-

Info-

rma-

tion

Disk 1

Disk 2

Disk 3

Disk 4

RAID-2: Hammering code

Compressed video information

RAIDs Prevent Data Loss

Anyone who has worked with computers (and we all know DVRs are basically computing systems) is well aware that hard drives can fail. With this failure comes a loss of all stored information among a sea of electronics, magnetic fields and metal parts. With that in mind, how can stored information be protected? The answer is what is known as the redundant array of independent (once called inexpensive) disks (RAID). There are five commonly used RAID configurations each providing disk fault-tolerance and offering different trade-offs in features and performance. In addition to these five redundant array architectures, it has become popular to refer to a nonredundant array of disk drives as RAID0. However, since it is not redundant, it does not truly fit the RAID acronym. RAIDs incorporate mirroring techniques of data, data striping, or a combination of both. The level or RAID configuration usually depends

Disk 1

Disk 2

ECC

ECC

RAID-3: Striped with parity drive

Compressed video information

Disk 1

Disk 2

Disk 3

Parity

Here we see three of the five common random array of independent disk (RAID) levels. In RAID-0 (top ), data is broken down into blocks and each block is written to a separate disk drive, resulting in higher data throughput. In RAID-2 (middle ), each piece of data has a hamming error correction code (ECC) word recorded on the ECC disks. When reading, the ECC verifies correct data or corrects single disk errors. In RAID-3 (bottom ) the data block is subdivided (striped) and written on the data disks. Stripe parity is generated during writing, recorded on the parity disk and checked on reads.

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tioning each drives storage area into stripes, which are then interleaved so the combined video storage consists of alternate stripes from each disk in the array. The more drives in the array, the more the average access time for the array approaches the worst-case single-drive access time. Synchronized spindles assure every drive in the array reaches its data at the same time. As mentioned, RAID-0 is not redundant, hence does not truly fit the RAID acronym. In Level 0, data is broken down into blocks and each block is written to a separate disk drive, resulting in higher data throughput. Since no redundant information is stored, performance is very good but the failure of any disk in the array results in data loss. RAID-1 provides redundancy by writing all data to two or more drives. The performance of a Level-1 array tends to be faster on reads and slower on writes compared to a single drive, but if either drive fails, no data is lost. The main disadvantage is that the cost per megabyte of storage is higher since one drive is used to store a duplicate of the data. This level is commonly referred to as mirroring. In RAID-2, each bit of data is written to a data disk drive. Each piece of data has a hamming error correction code (ECC) word recorded on the ECC disks. When reading, the ECC verifies correct data or corrects single disk errors. This form of RAID is intended for use with drives that do not have builtin error detection. All SCSI drives support built-in error detection, so this level is of little use when using them. In RAID-3, the data block is subdivided (striped) and written on the data disks. Stripe parity is generated during writing, recorded on the parity disk and checked on reads. Byte-level striping requires hardware support for efficient use. RAID-4 stripes data at a block level across several drives, with parity stored on one drive. The parity information allows recovery from the failure of any single drive. The performance of a Level-4 array is very good for reads (the
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Network Attached Storage vs. Storage Area Network

NAS
LAN
NAS Device

Storage

Storage

Storage

Storage Storage

SAN

LAN
NAS Device

Fibre Channel SAN

Storage

Storage

Storage

Storage Storage

Network attached storage (NAS) is a data configuration or medium using storage devices that connect directly to a network. These devices are IP-addressable and be accessed by operators via a server that acts as a gateway to the video information. A storage area network (SAN) represents a way to separate the server and storage into two independently managed systems, thereby simplifying the complexity of the overall IT infrastructure.

same as Level 0). Writes, however, require parity data be updated each time. This slows small random writes, in particular, though large writes or sequential writes are fairly fast. Because only one drive in the array stores redundant data, the cost per megabyte of a Level-4 array can be fairly low. RAID-5, which stripes both data and parity information across three or more drives, is the most popular RAID level. It is similar to RAID-4 except that it exchanges the dedicated parity drive for a distributed parity algorithm, writing data and parity blocks across all the drives in the array. Fault tolerance is maintained by ensuring that the parity information for any given block of data is placed on a drive separate from those used to store the data itself.

Managing Networked Storage

So far, the methods covered for storing video information have involved the storage unit as an integral part of the recording device. The only external equipment required (in some cases) is an additional storage backup device. However, the growth of IP-based cameras and recording equipment has increased the need to provide initial storage, storage backup and storage management for vast amounts of video information is now becoming an issue. The methods by which the information is stored remain the same (DAT, HDD, RAID, SCSI, etc.); however, the way the information is managed is changing. Network attached storage (NAS) is a data configuration or medium using storage devices that connect directly to a network. These devices are IP

addressable and be accessed by operators via a server that acts as a gateway to the video information. The advantage of NAS is the storage can be centralized, easily expanded and managed. Additional NAS boxes can be plugged into the network to handle an increased number of system operators as well as the need for increased storage. NAS deals with storage at the file level, and is utilized for general purpose file sharing. However, it does not address the problem of backup. A storage area network (SAN) represents a way to separate the server and storage into two independently managed systems, thereby simplifying the complexity of the overall IT infrastructure. SANs use special switches as a mechanism to connect the devices. These switches make it possible for devices to communicate with each other on a separate network, which offers

less crowding of a standard network. According to Framingham, Mass.headquartered research company International Data Corp. (IDC), SANs will account for 70 percent of all network storage by the end of this year. NAS provides a quick and easy way to add general-purpose, shareable storage space to users and groups, while SAN separates the server and storage into two systems, making the overall network infrastructure simpler. With all of this digitally stored information, more and more people are wondering how it can be protected from being altered in any way ( see sidebar below). Anyone who has used digital cameras and image software can appreciate this potential vulnerability. It does not require much training for anyone to have the capability to alter an image. Every photo software program offers features from removing red-eye to plac-

ing your photo anywhere in the world. This is a great tool for the photographic society; however, it can cause a great many problems in the security field. History has shown that recorded video information on standard VHS tape has been accepted by the court system as evidence. The alignment of the magnetic particle on the tape as well as the video signal equalization pulses embedded in the tape make it impossible to alter the tape without being noticed. The next installment of the Digital Video for D.U.M.I.E.S. series will discuss the parts and pieces of DVRs and their ever-increasing features. Look for it in the SSI s special September 2004 ASIS Show Issue.
Robert (Bob) Wimmer is president of Video Security Consultants and has more than 33 years of experience in CCTV. He has been a training consultant for several of the industrys leading CCTV manufacturers and other organizations. He has also written numerous articles on CCTV applications and advancing equipment technology.

Authenticating Digital Video Images

o date, there have been no challenges of the digital video evidence that has been submitted and accepted in U.S. courts. However, this does not mean DVR manufacturers have forgotten or eliminated image authentication for their equipment. In order to satisfy the Daubert Criteria a legal ruling that states a judge must decide whether scientific evidence is relevant and reliable digital video authentication technology must demonstrate it conforms to recognized standards, and that error rates have been deemed acceptable by the scientific community. Since there are currently no standards for digital video authentication, FIPS-140-2 (Federal Information Processing Standard) certification for the signature software has been (in some circles) identified as a foundation for building the necessary acceptance. Efforts have also been made to define high-level guidelines by organizations such as the Law Enforcement and Emergency Services Video Association (LEVA), Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) and Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technology (SWGIT). Many of the manufacturers are incorporating these recommendations as well as suggestions from countries that have been subjected to court approvals. The main comment is that the image for evidence shall be original.That means special post-enhancement image programs could not be incorporated when using a video clip as evidence in a court of law.The other statements made included terms

such as write once, read many (WORM), check sum and digital watermarking: WORM a form of optical disk authentication technology that allows data to be written onto a disk just once. After that, the data is permanent and can only be read.There is no standard for WORM disks, which means they can only be read by the same type of drive that wrote them.This may hamper their acceptance in the DVR industry.WORM is also called CD-R. Check sum a method that analyzes the building blocks of a video image its pixels or picture elements.Once digitized,each pixel will be represented by a numeric value. After each row of pixels a count is made of the total value and this number is encoded and stored. Upon authentication, the numeric value is compared and if the values are different, it indicates that the image is no longer original. Some use a total of all pixel values, while some store each row of the recorded image. Digital watermarking a method in which information such as date/time or other verifications are inserted into a digital image file that identifies the files authenticity.The name comes from the faintly visible watermarks imprinted on stationery that identify the manufacturer of the stationery. The actual bits representing the watermark must be scattered throughout the file in such a way that they cannot be identified and manipulated.The digital watermark must be robust enough so that it can withstand normal changes to the file, such as reductions from lossy compression algorithms.

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Fusion DVR Fusion Sample Recording Chart

Fusion Remote View Software

Fusion is more than a standard DVR Series. It is an intelligent, world-class digital management system combining multiplexing, motion detection, audio, text insertion, mapping and remote notification into one extremely versatile, upgradeable unit.

8 to 32 camera units Capture rates up to 480 ips Live viewing up to 480 ips Multiplexed analog output Remote accessibility/notification Text insertion interface

With its advanced compression algorithms, fast capture rates and flexible GUI, Fusion is truly the next generation of DVR technology.

Display maps of facilities Smart Search Index Search Easy installation and operation

For more information on these and other Honeywell Video Systems products, please call our Sales Support Center at 1.800.796.CCTV. Reader Service Card No. 103

www.honeywellvideo.com