7 Design For Static Loading
7 Design For Static Loading
7 Design For Static Loading
3
Design for Strength
3.1.1Introduction
Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces exceed their
strength. The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and the
component size depends on the stresses developed. Stresses developed in a
link subjected to uniaxial loading is shown in figure-3.1.1.1. Loading may be due
to:
a) The energy transmitted by a machine element.
b) Dead weight.
c) Inertial forces.
d) Thermal loading.
e) Frictional forces.
Load
Time
Static Loading
Dynamic Loading
Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for
different materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an allowable
stress is used in place of the critical stress to take into account the uncertainties
including the following:
1) Uncertainty in loading.
2) Inhomogeneity of materials.
3) Various material behaviors. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep.
4) Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.
Ultimate Stress
= F.S.
Allowable Stress
The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of
stresses since this applies to material properties.
(True)
Stress
U
f (Engineering)
σy Y
P
3.1.3.1F- (a) Stress-strain diagram for a ductile material e.g. low carbon
steel.
f (Ultimate fracture)
Strain
σy
Strain
3.1.3.1F- (d) Stress-strain diagram for an elastic – perfectly plastic
material.
There are numerous yield criteria, going as far back as Coulomb (1773). Many of
these were originally developed for brittle materials but were later applied to
ductile materials. Some of the more common ones will be discussed briefly here.
+σy
..
a b
σ1
-σy +σy
-σy
1
ε1 = ( σ1 − νσ 2 ) σ1 ≥ σ 2
E
1
ε2 = ( σ 2 − νσ1 ) σ 2 ≥ σ1
E
This gives, Eε1 = σ1 − νσ 2 = ±σ 0
Eε 2 = σ 2 − νσ1 = ± σ 0
The boundary of a yield surface in this case is thus given as shown in figure-
3.1.4.2.1 σ2=σ0+νσ1
σ2
+σy
-σy +σy
σ1
-σy σ1=σ0+νσ2
σ1 − σ 2 = ± σ y
σ 2 − σ3 = ±σ y
σ 3 − σ1 = ± σ y
σ2
+σy
-σy +σy σ1
-σy
σ1 − σ 2 = σ y if σ1 > 0, σ 2 < 0
σ1 − σ 2 = −σ y if σ1 < 0, σ 2 > 0
σ2 = σ y if σ 2 > σ1 > 0
σ1 = −σ y if σ1 < σ 2 < 0
σ1 = −σ y if σ1 > σ 2 > 0
σ 2 = −σ y if σ 2 < σ1 < 0
σ2 σ1
σ
According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy
absorbed at a point per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per
unit volume at the tensile yield point. This
1 1
may be given ( σ1ε1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ3ε3 ) = σ y ε y by
2 2
1 1
( σ1ε1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ3ε3 ) = σ yε y
2 2
σ2
σy
σy E(1− ν)
σy E(1+ ν)
σ1
-σy σy
-σy
It has been shown earlier that only distortion energy can cause yielding but in
the above expression at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ
(say), yielding may also occur.
From the above we may write σ2 ( 3 − 2ν ) = σ2y and if ν ~ 0.3, at stress level
lower than yield stress, yielding would occur. This is in contrast to the
experimental as well as analytical conclusion and the theory is not
appropriate.
According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy
absorbed per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy
absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and
strain energy for volume change EV can be given as
1 3
ET = ( σ1ε1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ3ε3 ) and E V = σav ε av
2 2
Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as
( σ1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 − σ3 ) + ( σ3 − σ1 ) = 2σ 2y
2 2 2
σ2
45o
σy
σy
-σy σy σ1
0.577 σy
-σy
σ2
Maximum principal strain theory
σy
Maximum distortion energy theory
-σy
σy σ1
Maximum shear stress theory
Maximum principal stress theory
-σy
Q.1: A shaft is loaded by a torque of 5 KN-m. The material has a yield point of
350 MPa. Find the required diameter using
(a) Maximum shear stress theory
(b) Maximum distortion energy theory
Take a factor of safety of 2.5.
16 x(5 x103 )
τ= where d is the shaft diameter in m.
πd 3
(b) Maximum shear stress theory,
2
⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
τmax =± ⎜ ⎟ +τ
⎝ 2 ⎠
σY 350 x106
Since σx = σy = 0, τmax=25.46x103/d3 = =
2xF.S. 2x 2.5
This gives d=71.3 mm.
( σ1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 − σ3 ) + ( σ1 − σ3 ) = 2 ( σ Y )
2 2 2 2
F.S
Q.2: The state of stress at a point for a material is shown in the figure-3.1.6.1.
Find the factor of safety using (a) Maximum shear stress theory (b) Maximum
distortion energy theory. Take the tensile yield strength of the material as 400
MPa.
σ x=40 MPa
τ=20 MPa
σ y=125 MPa
3.1.6.1F
( σ1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 − σ3 ) + ( σ1 − σ3 ) = 2 ( σ Y )
2 2 2 2
F.S
σ2 σ1
τ σx=20 MPa σy=120 MPa σ
τ=-20 MPa
80 MPa
44.72 MPa
σ2 σ1
σx=20 MPa σy=120 MPa σ
τ=-20 MPa
80 MPa
44.72 MPa
3.1.6.2F
120
mm
x
A B
C
D
F=2KN
P=
T =800 Nm 10
KN
3.1.6.3F
A.3:
At the outset it is necessary to identify the mostly stressed element. Torsional
shear stress as well as axial normal stress is the same throughout the length
of the rod but the bearing stress is largest at the welded end. Now among
the four corner elements on the rod, the element A is mostly loaded as
shown in figure-3.1.6.4
16T
(Torsional shear stress)
πd 3
2
⎛ πd ⎞
P ⎜ ⎟ (Axial stress)
A ⎝ 4 ⎠
32FL
(Bending stress)
πd 3
3.1.6.4F
⎛ 12732 2445 ⎞
⎜ 2
+ 3 ⎟
⎝ d d ⎠
⎛ 4074 ⎞
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
3.1.6.5F
This gives the principal stress as
2 2
1 ⎛ 12732 2445 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 12732 2445 ⎞ ⎛ 4074 ⎞
σ1,2 = ⎜ + 3 ⎟± + 3 ⎟ +⎜ 3 ⎟
2⎝ d 2
d ⎠ 4 ⎜⎝ d 2 d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
(a) Maximum principal stress theory,
Setting σ1 = σY we get d = 26.67 mm.
(b) Maximum shear stress theory,
σ1 − σ2 σY
Setting = , we get d = 30.63 mm.
2 2
(c) Maximum distortion energy theory,
( σ1 − σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 − σ3 ) + ( σ1 − σ3 ) = 2 ( σ Y )
2 2 2 2
Setting