A REPORT ON

Ion Implantation

Submitted by Abhishek Goyal 2009UEC302 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMM. ENGINEERING MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR MARCH 2013

Under the guidance of Dr. Srinivasa Rao Nelamarri Assistant Professor DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR MARCH 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude and respect towards Dr. Srinivasa Rao Nelamarri (Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physics, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur). I am very much indebted to him for the generosity, expertise and guidance I have received from him while working on this report and throughout my studies related to Nano Materials.

Abhishek Goyal (2009UEC302)

Abstract
In this report, a detailed introduction of Ion Implantation is given and various techniques to implement the same are being discussed. Various advantages of the Ion Implantation over the diffusion has also been discussed in this report. Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material are accelerated in an electrical field and impacted into a solid. We have also discussed what could be the various sources for ion generation like RF, Microwave, plasma source etc. Various applications of Ion Implantation are also discussed in this report. The various stopping mechanisms and the channelling effect is also discussed in this report so as to have an in depth information about the penetration of Ion. Moreover, shadowing effect is also discussed in this report and how it is useful for the Ion Implanter. The last section discusses about the various safety measures that are to be followed during the process.

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

CONTENTS
CHAPTER Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 What is Semiconductor? 1.2 Why semiconductor need to be doped? 1.3 What is n-type and p-type dopant? Chapter 2: Doping Techniques 2.1 Diffusion 2.2 Ion implantation 2.3 Comparison between both techniques Chapter 3: Stopping Mechanism 3.1 Nuclear stopping 3.2 Electronic stopping 3.3 Stopping mechanism Chapter 4: Channelling, Shadowing and Post Implementation Annealing 4.1 Channelling 4.2 Shadowing 4.3 Post Implementation Annealing Chapter 5: Ion Implanter 5.1 Ion source 5.2 Different type of Ion sources 5.3 Safety Measures References 10 11 12 13 8 9 9 6 6 7 3 4 5 1 1 2 PAGE NUMBER

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

INDEX OF FIGURES Figure 1: Diffusion Process Figure 2: Ion Implantation Figure 3: Comparison between Diffusion and Ion Implantation Figure 4: Stopping Mechanism Figure 5: Ion Trajectory and Projected range Figure 6: Channelling Effect Figure 7: Shadowing Effect Figure 8: Effect of Annealing Figure 9: Ion Implanter Figure 10: Basic Ion source Figure 11: Microwave Ion source Figure 12: RF Ion source Figure 13: Plasma Flooding system

PAGE NUMBER 3 4 5 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 11 12

INDEX OF TABLES Table 1: Comparison between Diffusion and Ion Implantation

PAGE NUMBER 5

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

II

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 What is Semiconductor?
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor such as copper and an insulator such as glass. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increasing temperature, behaviour opposite to that of a metal. Semiconductors can display a range of useful properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other. Because the conductive properties of a semiconductor can be modified by controlled addition of impurities or by the application of electrical fields or light, semiconductors are very useful devices for amplification of signals, switching, and energy conversion. Understanding the properties of semiconductors relies on quantum physics to explain the motions of electrons through a lattice of atoms.

1.2 Why semiconductor need to be doped?

In semiconductor production, doping intentionally introduces impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic) semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical properties. The impurities are dependent upon the type of semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as degenerate. Doping a semiconductor crystal introduces allowed energy states within the band gap but very close to the energy band that corresponds to the dopant type. In other words, donor impurities create states near the conduction band while acceptors create states near the valence band. Dopants also have the important effect of shifting the material's Fermi level towards the energy band that corresponds with the dopant with the greatest concentration.

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

1.3 What is n-type and p-type dopant?

A dopant, also called a doping agent, is a trace impurity element that is inserted into a substance (in very low concentrations) in order to alter the electrical properties or the optical properties of the substance. The addition of a dopant to a semiconductor, known as doping, has the effect of shifting the Fermi levels within the material. This results in a material with predominantly negative (n-type) or positive (p-type) charge carriers depending on the dopant variety. Pure semiconductors that have been altered by the presence of dopants are known as extrinsic semiconductors. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "p-type"(B), and when it contains excess free electrons it is known as "n-type"(P, As, Sb).

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

Chapter 2: Doping Techniques

2.1 Diffusion
Diffusion is one of several transport phenomena that occur in nature. A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it results in mixing or mass transport, without requiring bulk motion. In the phenomenological approach, according to Fick's laws, the diffusion flux is proportional to the negative gradient of concentrations. It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. The procedure is as follows:

Figure1: Diffusion Process

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

2.2 Ion implantation

Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material are accelerated in an electrical field and impacted into a solid. This process is used to change the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of the solid. They also cause much chemical and physical change in the target by transferring their energy and momentum to the electrons and atomic nuclei of the target material. This causes a structural change, in that the crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic collision cascades. Because the ions have masses comparable to those of the target atoms, they knock the target atoms out of place more than electron beams do. Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation ion beam deposition. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad (Bragg peak), the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.

Figure 2: Ion Implantation

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

2.2 Comparison between both techniques

Table 1: Comparison between Diffusion and Ion Implantation

Diffusion Ion Implantation

High temperature, hard mask Isotropic dopant profile Cannot independently control of the dopant concentration and junction depth Batch process

Low temperature, photoresist mask Anisotropic dopant profile Can independently control of the dopant concentration and junction depth Both Batch and single wafer process

Figure 3: Comparison between Diffusion and Ion Implantation

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

Chapter 3: Stopping mechanism

The procedure followed is as follows: Ions penetrate into substrate Collide with lattice atoms Gradually lose their energy and stop

Two stop mechanisms 3.1 Nuclear stopping

It occurs due to Collision with nuclei of the lattice atoms Scattered significantly Causes crystal structure damage.

3.2 Electronic stopping

It occurs due to Collision with electrons of the lattice atoms Incident ion path is almost unchanged Energy transfer is very small Crystal structure damage is negligible

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

3.3 Stopping mechanism

The total stopping power Stotal = Sn + Se Sn: nuclear stopping, Se: electronic stopping Low E, high A ion implantation: mainly nuclear stopping High E, low A ion implantation, electronic stopping mechanism is more important

Figure 4: Stopping Mechanism

Figure 5: Ion Trajectory and Projected range

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

Chapter 4: Channelling, Shadowing and Post Implementation Annealing

4.1 Channelling
If the incident angle is right, ion can travel long distance without collision with lattice atoms It causes uncontrollable dopant profile

Figure 6: Channeling Effect

Ways to avoid channeling effect Tilt wafer, 7 is most commonly used Screen oxide Pre-amorphous implantation, Germanium

Shadowing effect Ion blocked by structures

Rotate wafer and post-implantation diffusion

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

4.2 Shadowing

Figure 7: Shadowing Effect

4.3 Post Implementation Annealing

Ion collides with lattice atoms and knock them out of lattice grid. Implant area on substrate becomes amorphous structure. Dopant atom must in single crystal structure and bond with four silicon atoms to be activated as donor (N-type) or acceptor (P-type). Thermal energy from high temperature helps amorphous atoms to recover single crystal structure.

Figure 8: Effect of Annealing

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

Chapter 5: Ion Implanter

Ion Implantation: Basic requirements Ion energies above 200 keV and up to 10 MeV Argon is used for purge and beam calibration Pressure of 10-5 to 10-7 Torr Turbo pump and Cryo pump

Figure 9: Ion Implanter

5.1 Ion source

Hot tungsten filament emits thermal electron Electrons collide with source gas molecules to dissociate and ionize Ions are extracted out of source chamber and accelerated to the beamline RF and microwave power can also be used to ionize source gas

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

10

Figure 10: Basic Ion source

5.2 Different type of Ion sources

Figure 11: Microwave Ion source

Figure 12: RF Ion source

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

11

Figure 13: Plasma flooding system

5.3 Safety Measures

In the ion implantation semiconductor fabrication process of wafers, it is important for the workers to minimize their exposure to the toxic materials are used in the ion implanter process. Such hazardous elements, solid source and gasses are used, such as arsine and phosphine. For this reason, the semiconductor fabrication facilities are highly automated, and may feature negative pressure gas bottles safe delivery system (SDS). Other elements may include antimony, arsenic, phosphorus, and boron. Residue of these elements show up when the machine is opened to atmosphere, and can also be accumulated and found concentrated in the vacuum pumps hardware. It is important not to expose yourself to these carcinogenic, corrosive, flammable, and toxic elements. Many overlapping safety protocols must be used when handling these deadly compounds. Use safety, and read MSDSs. High voltage power supplies in ion implantation equipment can pose a risk of electrocution. In addition, high-energy atomic collisions can generate X-rays and, in some cases, other ionizing radiation and radionuclides. Operators and maintenance personnel should learn and follow the safety advice of the manufacturer and/or the institution responsible for the equipment. Prior to entry to high voltage area, terminal components must be grounded using a grounding stick. Next, power supplies should be locked in the off state and tagged to prevent unauthorized energizing. Other types of particle accelerator, such as radio frequency linear particle accelerators and laser wake field plasma accelerators have their own hazards.

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

12

References
[1] Y Hamm, Robert W.; Hamm, Marianne E. (2012). Industrial Accelerators and Their Applications. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4307-04-8. [2] A. J. Armini, S. N. Bunker and M. B. Spitzer, "Non-mass-analyzed Ion Implantation Equipment for high Volume Solar Cell Production," Proc. 16th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 27-30 Sep 1982, San Diego California, pp. 895-899. [3] G. Landis et al., "Apparatus and Technique for Pulsed Electron Beam Annealing for Solar Cell Production," Proc. 15th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf., Orlando FL; 976-980 (1981). [4] B.G. Yacobi, Semiconductor Materials: An Introduction to Basic Principles, Springer 2003 ISBN 0306473615, pp. 1-3 [5] http://www.nit.eu/czasopisma/JTIT/2010/1/3.pdf Lidia ukasiak and Andrzej Jakubowski, History of Semiconductors in Journal of Telecommunication and Information Technology1/2010 [6] Peter Robin Morris: A History of the World Semiconductor Industry, IET 1990, ISBN 0863412270, pp.11-25 [7] Smart, L. et al. (2005). State Chemistry: An Introduction. pp. 165171. ISSN 0-7487-7516-1. [8] Miessler, G. et al. (1965). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd Ed.). pp. 237240. ISSN 0-7487-7516-1. [9] Robert L. Sproull, Modern Physics:The quantum physics of atoms, solids and and nuclei, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1963 ISBN 0-471- 8145-3 Chapter 8 [10] Muller, Richard S.; Theodore I. Kamins (1986). Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits (2d Ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 427. ISBN 0-471-88758-7. [11] Jones, B. et al (2007). "Tuning Orbital Energetics in Arylene Diimide Semiconductors". Prog J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129: 1525915278. Doi: 10.1021/ja075242e. [12] Facchetti, A. (2007). "Semiconductors for organic transistors". Materials Today 10 (3): 29 37. ISSN 7021 1369 7021. [13] Newman, C. et al (2004). "Introduction to Organic Thin Film Transistors". Chem. Mater 16: 4436 4451. Doi: 10.1021/cm049391x. [14] J. W. Allen (1960). "Gallium Arsenide as a semi-insulator". Nature 187 (4735): 403405. Bibcode 1960Natur.187.403A. Doi: 10.1038/187403b0.

Report on Ion Implantation by Abhishek Goyal

13