Number Systems, Operations, And Codes

Decimal Numbers The position of each digit in a weighted number system is assigned a weight based on the base ()or radix() of the system. The radix of decimal numbers is ten, because only ten symbols (0 through 9) are used to represent any number. The column weights of decimal numbers are powers of ten that increase from right to left beginning with 100 =1: 105 104 103 102 101 100. For fractional decimal numbers, the column weights are negative powers of ten that decrease from left to right: 102 101 100. 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4
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Decimal Numbers Decimal numbers can be expressed as the sum of the products of each digit times the column value for that digit. Thus, the number 9240 can be expressed as (9 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (0 x 100) or 9 x 1,000 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 10 + 0 x 1
Express the number 480.52 as the sum of values of each digit.
480.52 = (4 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (0 x 100) + (5 x 10-1) +(2 x 10-2)
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Binary Numbers
For digital systems, the binary number system is used. Binary has a radix of two and uses the digits 0 and 1 to represent quantities. The column weights of binary numbers are powers of two that increase from right to left beginning with 20 =1: 25 24 23 22 21 20. For fractional binary numbers, the column weights are negative powers of two that decrease from left to right: 22 21 20. 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

Decimal Number

Binary Number

Binary Numbers
A binary counting sequence for numbers from zero to fifteen is shown.
Notice the pattern of zeros and ones in each column. Digital counters frequently have this same pattern of digits:
Counter 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 Decoder

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
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Binary to Decimal Conversions

The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be determined by adding the column values of all of the bits that are 1 and discarding all of the bits that are 0.

Convert the binary number 100101.01 to decimal.

Start by writing the column weights; then add the weights that correspond to each 1 in the number.
25 24 23 22 21 20. 2-1 2-2 32 16 8 4 2 1 . 1 0 0 1 0 1. 0 1 32 +4 +1 + = 37
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Binary to Decimal Conversions

The double-dabble method avoids addition of large numbers:
Write down the left-most 1 in the binary number. Double it and add the next bit to the right. Write down the result under the next bit. Continue with steps 2 and 3 until finished with the binary number. Binary numbers verify the double-dabble method:

Decimal to Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal whole number to binary by reversing the procedure. Write the decimal weight of each column and place 1s in the columns that sum to the decimal number. Convert the decimal number 49 to binary. The column weights double in each position to the right. Write down column weights until the last number is larger than the one you want to convert.
26 25 24 23 22 21 20. 64 32 16 8 4 2 1. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1.
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Decimal to Binary Conversions

Repeated Division
Divide the decimal number by 2. Write the remainder after each division until a quotient of zero is obtained. The first remainder is the LSB. The last is the MSB.

Decimal to Binary Conversions

Repeated Division
This flowchart describes the process and can be used to convert from decimal to any other number system.
Convert 3710 to binary:

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Decimal to Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal fraction to binary by repeatedly multiplying the fractional results of successive multiplications by 2. The carries form the binary number.

Convert the decimal fraction 0.188 to binary by repeatedly multiplying the fractional results by 2.
MSB 0.188 x 2 = 0.376 carry = 0 0.376 x 2 = 0.752 carry = 0 0.752 x 2 = 1.504 carry = 1 0.504 x 2 = 1.008 carry = 1 0.008 x 2 = 0.016 carry = 0 Answer = .00110 (for five significant digits)
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Decimal to Any Other Base Conversions

You can convert decimal to any other base by repeatedly dividing by the base. For binary, repeatedly divide by 2: Convert the decimal number 49 to binary by repeatedly dividing by 2. You can do this by reverse division and the answer will read from left to right. Put quotients to the left and remainders on top.
Answer:
Continue until the last quotient is 0 remainder 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 6 12 24 49 2 Quotient Decimal number

base

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Binary Addition
The rules for binary addition are 0+0=0 Sum = 0, carry = 0 0+1=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0 1+0=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0 1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1 When an input carry = 1 due to a previous result, the rules are 1 + 0 + 0 = 01 Sum = 1, carry = 0 1 + 0 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1 1 + 1 + 0 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1 1 + 1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 1, carry = 1

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Binary Addition
Add the binary numbers 00111 and 10101 and show the equivalent decimal addition.
0111

00111 10101

7 21

11100 = 28

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Binary Subtraction
The rules for binary subtraction are 0-0=0 1-1=0 1-0=1 10 - 1 = 1 with a borrow of 1 Subtract the binary number 00111 from 10101 and show the equivalent decimal subtraction.
111 / / / 10101

21 00111 7 01110 = 14
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1s Complement
The 1s complement of a binary number is just the inverse of the digits. To form the 1s complement, change all 0s to 1s and all 1s to 0s. For example, the 1s complement of 11001010 is 00110101 In digital circuits, the 1s complement is formed by using inverters: 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

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1s Complement or Diminished Radix Complement

Adopted from Digital Design Essential by Sandige

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2s Complement
The 2s complement of a binary number is found by adding 1 to the LSB of the 1s complement. Recall that the 1s complement of 11001010 is 00110101 (1s complement) +1 To form the 2s complement, add 1: 00110110 (2s complement) 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1

0
Input bits Adder

1
Carry in (add 1)

Output bits (sum)

0
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2s Complement or Radix Complement

Adopted from Digital Design Essential by Sandige

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Sign and magnitude

Adopted from Digital Design Essential by Sandige

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Signed Binary Numbers

There are several ways to represent signed binary numbers. In all cases, the MSB in a signed number is the sign bit, that tells you if the number is positive or negative. Computers use a modified 2s complement for signed numbers. Positive numbers are stored in true form (with a 0 for the sign bit) and negative numbers are stored in complement form (with a 1 for the sign bit).
For example, the positive number 58 is written using 8-bits as 00111010 (true form).
Sign bit Magnitude bits

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Signed Binary Numbers

Negative numbers are written as the 2s complement of the corresponding positive number.
The negative number -58 is written as: -58 = 11000110 (complement form)
Sign bit Magnitude bits

An easy way to read a signed number that uses this notation is to assign the sign bit a column weight of -128 (for an 8-bit number). Then add the column weights for the 1s. Assuming that the sign bit = -128, show that 11000110 = -58 as a 2s complement signed number: Column weights: -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1. 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 -128 +64 +4 +2 = -58
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Floating Point Numbers

Floating point notation is capable of representing very large or small numbers by using a form of scientific notation. A 32-bit single precision number is illustrated.
S E (8 bits) F (23 bits)

Sign bit

Biased exponent (+127)

Magnitude with MSB dropped

Express the speed of light, c, in single precision floating point notation. (c = 0.2998 x 109) In binary, c = 0001 0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 1100 00002. In scientific notation, c = 1.0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 1100 0000 x 228. S = 0 because the number is positive. E = 28 + 127 = 15510 = 1001 10112. F is the next 23 bits after the first 1 is dropped. In floating point notation, c = 0 10011011 0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 110
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Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers

Using the signed number notation with negative numbers in 2s complement form simplifies addition and subtraction of signed numbers. Rules for addition: Add the two signed numbers. Discard any final carries. The result is in signed form. Examples:
00011110 = +30 00001111 = +15 00101101 = +45 00001110 = +14 11101111 = -17 11111101 = -3 11111111 = -1 11111000 = -8 1 11110111 = -9

Discard carry

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Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers

Note that if the number of bits required for the answer is exceeded, overflow will occur. This occurs only if both numbers have the same sign. The overflow will be indicated by an incorrect sign bit. Two examples are:
01000000 = +128 01000001 = +129 10000001 = -126 10000001 = -127 10000001 = -127 100000010 = +2

Discard carry

Wrong! The answer is incorrect and the sign bit has changed.
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Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers Rules for subtraction: 2s complement the subtrahend and add the numbers. Discard any final carries. The result is in signed form. Repeat the examples done previously, but subtract:
00011110 (+30) 00001110 (+14) 11111111 (-1) - 00001111 (+15) - 11101111 (-17) - 11111000 (-8)

2s complement subtrahend and add:

00011110 = +30 11110001 = -15 1 00001111 = +15
Discard carry

00001110 = +14 00010001 = +17 00011111 = +31

11111111 = -1 00001000 = +8 1 00000111 = +7

Discard carry
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Hexadecimal Numbers Hexadecimal uses sixteen characters to represent numbers: the numbers 0 through 9 and the alphabetic characters A through F.

Decimal Hexadecimal Binary

Large binary number can easily be converted to hexadecimal by grouping bits 4 at a time and writing the equivalent hexadecimal character.
Express 1001 0110 0000 11102 in hexadecimal: Group the binary number by 4-bits starting from the right. Thus, 960E

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
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Hexadecimal Numbers Hexadecimal is a weighted number system. The column weights are powers of 16, which increase from right to left.
Column weights
16 16 16 16 . {4096 256 16 1 .
3 2 1 0

Decimal Hexadecimal Binary

Express 1A2F16 in decimal. Start by writing the column weights: 4096 256 16 1 1 A 2 F16 1(4096) + 10(256) +2(16) +15(1) = 670310

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
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Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversions

Convert from hex to decimal by multiplying each hex digit by its positional weight.

In a 2nd example, the value 10 was substituted for A and 15 substituted for F.

For practice, verify that 1BC216 is equal to 710610

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Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversions

Convert from decimal to hex by using the repeated division method used for decimal to binary conversion.

Divide the decimal number by 16

The first remainder is the LSBthe last is the MSB

Convert 42310 to hex:

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Hexadecimal to Binary Conversions

Leading zeros can be added to the left of the MSB to fill out the last group.

For practice, verify that BA616 = 1011101001102

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Binary to Hexadecimal to Conversions

Convert from binary to hex by grouping bits in four starting with the LSB.
Each group is then converted to the hex equivalent

The binary number is grouped into groups of four bits and each is converted to its equivalent hex digit.

For practice, verify that 101011111 2 = 15F16

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Decimal to Hexadecimal to Binary Conversions

Convert decimal 378 to a 16-bit binary number by first converting to Hexadecimal.

To perform conversions between hex & binary, it is necessary to know the four-bit binary numbers (0000 - 1111), and their quivalent hex digits.

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Octal Numbers Octal uses eight characters the numbers 0 through 7 to represent numbers. There is no 8 or 9 character in octal. Binary number can easily be converted to octal by grouping bits 3 at a time and writing the equivalent octal character for each group.
Express 1 001 011 000 001 1102 in octal: Group the binary number by 3-bits starting from the right. Thus, 1130168

Decimal

Octal

Binary

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
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Octal Numbers Octal is also a weighted number system. The column weights are powers of 8, which increase from right to left.
Column weights
8 {512
3

Decimal

Octal

Binary

82 64

81 8

80 . 1 .

Express 37028 in decimal. Start by writing the column weights: 512 64 8 1 3 7 0 28 3(512) + 7(64) +0(8) +2(1) = 198610

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
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BCD
Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a weighted code that is commonly used in digital systems when it is necessary to show decimal numbers such as in clock displays.
The table illustrates the difference between straight binary and BCD. BCD represents each decimal digit with a 4bit code. Notice that the codes 1010 through 1111 are not used in BCD.

Decimal

Binary

BCD

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 0001 0000 0001 0001 0001 0010 0001 0011 0001 0100 0001 0101
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BCD
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) is a widely used way to present decimal numbers in binary form. Combines features of both decimal and
binary systems. Each digit is converted to a binary equivalent.

Decimal

Binary

BCD

BCD is not a number system. It is a decimal number with each digit encoded to its binary equivalent. A BCD number is not the same as a straight binary number. The primary advantage of BCD is the relative
ease of converting to and from decimal.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 0001 0000 0001 0001 0001 0010 0001 0011 0001 0100 0001 0101
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BCD
Convert the number 87410 to BCD:

Each decimal digit is represented using 4 bits. Each 4-bit group can never be greater than 9.

Reverse the process to convert BCD to decimal.

Convert 0110100000111001 (BCD) to its decimal equivalent.

Divide the BCD number into four-bit groups and convert each to decimal.

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BCD

Convert BCD 011111000001 to its decimal equivalent.

The forbidden group represents an error in the BCD number. You can think of BCD in terms of column weights in groups of four bits. For an 8-bit BCD number, the column weights are:
80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1. What are the column weights for the BCD number 1000 0011 0101 1001? 8000 4000 2000 1000 800 400 200 100 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1 Note that you could add the column weights where there is a 1 to obtain the decimal number. For this case: 8000 + 200 +100 + 40 + 10 + 8 +1 = 835910

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Gray code
Gray code is an unweighted code that has a single bit change between one code word and the next in a sequence. Gray code is used to avoid problems in systems where an error can occur if more than one bit changes at a time.

Decimal

Binary

Gray code

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

0000 0001 0011 0010 0110 0111 0101 0100 1100 1101 1111 1110 1010 1011 1001 1000
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Gray code generation

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Binary Code and Gray code

Binary to Gray

Gray to Binary

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Gray code and Binary code

Adopted from Digital Design Essential by Sandige

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Gray code and Binary code

Conversion Example
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Gray Code Encoder

A shaft encoder is a typical application. Three IR emitter/detectors are used to encode the position of the shaft. The encoder on the left uses binary and can have three bits change together, creating a potential error. The encoder on the right uses gray code and only 1-bit changes, eliminating potential errors.

Binary sequence

Gray code sequence

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Various binary codes

Adopted from Digital Design Essential by Sandige

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ASCII-- American Standard Code for Information Interchange

ASCII is a code for alphanumeric characters and control characters. In its original form, ASCII encoded 128 characters and symbols using 7-bits. The first 32 characters are control characters, that are based on obsolete teletype requirements, so these characters are generally assigned to other functions in modern usage.

In 1981, IBM introduced extended ASCII, which is an 8bit code and increased the character set to 256. Other extended sets (such as Unicode) have been introduced to handle characters in languages other than English.
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ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange

In 1981, IBM introduced extended ASCII, which is an 8-bit code and increased the character set to 256. Other extended sets (such as Unicode) have been introduced to handle characters in languages other than English.
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Parity Method The parity method is a method of error detection for simple transmission errors involving one bit (or an odd number of bits). A parity bit is an extra bit attached to a group of bits to force the number of 1s to be either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
The ASCII character for a is 1100001 and for A is 1000001. What is the correct bit to append to make both of these have odd parity? The ASCII a has an odd number of bits that are equal to 1; therefore the parity bit is 0. It means with parity bit is 01100001 The ASCII A has an even number of bits that are equal to 1; therefore the parity bit is 1. 11000001
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Cyclic Redundancy Check The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error detection method that can detect multiple errors in larger blocks of data. At the sending end, a checksum is appended to a block of data. At the receiving end, the check sum is generated and compared to the sent checksum. If the check sums are the same, no error is detected.

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