Digital Multimeter

multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter, multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches. For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of switches allows greater resistance to be inserted for higher voltage ranges. The product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the range. As an example, a meter movement that required 1 milliampere for full scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 ohms, would, on a 10-volt range of the multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series resistance. [3] For analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1 mA, 500 ohm movement on a 1 Ampere range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5 ohms. Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through them. To measure alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that the average value of current is non-zero. Since the average value and the root-mean-square value of a waveform need not be the same, simple rectifier-type circuits may only be accurate for sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate RMS and average value. Since practical rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at low values. To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the battery, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so full-scale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values. Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks. The internal resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and shunt range

resistors; the series network becomes a voltage divider. Where AC measurements are required, the rectifier can be placed after the amplifier stage, improving precision at low range. Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same principles as analog instruments for range resistors. For resistance measurements, usually a small constant current is passed through the device under test and the digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop; this eliminates the scale compression found in analog meters, but requires a source of significant current. An autoranging digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so that the measurement uses the full precision of the A/D converter. In all types of multimeters, the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable and accurate measurements. Stability of the resistors is a limiting factor in the long-term accuracy and precision of the instrument.

Quantities measured
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:

Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts. Current, alternating and direct, in amperes. The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified. Resistance in ohms.

Additionally, some multimeters measure:

Capacitance in farads. Conductance in siemens. Decibels. Duty cycle as a percentage. Frequency in hertz. Inductance in henrys. Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe, often a thermocouple.

Digital multimeters may also include circuits for:

Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions), and transistors (measuring current gain and other parameters) Battery checking for simple 1.5 volt and 9 volt batteries. This is a current loaded voltage scale which simulates in-use voltage measurement.

Various sensors can be attached to multimeters to take measurements such as:

Light level Acidity/Alkalinity(pH) Wind speed Relative humidity

Analog

Display face of an analog multimeter

Resolution of analog multimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer, parallax, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of readings obtained is also often compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in mental arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and is usually adequate for the limited precision needed for most measurements). Resistance measurements, in particular, are of low precision due to the typical resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at the higher resistance values. Inexpensive analog meters may have only a single resistance scale, seriously restricting the range of precise measurements. Typically an analog meter will have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the meter, to compensate for the varying voltage of the meter battery.

Resistor
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Resistor

A typical axial-lead resistor

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed and the part is inserted into the board. In automated assembly the leads are cut and formed.

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickelchrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Oscilloscope
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about current oscilloscopes, providing general information. For history of oscilloscopes, see Oscilloscope history. For detailed information about various types of oscilloscopes, see Oscilloscope types. For the film distributor, see Oscilloscope Laboratories.

Illustration showing the interior of a cathode-ray tube for use in an oscilloscope. Numbers in the picture indicate: 1. Deflection voltage electrode; 2. Electron gun; 3. Electron beam; 4. Focusing coil; 5. Phosphor-coated inner side of the screen

A Tektronix model 475A portable analog oscilloscope, a very typical instrument of the late 1970s

An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph,[1][2] and informally known as a scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital storage oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or y-axis, plotted as a function of time (horizontal or x-axis). Many signals can be converted to voltages and displayed this way. Signals are often periodic and repeat constantly, so that multiple samples of a signal which is actually varying with time are displayed as a steady picture. Many oscilloscopes (storage oscilloscopes) can also capture non-repeating waveforms for a specified time, and show a steady display of the captured segment. Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal. Oscilloscopes are usually calibrated so that voltage and time can be read as well as possible by the eye. This allows the measurement of peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform, the

frequency of periodic signals, the time between pulses, the time taken for a signal to rise to full amplitude (rise time), and relative timing of several related signals.[3] Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an electrocardiogram. Some computer sound software allows the sound being listened to be displayed on the screen as by an oscilloscope. Before the advent of digital electronics oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element (hence were commonly referred to as CROs) and linear amplifiers for signal processing. More advanced storage oscilloscopes used special storage CRTs to maintain a steady display of a single brief signal. CROs were later largely superseded by digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) with thin panel displays, fast analog-to-digital converters and digital signal processors. DSOs without integrated displays (sometimes known as digitisers) are available at lower cost, and use a general-purpose digital computer to process and display waveforms.

Features and uses

Basic oscilloscope [edit] Description [edit] Display and general external appearance

The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most display sections are equipped with three basic controls, a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder button. The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section carries a Volts-per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob. The horizontal section controls the time base or sweep of the instrument. The primary control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is generally located in this section. The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an internal or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source and coupling selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level adjustment will also be included. In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X) attenuation factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe cable from the signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate.[3]

[edit] Size and portability

Most modern oscilloscopes are lightweight, portable instruments that are compact enough to be easily carried by a single person. In addition to the portable units, the market offers a number of miniature battery-powered instruments for field service applications. Laboratory grade oscilloscopes, especially older units which use vacuum tubes, are generally bench-top devices or may be mounted into dedicated carts. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be rackmounted or permanently mounted into a custom instrument housing.
[edit] Inputs

The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is usually a coaxial connector such as a BNC or UHF type. Binding posts or banana plugs may be used for lower frequencies. If the signal source has its own coaxial connector, then a simple coaxial cable is used; otherwise, a specialised cable called a "scope probe", supplied with the oscilloscope, is used. In general, for routine use, an open wire test lead for connecting to the point being observed is not satisfactory, and a probe is generally necessary. General-purpose oscilloscopes usually present an input impedance of 1 megohm in parallel with a small but known capacitance such as 20 picofarads.[4] This allows the use of standard oscilloscope probes.[5] Scopes for use with very high frequencies may have 50-ohm inputs, which must be either connected directly to a 50-ohm signal source or used with Z0 or active probes. Less-frequently-used inputs include one (or two) for triggering the sweep, horizontal deflection for X-Y mode displays, and trace brightening/darkening, sometimes called z'-axis inputs. The green line is the waveform, the red vertical partial line represents the location of the trigger, and the yellow line represents the trigger level. If the scope was simply set to trigger on every rising edge, this waveform would cause three triggers for each cycle:

Assuming the signal is fairly high frequency, your scope would probably look something like this:

Except that on the scope, each trigger would be the same channel, and so would be the same color.
Examples of use

Lissajous figures on an oscilloscope, with 90 degrees phase difference between x and y inputs.

One of the most frequent uses of scopes is troubleshooting malfunctioning electronic equipment. One of the advantages of a scope is that it can graphically show signals: where a voltmeter may show a totally unexpected voltage, a scope may reveal that the circuit is oscillating. In other cases the precise shape or timing of a pulse is important. In a piece of electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages (e.g. electronic mixers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be 'probed' for the expected signal, using the scope as a simple signal tracer. If the expected signal is absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics is not operating correctly. Since most failures occur because of a single faulty component, each measurement can prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment either work, or probably did not cause the fault. Once the faulty stage is found, further probing can usually tell a skilled technician exactly which component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can be restored to service, or at least the next fault can be isolated. This sort of troubleshooting is typical of radio and TV receivers, as well as audio amplifiers, but can apply to quite-different devices such as electronic motor drives. Another use is to check newly designed circuitry. Very often a newly designed circuit will misbehave because of design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc. Digital electronics usually operate from a clock, so a dual-trace scope which shows both the clock

signal and a test signal dependent upon the clock is useful. Storage scopes are helpful for "capturing" rare electronic events that cause defective operation.
Pictures of use

Heterodyne

AC hum on sound.

Sum of a low-frequency and a high-frequency signal.

Bad filter on sine.

Dual trace, showing different time bases on each trace.

Types and models

The following section is a brief summary of various types and models available. For a detailed discussion, refer to the other article.
[edit] Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO)

Example of an analog oscilloscope Lissajous figure, showing a harmonic relationship of 1 horizontal oscillation cycle to 3 vertical oscillation cycles.

For analog television, an analog oscilloscope can be used as a vectorscope to analyze complex signal properties, such as this display of SMPTE color bars.

The earliest and simplest type of oscilloscope consisted of a cathode ray tube, a vertical amplifier, a timebase, a horizontal amplifier and a power supply. These are now called "analog" scopes to distinguish them from the "digital" scopes that became common in the 1990s and 2000s. Analog scopes do not necessarily include a calibrated reference grid for size measurement of waves, and they may not display waves in the traditional sense of a line segment sweeping from left to right. Instead, they could be used for signal analysis by feeding a reference signal into one axis and the signal to measure into the other axis. For an oscillating reference and measurement signal, this results in a complex looping pattern referred to as a Lissajous curve. The shape of the curve can be interpreted to identify properties of the measurement signal in relation to the reference signal, and is useful across a wide range of oscillation frequencies.

[edit] Dual-beam oscilloscope

The dual-beam analog oscilloscope can display two signals simultaneously. A special dualbeam CRT generates and deflects two separate beams. Although multi-trace analog oscilloscopes can simulate a dual-beam display with chop and alternate sweeps, those features do not provide simultaneous displays. (Real time digital oscilloscopes offer the same benefits of a dual-beam oscilloscope, but they do not require a dual-beam display.)
[edit] Analog storage oscilloscope

Trace storage is an extra feature available on some analog scopes; they used direct-view storage CRTs. Storage allows the trace pattern that normally decays in a fraction of a second to remain on the screen for several minutes or longer. An electrical circuit can then be deliberately activated to store and erase the trace on the screen.
[edit] Digital oscilloscopes Main article: Digital storage oscilloscope

A Rigol DS2000 Series Oscilloscope. A modern low cost DSO.

While analog devices make use of continually varying voltages, digital devices employ binary numbers which correspond to samples of the voltage. In the case of digital oscilloscopes, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is used to change the measured voltages into digital information. The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is now the preferred type for most industrial applications, although simple analog CROs are still used by hobbyists. It replaces the unreliable storage method used in analog storage scopes with digital memory, which can store data as long as required without degradation. It also allows complex processing of the signal by high-speed digital signal processing circuits.[3] A standard DSO is limited to capturing signals with a bandwidth of less than half the sampling rate of the ADC (called the Nyquist limit). There is a variation of the DSO called the digital sampling oscilloscope that can exceed this limit for certain types of signal, such as high-speed communications signals, where the waveform consists of repeating pulses. This type of DSO deliberately samples at a much lower frequency than the Nyquist limit and then uses signal processing to reconstruct a composite view of a typical pulse. A similar technique, with analog rather than digital samples, was used before the digital era in analog sampling oscilloscopes.[16][17]

A digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO) uses color information to convey information about a signal. It may, for example, display infrequent signal data in blue to make it stand out. In a conventional analog scope, such a rare trace may not be visible.
[edit] Mixed-signal oscilloscopes File:Mixed Signal Oscilloscope (Agilent Technologies MSOX-4154A).png A Mixed Signal Oscilloscope displaying both analog and digital characteristics of inputs. (Agilent MSOX 4154A)

A mixed-signal oscilloscope (or MSO) has two kinds of inputs, a small number of analog channels (typically two or four), and a larger number of digital channels(typically sixteen). It provides the ability to accurately time-correlate analog and digital channels, thus offering a distinct advantage over a separate oscilloscope and logic analyser. Typically, digital channels may be grouped and displayed as a bus with each bus value displayed at the bottom of the display in hex or binary. On most MSOs, the trigger can be set across both analog and digital channels.
[edit] Mixed-domain oscilloscopes

A Tektronix MDO4000 Mixed Domain Oscilloscope

A mixed-domain oscilloscope (or MDO) has three kinds of inputs, a small number (typically two or four) analog channels, a larger number (typically sixteen) digital channels, and one RF channel. It provides the ability to accurately time-correlate analog, digital, and RF signals with each other, and allows the user to see how the RF spectrum changes over time. Tektronix invented the MDO, and are currently the only company to offer a mixed-domain oscilloscope.
[edit] Handheld oscilloscopes

Handheld oscilloscopes are useful for many test and field service applications. Today, a hand held oscilloscope is usually a digital sampling oscilloscope, using a liquid crystal display.
[edit] PC-based oscilloscopes

A new type of oscilloscope is emerging that consists of a specialized signal acquisition board (which can be an external USB or parallel port device, or an internal add-on PCI or ISA card). The user interface and signal processing software runs on the user's computer, rather than on an embedded computer as in the case of a conventional DSO.

Capacitor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the electronic component. For the physical phenomenon, see capacitance. For an overview of various kinds of capacitors, see types of capacitor.

Miniature low-voltage capacitors, by a cm ruler

A typical electrolytic capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage

current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.[1]

Light-emitting diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "LED" redirects here. For other uses, see LED (disambiguation).

Light-emitting diode

Red, pure green and blue LEDs of the 5mm diffused type

Type

Passive, optoelectronic

Working principle

Electroluminescence Oleg Losev (1927)[1] Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)[2] 1968[3]

Invented

First production

Electronic symbol

Pin configuration

anode and cathode

Parts of an LED. Although not directly labeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from mechanical strain or vibration.

A modern LED retrofit "bulb" with aluminium heatsink, a light diffusing dome and E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltage

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[4] LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[5] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[6] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances.

Colors and materials

Red

610 < < 760

Orange

590 < < 610

Yellow

570 < < 590

Green

500 < < 570

Blue

450 < < 500

Violet Purple

400 < < 450 multiple types

Ultraviolet < 400

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 1.63 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2.03 (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.03 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2.10 (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.10 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2.18 (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN) 1.9[59] < V < Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) 4.0 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Zinc selenide (ZnSe) 2.48 < V < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) 3.7 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate Silicon (Si) as substrate under development 2.76 < V < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) 4.0 Dual blue/red LEDs, 2.48 < V < blue with red phosphor, 3.7 or white with purple plastic Diamond (235 nm)[60] 3.1 < V < 4.4 Boron nitride (215 nm)[61][62] Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[63]

Pink White

multiple types

V ~ 3.3[65]

Broad spectrum V = 3.5

Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) down to 210 nm[64] Blue with one or two phosphor layers: yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added afterwards, or white with pink pigment or dye.[66] Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

pn junction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

A pn junction. The circuit symbol is shown: the triangle corresponds to the p side. See also: pn diode and Diode#Semiconductor diodes

A pn junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-type semiconductor created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely inhibits its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.[citation needed] pn junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two pn junctions in series, in the form npn or pnp. The discovery of the pn junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories.[1] A Schottky junction is a special case of a pn junction, where metal serves the role of the ptype semiconductor

Properties of a pn junction
The pn junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful applications in modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, pn junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage to the pn junction.

[edit] Equilibrium (zero bias)

In a "pn" junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential . After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, electrons near the pn interface tend to diffuse into the p region. As electrons diffuse, they leave positively charged ions (donors) in the n region. Likewise, holes near the pn interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region, leaving fixed ions (acceptors) with negative charge. The regions nearby the pn interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the space charge region or depletion layer (see figure A).

Figure A. A pn junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are chargeneutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium.

Figure B. A pn junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported. The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, the region is completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides of the pn interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side (the n side in figures A and B).

[edit] Forward bias

PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with increasing forward bias. With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and the electrons in the Ntype region are pushed toward the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion zone. The positive charge applied to the P-type material repels the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As electrons and holes are pushed toward the junction, the distance between them decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the pn junction, as a consequence reducing electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the pn junction into the P-type material (or holes that cross into the N-type material) will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode. Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the P-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the P-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of microns.[2] Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the P-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in

space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into the N-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed). Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the N-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the P-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required. The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a pn junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.

[edit] Reverse bias

A silicon pn junction in reverse bias. Reverse-bias usually refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is higher than that at the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks down. Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. The connections are illustrated in the following diagram: Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the P-type material are pulled away from the junction, causing the width of the depletion zone to increase. Likewise, because the N-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction. Therefore, the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with increasing reverse-bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the pn junction. The increase in resistance of the pn junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the pn junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage. This effect is used to one's advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a certain low breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance

5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode can never be more than 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode, because the diode will break down and therefore conduct if the voltage gets any higher. This in effect regulates the voltage over the diode. Another application where reverse biased diodes are used is in Varicap diodes. The width of the depletion zone of any diode changes with voltage applied. This varies the capacitance of the diode. For more information, refer to the Varicap article