Database Systems and Applications

Lecture 20-21 Indexing

Physical model in 3 level design?

Recall 3 levels of database design
Conceptual model: high level abstract description Logical model: description of a concrete realization Physical model: implementation using basic components

Analogy with vehicles

Conceptual model: mechanisms to move, turn, stop, ... Logical models:
Car: accelerator pedal, steering wheel, brake pedal, Bicycle: pedal forward to move, turn handle, pull brakes on handle

Physical models :
Car: engine, transmission, master cylinder, break lines, brake pads, Bicycle: chain from pedal to wheels, gears, wire from handle to brake pads

What is a physical data model?

What is a physical data model of a database?
Concepts to implement logical data model Using current components, e.g. computer hardware, operating systems In an efficient and fault-tolerant manner

Why learn physical data model concepts?

To be able to use DBMS facilities for performance tuning For example, If a query is running slow,
one may create an index to speed it up

For example, if loading of a large number of tuples takes for ever

one may drop indices on the table before the inserts and recreate index after inserts are done!

Concepts in a physical data model

Database concepts
Conceptual data model - entity, (multi-valued) attributes, relationship, Logical model - relations, atomic attributes, primary and foreign keys Physical model - secondary storage hardware, file structures, indices,

Examples of physical model concepts from relational DBMS

Secondary storage hardware: Disk drives File structures - sorted Auxiliary search structure search trees (hierarchical collections of one-dimensional ranges)

Storage Hierarchy in Computers

Computers have several components

Central Processing Unit (CPU) Input, output devices, e.g. mouse, keyword, monitors, printers Communication mechanisms, e.g. internal bus, network card, modem Storage Hierarchy

Types of storage Devices

Main memories - fast but content is lost when power is off Secondary storage - slower, retains content without power Tertiary storage - very slow, retains content, very large capacity

DBMS usually manage data

on secondary storage, e.g. disks Use main memory to improve performance User tertiary storage (e.g. tapes) for backup, archival etc.

Software view of Disks: Fields, Records and File

Views of secondary storage (e.g. disks)
Hardware views previous slides.

Software views - Data on disks is organized into fields, records, files

Concepts
Field presents a property or attribute of a relation or an entity

Records represent a row in a relational table Collection of fields for attributes in relational schema of the table Files are collections of records /A relation is typically stored as a file of records. Homogeneous collection of records may represent a relation Heterogeneous collections may be a union of related relations.

File organization

DBMS ARCHITECTURE
Web Forms

Application Front Ends

SQL Interface

SQL Commands DBMS

Plan Executor Operator Evaluator

Parser Optimizer

Query Evaluation Engine%

File and Access Methods Transaction Manager Buffer Manager Lock Manager Concurrency Control% Disk Space Manager Recovery Manager

Index Files Data Files

System Catalog

Data on External Storage

Disks: Can retrieve random page at fixed cost.
But reading several consecutive pages is much cheaper than reading them in random order.

Tapes: Can only read pages in sequence.

Cheaper than disks; used for archival storage.

File organization: Method of arranging a file of records on external storage.

Record id (rid) is sufficient to physically locate record. Indexes are data structures that allow us to find the record ids of records with given values in index search key fields.

Architecture: Buffer manager fetches pages from external storage to main memory buffer pool. File and index layers make calls to the buffer manager.

Alternative File Organizations

Many alternatives exist, each ideal for some situations, and not so good in others:
Heap (random order) files: Suitable when typical access is a file scan retrieving all records. Sorted Files: Best if records must be retrieved in some order, or only a `range of records is needed. Indexes: Data structures to organize records via trees or hashing.
Like sorted files, they speed up searches for a subset of records, based on values in certain (search key) fields. Updates are much faster than in sorted files.

Indexes
An index on a file speeds up selections on the search key fields for the index.
Any subset of the fields of a relation can be the search key for an index on the relation. Search key is not the same as key (minimal set of fields that uniquely identify a record in a relation).

An index contains a collection of data entries, and supports efficient retrieval of all data entries k* with a given key value k.

Alternatives for Data Entry k* in Index

Three alternatives:
Data record with key value k <k, rid of data record with search key value k> <k, list of rids of data records with search key k>

Choice of alternative for data entries is orthogonal (list of axes) to the indexing technique used to locate data entries with a given key value k.
Examples of indexing techniques: B+ trees, hashbased structures. Typically, index contains auxiliary information that directs searches to the desired data entries.

Alternatives for Data Entries (Contd.)

Alternative 1:
If this is used, index structure is a file organization for data records (instead of a Heap file or sorted file). At most one index on a given collection of data records can use Alternative 1. (Otherwise, data records are duplicated, leading to redundant storage and potential inconsistency.) If data records are very large, # of pages containing data entries is high.

Alternatives for Data Entries (Contd.)

Alternatives 2 and 3:
Data entries typically much smaller than data records. So, better than Alternative 1 with large data records, especially if search keys are small. (Portion of index structure used to direct search, which depends on size of data entries, is much smaller than with Alternative 1.) Alternative 3 more compact than Alternative 2, but leads to variable sized data entries even if search keys are of fixed length.

Example of Alternative 1
Locatio shape n 1 2 3 4 5 6 round square colour Red Red holes 2 4 8 2 4 8 6 data entries, sorted by colour

rectangle Red round square blue blue

rectangle blue

Example of Alternative 2
Location colour 1 2 3 4 5 6 Red Red Red blue blue blue

6 data entries, sorted by colour

Example of Alternative 3
Location colour s 1, 2, 3 4,5,6 Red Blue

2 data entries, variable length

Index Classification
Primary vs. secondary: If search key contains primary key, then called primary index.
Unique index: Search key contains a candidate key.

Clustered vs. unclustered: If order of data records is the same as, or `close to, order of data entries, then called clustered index.
Alternative 1 implies clustered; in practice, clustered also implies Alternative 1 (since sorted files are rare). A file can be clustered on at most one search key. Cost of retrieving data records through index varies greatly based on whether index is clustered or not!

Index Classification(cntd)
Suppose that Alternative (2) is used for data entries, and that the data records are stored in a Heap file.
To build clustered index, first sort the Heap file (with some free space on each page for future inserts). Overflow pages may be needed for inserts. (Thus, order of data recs is `close to, but not identical to, the sort order.)

Clustered vs. Unclustered Index

CLUSTERED Index entries direct search for data entries UNCLUSTERED

Data entries

Data entries

(index file) (data file)

Data Records Records

Data

Hash-Based Indexes
Good for equality selections. Index is a collection of buckets. Bucket = primary page plus zero or more overflow pages. Hashing function h: h(r) = bucket in which record r belongs. h looks at the search key fields of r. If Alternative (1) is used, the buckets contain the data records; otherwise, they contain <key, rid> or <key, rid-list> pairs.

Samu, 44,3000 h(age)= 00 age h1 h(age)= 01 Jones,40,6 003 Tracy,44,5 Sahu, 004 25,3000 Kones,33,4 003 h(age)= 10 Tincy,29,20 Sanju, 07 50,5004 John,22,60 03

3000 3000 5004 5004 h2 4003 2007 6003 6003 h(sal)= 11 h(sal)= 00 sal

Tree Indexes

Non-leaf pages

leaf pages

Leaf pages contain data entries and are chained (prev. & next). Non-leaf pages contain index entries and direct searches.

Cost Model for Our Analysis

We ignore CPU costs, for simplicity: B: The number of data pages R: Number of records per page D: (Average) time to read or write disk page

Measuring number of page I/Os ignores gains of pre-fetching a sequence of pages; thus, even I/O cost is only approximated. Average-case analysis; based on several simplistic assumptions. * Good enough to show the overall trends!

Comparing File Organizations

Heap files (random order; insert at eof) Sorted files, sorted on <age, sal> Clustered B+ tree file, Alternative (1), search key <age, sal> Heap file with unclustered B + tree index on search key < age, sal > Heap file with unclustered hash index on search key < age, sal >

Operations to Compare
Scan: Fetch all records from disk Equality search Range selection Insert a record Delete a record

Assumptions in Our Analysis

Heap Files:
Equality selection on key; exactly one match.

Sorted Files:
Files compacted after deletions.

Indexes:
Alt (2), (3): data entry size = 10% size of record Hash: No overflow buckets.
80% page occupancy => File size = 1.25 data size

Tree: 67% occupancy (this is typical).

Implies file size = 1.5 data size

(a) scan 1.Heap 2.Sorted BD BD

(b) equality 0.5BD Dlog2B

(c) range BD

(d) insert 2D

(e) delete Searc h+D

Dlog2B+# Search Searc matching +BD h+BD pages Search Searc +D h+D

3.Clustered

1.5BD

DlogF1.5 DlogF1.5 B B+#matc hing pages

4.Unclustered tree index

BD(R+ 0.15)

D(1+logF D(logF0.1 D(3+lo Searc 0.15B) 5B+#mat gF0.15 h+2D ching B) records) 2D BD 4D Searc h+2D

5.Unclustered hash index

BD(R+ 0.125)