FE/EIT Review

Computers
Instructor: Russ Tatro

References
John A. Camara, Electrical Engineering Reference Manual, 6th edition, Professional Publications, Inc, 2002. John A. Camara, Practice Problems for the Electrical and Computer Engineering PE Exam, 6th edition, Professional Publications, Inc, 2002. National Council of Examiners for Engineering & Surveying, Principles and Practice of Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sample Questions and Solutions, NCEES, 2001. National Council of Examiners for Engineering & Surveying, Fundamental of Engineering, Supplied-Reference Handbook, NCEES, 2008.

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References
Michael A. Lindeburg, PE, FE Review Manual, Rapid Preparation for the General Fundamentals of Engineering Exam, 2nd Edition, Professional Publications, 2006.

Introduction

Section IV. Computers includes: A. Terminology memory types, CPU, baud rates, Internet B. Spreadsheets addresses, interpretation, what if, copying formulas

Michael A. Lindeburg, PE, FE/EIT Sample Examinations, 2nd Edition, Professional Publications, 2006.

C. Structured programming assignment statements, loops and branches, function calls

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Computer Hardware

Computer Architecture

The computer hardware topic can be divided into the following sections: Computer architecture Microprocessors Control of computer operation Computer memory Parity Input/Output devices Random secondary storage devices Sequential secondary storage devices Real-time and batch processing Multitasking and Time-sharing Background and foreground processing Teleprocessing Distributed systems and Local-Area networks
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All digital computers contain three main components: A central processing unit - CPU Main memory External (peripheral) devices

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EIT Review

Microprocessors

Control of computer operation

A microprocessor is a CPU on a single chip. It is common to combine several CPUs onto a single die as in dualcore, quad-core, or eight-core. Other chips both external to the microprocessor and on the chip itself will be required to perform all the computer functions. CPUs consist of an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), accumulators, registers, stacks and a control unit. The ALU executes commands and manipulates data. The accumulators hold data and instructions for further manipulation in the ALU. Registers are used for temporary storage of instructions or data. Types include program counter (PC), instruction register (IR) and stacks.
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The user interface and basic operation of a computer are controlled by the operating system (OS) also know as the monitor program. The OS manages the memory, schedules processing operations, accesses to peripheral devices, communicates with the user by way of mouse, keyboard and displays, and resolves conflicting requirements for resources. A low-level term for the control of devices is basic input/output system (BIOS) usually contained in firmware on the motherboard. A hardware portion of the computer is called the interrupt signals that signals the CPU that a program, device or condition requires attention.

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Computer memory

Parity

Computer memory consists of many equally sized storage locations. Each storage location has an associated address. The total number of address can be described in several ways: bit binary digit nibble 4 bits words 8, 16, and 32 bits the number of storge locations is always a multiple of two - nx The physical hardware implementing the memory is often used to name the memory DRAM, SDRAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, FLASH, DRAM direct memory addressing by a peripheral device fast
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Parity is a technique used to ensure that the bits within a memory byte are correct. For every 8 data bits a ninth bit is added to create a frame. Even or Odd parity refers to the setting of the 9th bit such that the frame contains either an even or odd number of one bits. Checksum is a term often used to describe the process verifying data integrity.

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Input/Output devices

Random secondary storage devices

Devices that feed data into the computer for receive data from the computer are known as input/output (I/O) devices. The parallel interface has as many separate wires in the interface as there are bits (typically 7, 8 or 9) in the code representing a character. The serial interface sends data bits one at a time through a single line in the interface cable. The universal serial bus (USB) is a standard that has become very popular in computer interfaces. The flow of data is controlled by both hardware and software methods. This is known as handshaking.

Random access storage devices included magnetic and optical disk drives. They are random access because individual records can be accessed without having to read through the file sequentially. Magnetic disk drives (hard drives) are composed of thin spinning magnetic media platters. Data on the surface is organized into tracks, sectors and cylinders. Common measures of merit for a hard drive include capacity (GB), access time (average seek time, track to track seek time, and rotational delay), and areal density (how tightly packed are the magnetic bits).

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Sequential secondary storage devices

Real-time and batch processing

Magnetic tape units are sequential devices. To arrive at a specific record, the tape must be read from the beginning to that record. Since the decline of hard drive prices, there has been less use of sequential storage devices. One application for such a device is the aircraft black box. A heat resistant material continually loops in the recorder for a pre-set amount of time. Batch processing programs are grouped into efficient categories and then run without user interaction. This is the mainframe payroll model. Real-time (interactive) processing is when a program runs when it is submitted to the CPU, often with user interaction.

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Multitasking and Time-sharing

Background and foreground processing

When the hardware is quick enough, several tasks or users may use the same CPU simultaneously. In a virtual machine (VM) several users may appear to have their own computer but are running on a shared resource. Thus multitasking is when multiple tasks can be performed simultaneously. Time-sharing is when a set of resources is time divided among several users quickly. The users may not notice any delays and seem to have a dedicated computer. True multitasking must have sufficient resources (such as multiple CPU cores) so that multiple programs really do run at the same time.

A user sitting at a computer and interacting with a program is an example of fore-ground processing. All computer resources are optimized to respond quickly to the user. A non-time critical task may operate in the background without user interruption as long as sufficient computer resources exist for the foreground application to run unaffected. Most operating systems now frequently perform background tasks such as software updates, disk integrity monitoring, or widgets to aid user productivity.

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Teleprocessing

Distributed systems and local-area networks

Teleprocessing is the access of a computer from a remote station. Think internet. There are three classes of communication lines: narrow-band (used infrequently in remote sensors) voice-grade (standard phones) wide-band Cycling redundancy checking (CRC) is a method to detect errors in data transmission.

Distributed systems historically consisted of a main computer with various remote terminals. With the creation of relatively cheap microcomputers, this evolved into a configuration where many computers are linked together by some communication system. A local-area network (LAN) is a system where computers are connected both with wires and wirelessly to share files, resources such as printers and other functions. WiFi, WAN, LAN, IP, Nodes, Data encryption and such are common terms used in todays interconnected network topologies.

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Computer Software

The computer software topic can be divided into the following sections: Character coding Program design Flowcharting symbols Low-level languages High-level languages Relative computational speed Structure, Data typing, and Portability Structured Programming Spreadsheets Fields, Records, and File types File Indexing Sorting, Searching, Hashing Database structures, Hierarchical and relational data structures Artificial Intelligence (AI)
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Short 5 minute break

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Character coding

Program design

Alphanumeric data - characters that can be printed or displayed. Think of the alphabet and most symbols Control characters tab, carriage return, form feed,. ASCI American Standard Code for Information Interchange a 7 bit code which allows 128 different combinations an 8th bit is not standardized but frequently used EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code 8 bits per character which allows 256 different combinations often converted to Hexadecimal (Hex) for readability Hex is a base 16 system
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A program is a sequence of computer instructions that performs some function. The program implements an algorithm. Human readable instructions are called source code or source code statements. Compiler translates source code into machine readable code also called an executable program. Software an executable program stored on disk or tape. Firmware an executable program stored on a read only memory (ROM) or other non-removable non-volatile memory.

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Flowcharting symbols

Example - Flowcharting symbols

A flowchart is a step-by-step drawing representing a specific procedure or algorithm.

Flowchart the following procedure: If A is greater than 10 and if A is less than 14, subtract x from A. If A is less than 10 or if A is greater than 14, exist the program.
All flow charts start with a terminal and end with a terminal.

Use an input symbol to enter A

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Low-level languages

High-level languages

Low-level languages include machine language and assembly language. Machine language are instructions immediately understood by the computers CPU. Machine language is the CPUs native language. Assembly language uses mnemonic codes to specify operations. These mnemonics are more human friendly but require decoding by an assembler before the CPU can understand the instruction. Portions of other programs or function libraries are combined together by a linker. A loader places the program into the computers memory and then the CPU can run the program.
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High-level languages more closely resemble English. Thus high-level programming is easier to learn, to code and to debug. An interpreter or compiler translates the high-level program into machine language for a specific processor system.

Relative computational speed

Structure, Data typing and Portability

Certain languages are optimized to execute faster on specific CPUs. Exceptions and deviations abound! But in general: Assembly language is the fastest Then: compiled pseudo-compiled interpreted programs.

Structured language subroutines and procedures have only one entry point and one return point. Contrast with the BASIC language unlimited GOTO statements and returns from anywhere in a GOSUB subroutine. Data types typical fall into integer, and real numbers. Later in database structures there will be many more data types. Portability a higher-level language is written so that with the appropriate interpreter the program can run on different hardware platforms.

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Structured programming

Spreadsheets

Structured programming follows a top-down path. The main program is best characterized as a series of calls (references) to other subprograms by use of For/Next, Do/While, Do/Until commands (loops). Local variables are available only within a subprogram. Global variables are available to all subprograms and the main program.

Spreadsheets combine a visible layout of data with a reference library of mathematical commands. Microsoft Excel is the most widely used spreadsheet. You have undoubtedly used a spreadsheet and done some programming in Excel. Remember the row/column addressing and avoid recursive addressing.

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Fields, Records, and File types

File Indexing

An assemblage of fields is a record. for example, a persons age, name, residence and so on A group of records is a file. a collection of various peoples data The data may be stored in a sequential or random file. Sequential - the data must be read from beginning to end think of old magnetic tape. Random - the data can be read any any order think of a hard drive.

An index is a key or keyword that is similar to the index of a book. You can also think of an index as being a playlist. The physical storage of the data will usually be in some efficient storage order. The index will point to that data location for quick data retrieval.

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Sorting, Searching, Hashing

Database structures, Hierarchical and relational data structures

Sorting routines place data is some specific order such as ascending or descending numeric or alphabetical order. There are many sorting algorithms such as successive minima, quicksort, or heap sort with characteristics useful in relation to how the data is already sorted and stored. Sorts can take up to n2 operations. Searching is an operation that tries to locate a specific data record. The number of operations to find a specific record is on the order of log(n). Hashing is a technique where the record location is determined from a numeric key that was used to place the record in a specific order in the first place.
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A database is a collection of indexed files. A relational database is a database where certain business rules are implemented to relate data fields such as insurance carrier to a specific patient. In a relational system - data is divided into logical subcategories which limits redundant information. A hierarchical database contains records in an organized and structured format. A search must first find the record in accordance with the structure method. In a hierarchical database all records are self contained in that no references to other data are allowed within the record.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence infers that the program can learn from the acquisition of data. New data can be absorbed and organized in ways the lead to logical reasoning and allow for the response to inquiries. AI software has been implemented in expert medical programs and aerospace autopilots.

FE/EIT Review
Computers
Instructor: Russ Tatro

As yet, AI is implemented for a specific function and is not a human like intelligence, but can associate a large number of records into a form that results in a dialog.

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