A

t a technical level, software engineering begins with a series

of modeling tasks that lead to a complete specification of requirements and a comprehensive design representation for the software to be built. The analysis model, actually a set of models, is the first technical representation of a system. Over the years many methods have been proposed for analysis modeling. However, two now dominate. The first, structured analysis, is a classical modeling method and is described in this chapter. The other approach, objectoriented analysis, is considered in detail in Chapter 21. Other commonly used analysis methods are noted in Section 12.8.
Structured analysis is a model building activity. Applying the operational analysis principles discussed in Chapter 11, we create and partition data, functional, and behavioral models that depict the essence of what must built. Structured analysis is not a single method applied consistently by all who use it. What is it? The written word is a wonderful vehicle for communication, but it is not necessarily the best way to represent the requirements for computer software. Analysis modeling uses a combination of text and diagrammatic forms to depict requirements for data, function, and behavior in a way that is relatively easy to understand, and more important, straightforward to review for correctness, completeness, and consistency. Who does it? A software engineer (sometimes called an analyst) builds the model using requirements elicited from the customer.

12.2 THE ELEMENTS OF THE ANALYSIS MODEL

customer requires, (2) to establish a basis for the creation of a software design, and (3) to define a set of requirements that can be validated once the software is built. To accomplish these objectives, the analysis model derived during structured analysis takes the form illustrated in Figure 12.1. At the core of the model lies the data dictionarya repository that contains descriptions of all data objects consumed or produced by the software. Three different diagrams surround the the core. The entity relation diagram (ERD) depicts relationships between data objects. The ERD is the notation that is used to conduct the data

modeling activity. The attributes of each data object noted in the ERD can be described using a data object description. The data flow diagram (DFD) serves two purposes: (1) to provide an indication of

how data are transformed as they move through the system and (2) to depict the functions (and subfunctions) that transform the data flow. The DFD provides additional information that is used during the analysis of the information domain and serves as a basis for the modeling of function. A description of each function presented in the DFD is contained in a process specification (PSPEC). The state transition diagram (STD) indicates how the system behaves as a consequence of external events. To accomplish this, the STD represents the various modes of behavior (called states) of the system and the manner in which transitions are made from state to state. The STD serves as the basis for behavioral modeling. Additional information about the control aspects of the software is contained in the control specification (CSPEC). The analysis model encompasses each of the diagrams, specifications, descriptions, and the dictionary noted in Figure 12.1. A more detailed discussion of these elements of the analysis model is presented in the sections that follow.

DATA MODELING Data modeling answers a set of specific questions that are relevant to any data processing application. What are the primary data objects to be processed by the system? What is the composition of each data object and what attributes describe the object? Where do the the objects currently reside? What are the relationships between each object and other objects? What are the relationships between the objects and the processes that transform them? To answer these questions, data modeling methods make use of the entity relationship diagram. The ERD, described in detail later in this section, enables a software engineer to identify data objects and their relationships using a graphical notation.

In the context of structured analysis, the ERD defines all data that are entered, stored, transformed, and produced within an application. The entity relationship diagram focuses solely on data (and therefore satisfies the first operational analysis principles), representing a "data network" that exists for a given system. The ERD is especially useful for applications in which data and the relationships that govern data are complex. Unlike the data flow diagram (discussed in Section 12.4 and used to represent how data are transformed), data modeling considers data independent of the processing that transforms the data. Data Objects, Attributes, and Relationships The data model consists of three interrelated pieces of information: the data object, the attributes that describe the data object, and the relationships that connect data objects to one another. Data objects. A data object is a representation of almost any composite information that must be understood by software. By composite information, we mean something that has a number of different properties or attributes. Therefore, width (a single value) would not be a valid data object, but dimensions (incorporating height, width, and depth) could be defined as an object. A data object can be an external entity (e.g., anything that produces or consumes information), a thing (e.g., a report or a display), an occurrence (e.g., a telephone call) or event (e.g., an alarm), a role (e.g., salesperson), an organizational unit (e.g., accounting department), a place (e.g., a warehouse), or a structure (e.g., a file). For example,

a person or a car (Figure 12.2) can be viewed as a data object in the sense that either can be defined in terms of a set of attributes. The data object description incorporates the data object and all of its attributes. Data objects (represented in bold) are related to one another. For example, person can own car, where the relationship own connotes a specific "connection between person and car. The relationships are always defined by the context of the problem that is being analyzed. A data object encapsulates data onlythere is no reference within a data object to operations that act on the data.1 Therefore, the data object can be represented as a table as shown in Figure 12.3. The headings in the table reflect attributes of the object. In this case, a car is defined in terms of make, model, ID number, body type, color and owner. The body of the table represents specific instances of the data object. For example, a Chevy Corvette is an instance of the data object car.
Attributes. Attributes name a data object, describe its characteristics, and in some cases, make reference to another object. Attributes define the properties of a data object and take on one of three different characteristics. They can be used to (1) name an instance of the data object, (2) describe the instance, or (3) make reference to another instance in another table. In addition, one or more of the attributes must be defined as an identifier that is, the identifier attribute becomes a "key" when we want to find an instance of the data object. In some cases, values for the identifier(s) are unique, although this is not a requirement. Referring to the data object car, a reasonable identifier might be the ID number.

Relationships. Data objects are connected to one another in different ways. Relationships indicate the manner in which data objects are connected to one another.Consider two data objects, book and bookstore. These objects can be represented using the simple notation illustrated in Figure 12.4a. A connection is established between book and bookstore because the two objects are related. But what are the relationships? To determine the answer, we must understand the role of books and bookstores within the context of the software to be built. We can define a set of object/relationship pairs that define the relevant relationships. For example, A bookstore orders books. A bookstore displays books. A bookstore stocks books. A bookstore sells books. A bookstore returns books.
FUNCTIONAL MODELING AND INFORMATION FLOW

Information is transformed as it flows through a computer-based system. The system accepts input in a variety of forms; applies hardware, software, and human elements to transform it; and produces output in a variety of forms. Input may be a control

Data Flow Diagrams

As information moves through software, it is modified by a series of transformations. A data flow diagram is a graphical representation that depicts information flow and the transforms that are applied as data move from input to output. The basic form of a data flow diagram, also known as a data flow graph or a bubble chart,

BEHAVIORAL MODELING

How do I model the softwares reaction to some external event?