SCHOOL OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE Lecturenotesforthemodule:ElectricPowerEngineering ForundergraduatestudentsofElectricalandElectronicEngineering Dr.

AdnanRojeab Springsemester20121013

D.C. machines
DC machines are either generators or motors. Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and deliver a unidirectional current in the external circuit. Motors are supplied with direct current and convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Machines Structure:
The machine has two elements [parts] the Rotor and the Stator: One carries the Field winding and the other the Armature winding. Electrical connections to the rotor are via Brushes and a Commutator. In d.c. machines the rotor normally carries the armature winding and a commutator. The stator has magnetic pole pieces carrying the magnetic field winding. In Figure 1, four magnetic pole machine are shown. While it can be any even number, [usually, it is referred to the pairs of magnetic poles as: four poles are two pairs of poles]. N Magnetic poles field winding

S N

S
commutator

Figure1:Schematic diagram showing the N- S poles

Generating an induced electromotive force, emf, in a conductor:

Generating effect: it is the process of creating an induced electromotive force, emf, (voltage) at the terminals of a rotating conductor inside a magnetic field. Figure 2 shows a conductor, [an armature], is rotating inside a magnetic field of magnetic flux . The moving conductor, then, cuts or [links with] the flux lines. This link is different in amount with time as the conductor rotates [or moves]. Therefore, the conductor will be induced by the magnetic field, and then this conductor will have a

generated electromotive force, e.m.f. , [e] at the terminals of the conductor. Where, e is the potential difference, [p.d. the voltage], between the ends of the conductor. The mathematical relationship between the emf and the flux is given by: e = - d / dt where, is the magnetic flux per pole of the field [unit of is Webber - Wb]. The generated induced emf, e, is an alternating voltage, (p.d.), and the ve sign in the equation indicates to the phase difference between the flux, , and generated emf, E, [the phase difference is a phase angle of 900]

N
brush

Armature winding commutator segments

brush

magnetic flux (emf)

S

Figure 2: An armature is rotating inside a magnetic field, (induced emf across the terminals) Note: to create an induced emf in a conductor, a relative movement between the magnetic field and the conductor should be presented. So, one of the two methods can be applied: Either the conductor is rotating (or moving) inside a stationary magnetic field, or The conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is changing [alternating]. Any of these methods is the generating effect. Now, e.m.f induced in the rotor conductors can be shown as: emf, e = / time, t, . [1] where t is the time taken for conductor to move one magnetic pole pitch The time, t, taken can be related to the rotating speed, N, which is the revolution per minute [N, rev/ min], and to the number of magnetic poles in the machine. If the machine has p pairs of poles then this means it has 2p of single poles, so e.g. 3p means 3 pairs of poles = 3 x 2 = six single poles]. To represent the time taken, t, by the speed, N, and the number of pole pairs of the field, it can be shown as the following:

If we call the number of pairs of poles by p, [= 2p of single poles] and the speed of the conductor is N [revolutions per minute r / min], then in one revolution the conductor is cut [or link with] the flux of 2p poles. At speed N rpm, the conductor cut by the flux of [2p. N] poles per minute, (unit time). Then the time taken for the conductor to cut the flux from one pole is given by: [60 / 2p . N] minutes. [some times the speed is given by revolution per second, so the time taken for the conductor to rotate will be given by (1 / 2p.N).instead of (60 / 2p.N)]. Hence: the average rate that each conductor cuts [links] the magnetic flux, is determined by dividing the magnitude of the flux, [], by the time taken, [= 60 / N 2p], for each conductor. This is, also, the average emf generated in each conductor inside the magnetic field, then, equation [1] becomes: e = / (60 / [2p .N] ) = 2 pN / 60 [volts] Note: if the speed, N, of the conductor is in revolution pr second, then: e = / (60 / 60) / [2p .N] = 2 pN [volts] For the armature conductors of the machine, it is assumed that the conductors are to be distributed uniformly around the armature periphery. Then if [z] is the total number of armature conductors, and [c] is the number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes [across the armature], then: [z /c] represents the number of conductors connected in series in each path. The actual voltage produced between the ends of the armature, [or say between the brushes], depends on the number of conductors connected in series per pole pairs: number of conductors connected in series = z / c Therefore, the induced emf generated in the machine, by series connected conductors is: E = [2 Np / 60] [z /c], so, E = 2p N.z / 60 c [Volts] Example: A generator of six pole armature has 35 slots with 15 conductors per slot. The armature is rotated at 600 rev/ min, and the effective flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. Find the value of the generated emf., when the parallel paths are two. 6 single poles = 2 p, then the pole pairs are: 6 single poles / 2 = 3 [= number of pole pairs, p], rotated speed, N, is 600 rev / min = 600/ 60 rev / second = 10 rev / s. The number of total conductors = no. of slots x no. of conductor per slot: total conductors = 35 x 15 = 525 then, the generated emf, E, is:

E = 2 z Np / 60 c = 2 x [525 / 2] x [10 r / s] x 3 x 0.03 Wb. 5 rev E = 472 Volts 2.5 ld ons excitation) i d.c. machines: in Fiel connectio (Field e In th d.c. mach he hine [generator or motor], a magn netic field is used to ge s enerate alter rnating indu uced electro omotive for rce, [emf] in the arma ature conduc ctors. The magnetic fi field is appl to the m lied machine in d different way [which w be explained later]. ys, will The magnetic f flux, , of the field w winding (co oils) is supp plied by the field curre If, e ent, ses indings circuit. The resistance of th field win he nding is referred to be Rf. pass in the wi [Not in some small mach te: hines a perm manent magnets, (bar m magnets), are used to pr e roduce the m magnetic fie and to ap eld pply to the m machine]. Ther are two m re main metho to apply the excitati magneti flux, by t field winding, ods y ion ic the to th dc machin he ne: 1- S Separately excitation: it is a meth when t machine is subjecte by an ex hod the e ed xternal , mag gnetic flux, of the fie Where the magnet field is p eld. tic produced by the field cu y urrent, If, in an externa d.c. circuit, which is independen of the ma n al nt achine. The machine is, then, calle separate excited as is seen in Figure 3a. ed ely n If mag gnetic flu ux, arm mature

Vb

Rf

Vo

Figure 3 a: Separately excited me y ethod. Self hen winding is connected to the armatu winding of the o ure 2- S excitation: it is wh a field w mac chine. Then the field c current, [exc citation curr rent], If, (w which produ uces the ma agnetic flux ), is supp x plied interna to the m ally machine. The machine is then, calle self excited. e s, ed
If If If

E Vo
Rf fluxVo Rf
flux RaeVo

Rf

Flux

E Ia

E Ia

Ia

Shunt c connection

Comp Series c connection pound connection 3b: itation meth hods. Figure 3 self exci

In self excitation, the field winding is electrically connected to the armature winding by, mainly, three different ways. They are: connected in parallel [shunt], series or compound connections, as shown in Figure 3b. Important of residual magnetisation in the Field Excitation: The field windings is, usually, keeping a small amount of residual magnetism, [a small remanant flux s]. This value of residual magnetism is an amount of the magnetism retains in the poles of the field windings, which is due to the previous magnetisation operations. So, then, even when the field current, If, is zero in the field winding circuit, the magnetising circuit of the field winding still has a small amount of residual magnetism (small remanant of flux s). Therefore, when the armature of the generator is driven at a certain speed, the armature windings cut this residual flux and a small induced emf of an amount E1 will be generated in the armature conductors, while, If is zero.

DC Mac chine as a generator r

The generator is using in variety ways of field con nnections:

1) S Separately excited generator y r:

In th type of g his generator: A dc source is supplying a field curre If, where this curren is controlled by a va c ent, nt ariable resis or rheo stor ostat, R1, wh hich is placed in series with constant voltage supply, Vs. The s e mag gnetic flux is, now, gen nerated by th field curr he rent, If. and affects the generator, which d is se eparated form the suppl m lying d.c. so ource. No- load curre (open circuit cha ent aracteristic) of the gene ) erator: For the characte eristic of no load [ope - circuit], the voltage [i.e. emf], generated across oen e, , the armature te erminals wi be prese ill ented at the output ter e rminals as t open the circuit age: volta Eem = Vo , w where V0 is terminal vo oltage of the open circui it. mf that: when t armatur of the gen the re nerator is ro otated at a c constant spe N, eed, The process is t de netic field, t magnetic flux, from the current of the dc s the c m t supply, indu uces an insid the magn emf across the armature of the genera f f ator. This em can be ch mf hanged by v varying R1, in the ply f y m re supp circuit. When If, of the supply circuit, is started from zero, ther will be a small amo ount of emf in the mach hine due to the residua magnetic flux in the excitation c al circuit. Ther refore the characteristic of the ope circuit, Figure 4b, shows that at field curr c en rent, If , eq qual to zero there is a small amo o ount of emf E1, induc in the g f, ced generator, i.e. the char racteristic of Figure 4b is not startin from [0,0 but from [0, E1]. f ng 0], m R1 If
E[Eisproportionalto]

VsRf

E1 If

fluxRaEemf Vo R Vo =Eemf

Fi igure 4: Sep parately - ex xcited genera ator o rent b) Open - circuit cha aracteristic a) No load curr d, e ted As R1 is varied If may be increased in discrete steps, and the generat emf, E, in the gene erator does likewise. W When a graph of E vs If is plotted i will be as that in Figu 4b, h it ure whic known a the open- circuit sep ch as parately excited constan speed characteristic of the nt 6

erator. This figure show a curve due to mag ws gnetisation characterist for a ma tic agnetic gene mate erial. The advantage o separated excitation is that the e generate is contro of d emf ed olled by R1 ( (which cont trols the fiel current If). Then separate excite generator is under gr ld ed r reater contro than ol with self excitat h tion. O /p Voltage vs. Load cur p rrent, Ia, for constant field curren If. : nt, en rated excit generato is loaded, [On Load] at the outp terminal by a ted or , ], put ls Whe the separ resis stance RL, (F Figure, 5a), then there w be a com will mplete exter circuit. Therefore, a load rnal curr rent, IL, is flowing throu this circ ugh cuit, includi the arma ing ature windin resistanc The ng ce. term minal, [o/p], voltage, Vo, will, then, fall from it open cir , ts rcuit value. This fall is due to the voltage dro across in the armatu winding resistance Ra. The c op n ure g e, circuit diagr ram is show in Figur 5a, where in this arra wn re e angement, th armature current Ia i the same as the he e is load current IL, [Ia = IL]. d The voltage dro opped across the armatu resistanc is: Ia Ra . The termin p.d., Vo, of the ure ce nal mac chine will be less than t generate emf, E, b the amou voltage dropped, (Ia Ra ), e the ed by unt I then n: Vo = Eemf Ia Ra
Ia= L =I R1If Vo V

V Eemf Vo IaRa

Rf

fluxRL

RaEemf Vo=Eemf aRa I

Ia = IL

igure 5 Fi Circuit diagra of loade generator am ed r b) o/ character /p ristic of the l loaded gene erator a) C e ropped is gr reater than Ia Ra, as ther is an iron loss]. re [In practice, the voltage dr en d s n b, Whe the load RL is varied then Vo is changed as is shown in Figure 5b where the graph of V verses IL is known as the output c s characteristi of the gen ic nerator. Exam mple: A generator ma achine has a generated induced em E, of 24 V, is con d mf, 45 nnected to a load stance, RL, o 40 , wh the curr of here rent, Ia, pass in the ma ses achines cir rcuit is 6 A. resis

culate the ar rmature resi istance, Ra, a the term and minal voltag Vo. ge Calc 0 The terminal p.d is: Vo = Ia RL = 6A x 40 = 240 V plying gener rator equatio Erns = Vo + Ia Ra , th on: hen, App Ra = [Eemf Vo] / Ia = [24 V 240 V / 6 A = 5 V / 6 A = 0 45 V] 0.833

f d or: Self - excited generato

In th type of g his generator: The field curren If, [or ref nt, ferred to be as: excitati current], is supplied internally to the e ion d gene erator, by th armature windings o the machi The field windings are connec he of ine. s cted to the armature, a the field magnets a energise from the generator output itsel The and d are ed e lf. hod where the g generators own emf su upplies the field windin is ngs, meth of self excited, w the m more convenient to sup pply than tha of the sep at parate excita ation. re nly, ethods of th self -excit connecti he ted ion: Ther are, main three me 1) S Shunt wou Generator: is when the field w und n windings ar connected in paralle with re el the a armature ou utput. 2) S Series wou Genera und ator: when t field wi the indings are connected i series wi the in ith arma ature windin or with the output. ngs 3) C Compound wound Generator: as t there will be a mixture of shunt an series win nd ndings in th same circ to comb the advantage of ea connect he cuit bine ach tion. unt d Shu wound Generator: allel with the armature w e windings, as in Figure 6 s 6a. The field winding is connected in para
IfIL V F FB Rf flux D Shun ntresistance e E1 IL GOCAIf

Ia emfVoRL E

Figu 6 ure a) Circuit diagram aracteristic o V vs If of b) Cha his of on, n r te there will be some e In th system o connectio it is again as that for the separat excited, t resid dual flux in the poles of field cir n rcuit [a resi idual magne etism to sta the opera art ation].

Therefore, there is initially a small emf generated, E1, due to the residual magnetism in the field winding. This can be shown in the characteristic of V vs If., of Figure 6b. Also, the process of self excitation will be taken place provided that the winding field resistance, Rf, is reasonably small. For no- load [open - circuit], shunt - wound generator: When the shunt - generator system is connected and the rotor is being rotated at a certain speed, N, so initially there is an emf of small value E1 generated in the armature conductors (because of the residual magnetism of the field winding). Now E1 causes a small current to circulate through the field winding circuit of the shunt connection. Also, this small current, in turn, will cause an increase in the amount of the magnetic flux of the field winding, and the increase in the magnetic flux will increase the emf generated across the armature conductors. Now, when the field resistance, Rf, is high enough to reduce the small field current, If, then the increase of generated emf in the armature windings will only be a very small amount, and in consequent the generator is failed to self- excite. From the V verses If characteristic of Figure 6b: A particular value of shunt field resistance, Rf, can be represented by straight line graph OB, [as it is represented by the voltage across the field coils from different field current If], so OB meets the magnetising curve, (which starts from E1), at point B. Then the open circuit emf of the generator will be built up to approach this induced value at B (this is the intercept point of the magnetising curve and the field resistance line). Note: this point is at the knee of the magnetising curve. Then the characteristic shows that AB represents the open circuit generated emf. For [on load] shunt - wound generator: From the characteristic of Figure 6b, the terminal voltage, now, of (on - load), is representing by CD, and the generated emf is represented by CF on the characteristic of Figure 6b. The difference is DF which represents the voltage dropped across the armature resistance, Ra , which is must be equal to Ia Ra. Then: armature current, Ia = DF / Ra Then, for the shunt wound generator system: True load current = armature current shunt current True load current, say = OG; and then, [DF /Ra ] OC = OG then: Ia = If + IL So, for [on load] circuit, the terminal p.d of the shunt wound generator will fall by: Ia Ra, and, also, the field current, If, will be less than its value at no- load.

normal operation the loa current, IL, is kept w below its maximum value to a ad well m avoid a At n large variation o the terminal voltage. of . e Shun wound generator is the most w nt s widely used type of DC generator. C ved Solv Example: A sh hunt genera has an a ator armature re esistance, Ra, of 0.3 and a field resistance, Rf, of 150 . Find the value of th generated emf, E, if the machin supplies a load of RL with e he f ne 10 A at a termin p.d., V, of 200 V ? nal Ia If IL = 10 A

Ra

Rf

V= 200 V

RL

enerator equ uation: E = V + Ia Ra We have the ge n e current, Ia: Then to find the armature c Ia = If + I L

and E is to b found be

d 50 , [Vf = the term V minal p.d., Vo] Field current, If, = Vf / Rf = 200 V / 15 = 1.5 A then Ia = 1.5 A + 10 A = 11.5 A n, then the generat emf , E = 200 V + 1 n ted 11.5 A x 0.3 = 200 V + 3.45 V = 203.45 V 3 Seri Wound, (ON - Lo ies oad) Gener rator: Note For no- lo e: oad, (open c circuit), seri - wound ies d: Both the load current, IL and field c h current, If, a zero. Th there is no new fi are hen s field is exci ited in wind ding of Rf. So, the mac chine is onl working due to the previous re ly esidual mag gnetic flux in the poles, of the field winding re n d esistance, Rf .The resid dual magneti flux ic will generate a small emf E1 in the armature w f,, e windings, ( stated before), whe the (as ere ration may b not conti be inuous. oper For [ON - Loa ad], series -wound for of a ma rm achine, the field coil [winding], of the resis stance Rf, is connected in series w the arma s with ature windin and the l ng load RL, as s shown in F Figure 7a. Th the resi istor of the resistance Rf carries th full load current, IL, when he hen the m machine is a operation at n. Then for loade generator the curren of the fie the arma n, ed r, nts eld, ature and the load are e equal:

10

If = Ia = IL
IfIL V Eenf Rf V Ia(Ra+Rf) terminalvoltage,Vo V E1 oIL I

E RL Ia

Figure 7 Circuit of Ser woun generator ries nd r a) C b) The char racteristic of series wou f und g terminals of the genera f ator): When the field cu n urrent, For on load, (connecting RL at the t ncreases the flux will in e ncrease and then the ge d enerated em is increas mf sing as well as the If, in term minal p.d, V, increases. , The loaded equ uation of seri wound g ies generator is: : E = Vo + Ia (Ra + Rf) , where, Vo = IL RL m racteristic o Figure 7 it can b shown t of 7b, be that the dif fference be etween From the char gene erated emf, E and the te erminal volt tage, V, is th voltage d he drops: Ia (Ra + Rf). Also it shows t while th load curr o, that he rent, IL, incr reases the te erminal volt tage is incre easing. Whi over hig values o IL. [whic is the sa ile, gh of ch ame as of If], the effec of the winding ct mag gnetic poles goes into saturation, so, then, th here will be no increas in Vo wh IL e se hen eases, This result is illu incre ustrated in Figure 7b, w which show a bend at the end cu ws t urve of Vo. This means that, after the bend,Vo is not going to be a suitable c s r V constant wi the ith ying of curre IL. Ther ent, refore, serie wound ge es enerator is o ordered to be not a suita to able vary use, when the v voltage is w wanted to be maintained approxim e mately a con nstant over a wide rang of a load current. ge So s series wound generator is little use in practice. d Com mpound - W Wound Gen nerator: In th type of c his connection: The generator h both fiel windings of shunt an series, w has ld s nd wound - on t the same poles. to refore, the compound generator h field ma has agnet poles excited par by high shunt rtly h Ther resis stance of th winding, Rf, and pa he , artly by low series res w sistance of the winding Rse. g, Then this gener n rator combin the char nes racteristics o both the s of shunt and se eries generat tors.

11

his compound) winding is to give a su ubstantially constant ter rminal The target of th mixed (c age espective of the load cu f urrent, IL, b being drawn i.e the ter n, rminal volta for age volta Vo, irre (full load) sho l ould be the s same as that for (no load). t Prac ctically, it is designed in a way th the mag s hat gnetic field effect of th series winding, he Rse, to be weak compared to that of shunt field Also, in this design the series field k d f d. n, s ding may be connected so as to ei e d ither strengt then (help) the shunt fi ield, or to w weaken wind (opp pose) it. Strengthening the shunt field is ref ferred to a Cumula as: ative compo ounding, an the nd akening the s shunt field i referred to as: Differe is o ential comp pounding. wea So t then, combin ning the shu and series character unt ristics is to g give either a practically level y char racteristic or a very slow rising o r wly one.

Rse e IL V overco ompounded 100%levelco ompounded E

RfRL

Vo IaIf I

underc compound differnt tial

IL

12

Figure 8 a) The circuit of Compound wound generator. wound. Cumulative compounding: In this method the rising characteristic of the series field is used to compensate for the gradually falling characteristic of the shunt connection. This is depending upon the relative strength of series field, where the machine may be either practically level characteristic - level compounded- or very slowly rising - slightly over compounded. This is shown in the characteristic of Figure 8b. Level compounded may be used for applications where excellent voltage regulation is required [that is when: terminal voltage for full - load and for no - load are the same]. If the output of electrical power is transmitted at some considerable distance, then the machine could be over compound. If the compensation of the series field is insufficient to maintain the terminal voltage the machine is said to be under compounded. Differential compounding: In this method, the connection of the series field winding would be reversed than the above mentioned connection. So that, the current flowing through the series winding will produce a magnetic flux in direction to oppose the shunt field flux. Then, the total machine magnetic flux is the difference between the two fields. The result is sharply falling voltage characteristic, as is shown in the characteristic of Figure 8b. Now, from the compound - wound circuit: Load current, IL, is flowing through the series field resistance Rse, and then the voltage across this resistance is Vf. , therefore, Vf = Vo + Vse, where Vf is the voltage across the shunt field resistance, Rf, and, Vf = If . Rf where If is the shunt field current. b) The characteristic of Compound

The generated emf, E is: Eemf = Vf + Ia Ra , [Eemf > Vf , for generator] where Ia and Ra are the current and the resistance of the armature of the generator respectively.

13

ved ms: Solv Problem wound d.c. g generator has an armat ture resistan nce, Ra, of 0.6 Ohm an the nd 1) A shunt w resis stance of th shunt win he nding, Rf, o 50 Ohms The gene of s. erator produ uces a full load outp power, P0, of 0.85 kW at a lo resistan put oad nce, RL, of 2 Ohms. D 20 Determine: a) the term minal voltag V0 , b) th magnitud of the ar ge, he de rmature curr rent, Ia, and c) the gen d nerated e.m. of the gen .f. nerator, Eem . mf
IaIL

E EIf Vo

RRy yy

R RRR
Ra Rf Po=0.85kW

The circuit diagram t The power, P0, d delivered on the load res sistance is: a) T output p P0 = (IL )2 RL = (V0)2 / RL , then, Load voltage, VL is: d 2 V0 = [ P0 RL ]1/2 = [850W x 20 ]1/2 = 130 V b) Vf = V0 = 130 V + IL Ia = If = Vf / Rf + VL / RL = 13 V / 50 + 130V / 2 30 20 Ia = 2.6 A + 6. A = 9.1 A .5 c) Eemf = V0 + I a Ra = 130 V + 9.1 A x 0.6 = 135.46 V f 2) A generator system of s short shun compoun has arma nt nd ature resistan Ra, of 0.3 , nce, shun field resis nt stance, Rf, o 50 and series field resistance Rse, of 0.5 . If the l of d d e, 5 load is supp plied by the output pow P0, of 6 kW at a t e wer, terminal vol ltage, V0, o 200 V, fin the of nd gene erated emf. solu ution: e d voltage, Vf, [across Rf,] is the ] The difference between the generated emf, E, and the field v age d, oss ature resista ance: volta dropped Ia Ra, acro the arma Gen nerator equat tion is: Eemf = Vf + Ia Ra f Then we should find Ia and Vf n d d

14

w, Now The power supp plied, P0 = 6 kW = IL V0 6000 W / 20 V = 30 A 00 IL = P0 / V0 = 6

RIaIf Rsa RRy yy

Vo IL

Rf

Po=6kW

The T circuit d diagram e d voltage, Vf, [across Rf,] is the ] The difference between the generated emf, E, and the field v age d, oss ature resista ance: volta dropped Ia Ra, acro the arma Gen nerator equat tion is: Eemf = Vf + Ia Ra f Then we should find Ia and Vf n d d Now w, The power supp plied, P0 = 6 kW = IL V0 IL = P0 / V0 = 6 6000 W / 20 V = 30 A 00 tage droppe across ser field res ed ries sistance, Rse is: Volt e Vse = IL Rse [as IL is passin through Rse] ng .5 Vse = 30 A x 0. = 15 V Vf = V0 + Vse = 200 V + 15 V = 215 V 5 If = Vf / Rf = 2 V / 50 = 4.3 A 215 n, 4.3 then Ia = If + IL = 30 A + 4.3 A = 34 A Eemf = Vf + Ia Ra = 215 V + [43.3 A x 0.3 ] = 2 V + 12.9 V = 227.9 V 215 99 f

15

D.C. Moto or
motor is a machine d delivers a m mechanical power outp when i is suppli by put it ied A m electrical power input. r The armature of the mot is rotat tor ting and pr roducing an output m n mechanical e energy que] when t motor is given a cer the rtain termina polarity ( al (voltage sup pply), where a d.c. e [torq curr is passin through t armatur winding, a it is app rent ng the re and plied by an e external ma agnetic field Figure 9 a shows a g d. a, general diagram of the p principle of d.c. motor. f A ge enerator ma achine gives the same voltage (generated emf when me s f) echanically driven in its input. Ia If mag gnetic Suppl voltage ly flu ux, Ra Rf Eemf Vs

gram of a D.C. Motor Figure 9a : A diag action of the motor is th when a current carrying con e hat: nductor is si ituated The principle a de nal ic s ults insid an extern magneti field, the conductor experiences a force, F, which resu in he the c conductor m moving. This action is th resultant of interacti between two indepe t ion n endent mag gnetic fields: the e external ma agnetic field and the ma agnetic field of the curre of the co d ent onductor. The force, F, tends to mo the cond ove ductor (as t that of the armature of the motor in a r) direc ction perpen ndicular to the plan wh hich contain the lengt of the con ns th nductor itse and elf direc ction of the external m e magnetic fie Then, a eld. according to the force action, ther is a o re torq on the co que onductor [th armature] he ]. n ring Effect i is: Then the Motor Whe a conduc is acted by the inte en ctor d eraction of t two indepen ndent magne fields, a force etic is ex xerted on t conduct and a to the tor orque [or tu urning mom ment] is pro oduced, cau the use arma ature loop to rotate. o field c current, If mature curren Ia nt, arm d.c. Supp ply
Com mmutator

d.c. citation exc Ia A Armature w winding

If

brush b

segm ments
Brush B

b: otor ation. Figure 9 b A d.c. mo in opera 16

Therefore, to operate the motoring effect, two independent magnetic fields should be created. These two magnetic fields are: the field from the excitation current, If , and the field from the current, Ia, passing through the armature winding. For d.c. motor excitation, the methods of field connection are as that of the generator: They are: separately excited, shunt wound, series- wound and compound - wound. This is the supply of the first magnetic field, as is to the external magnetic field Therefore, for the operation of a motor there must be another magnetic field to be existed. This could be from the current which is passing through the winding of its armature. The motor is applied by a d.c. supply voltage, Vs, Figure 9, and a current is passing through the armature windings. Then, there will be a conductor (armature) movement causes by these two fields, [a movement by the resultant of the force action]. Now, while the armature electromotive force, emf, the generating effect). It opposition to the applied motor action. of the motor is rotating inside the external magnetic field, an E, is induced, (generated), in the armature winding, (which is is according with Lenzs law, that this generated emf is in voltage, Vs, and therefore, it is called the Back emf. of the

The resultant opposition of the back emf and the applied voltage is a current, Ia, passing through the armature winding of resistance Ra. Then, by Kirchhoffs voltage law: Vs = E + Ia Ra motor equation (for motoring action), [Vs > Eemf , for motor] and the current, Ia is: Ia = [Vs E ] / Ra This means that the applied voltage, Vs, to the motor terminals, must be greater than the back emf, E, which then force a current into the motor. Vs motor > Eemf V0 generator < Eemf The value of the back emf, E, (in motor action), is the same as that of induced generated action when the armature of the generator is driven inside a magnetic field at the same speed of motoring action, so, then, the back emf, E, of the motor is expressed as: E = 2 z Np / 60 c. [this equation is true for generator and motor]

17

The Motor Speed:

Thegeneratedemfis: E = 2 z Np / 60 c. or E=kN , for a particular machine, where: [z p / 60 c] is constant then,Vs=E+IaRa=kN + Ia Ra and then, N = [VS Ia Ra] / k

for [no load] method, (Ia = zero), and then, N = VS / k .. (1) Butequation(1):isapproximatelytrueformost[onload]conditionmotors,as: I a Ra < 5 % of VS, which is nearly zero. Accordingly, equation (1) can be applied for [on- load] motors, with little error. Solved Examples: 1) A dc motor is at speed of 850 rev / min when running from a 450 V voltage supply and taking an armature current of 25 A, where the armature resistance is 0.8 . Calculate the motor speed when running from a 220 V supply and taking an armature current of 12 A. In general the speed, N, is a direct proportional to the back emf, E, of the armature, (and N, also, is inversely proportional to to the magnetic flux, ) Now, from motor equation: Eb, emf = VS Ia R a E1 = 450 V (25 A x o.8 ) = 430 V , which is the back emf generated at speed, N1, of 850 rev / min E2 = 220 V (12 A x 0.8 ) = 220V 9.6V = 210.4 V, Which is the back emf generated at speed of N2 As the back emf, (E), is directly proportional to the speed, N, then: N1 / N2 = E1 / E2 [when there is no change in ] then, 850 r/m / N2 = 430 V / 210 V, N2 = 0.6116 N1 = 0.6116 x 850 r/m = 520 rev / min

2) A d.c. motor operates from 16 V supply. The armature resistance is 0.4 and the speed of the motor is 800 rpm. Find:

18

a) the current for just starting situation, and b) calculate the no- load speed if the supply voltage is increasing to be 24 V. a) for the starting situation, the back emf of the motor is zero, then, from motor equation: Vs = E + Ia Ra = zero + Ia Ra and the starting current is: Ia = Vs / Ra = 16 V / 0.4 = 40 A , [as E = zero] b) By applying the proportionality between the supply voltage and the speed, then increasing the supply voltage from 16 V to 24 V means the second speed, N2, will be: N2 = 800 rpm x (24 V / 16 V) = 1200 rev / min.

The Torque of the motor

The torque, T, is related to the motor power, where the armature of the motor can rotate. Each conductor on the armature of a motor is situated at a radius (r) from the centre of the shaft of the armature. The torque [or turning moment] is produced by each conductor of the armature, and the torque of each conductor is: torque = force x radius = F .r (N m) and, F = I. L. B, where, I is the current in the conductors of the armature (armature current, Ia), L is the active length of the conductor (the armature) in the magnetic field, and B is the magnetic flux density (unit is tesla,). which is per unit area of the magnetic flux, , produced by each pole, [B = / A, and A is area of the pole piece]. The armature of the motor contains (n) number of conductors and each conductor contributes its own torque. Then the total torque is: Ttotal = n . (/ A). Ia L For a given machine, n, a and L are constants, k, therefore: Tt = k Ia (2)

The unit of the torque is given by Newton. meter, [N.m], which is the same unit of Joules (of energy: force by distance), but to distinguish the torque from the energy, it is given the unit N.m. [Note: from equation (2), it is shown that the torque, Tt, is the result of the interaction of two independent magnetic fields: the field of the flux, , and the field of the current Ia]. Now, it is important to include the torque in the motor equation, so, then, starting with the d.of the terminal voltage, as: V = E + Ia Ra (3)

19

As the power is concerned by the current drawn to the system, where the current drawn is the armature current, Ia, so then: Multiply each term of the motor voltage equation (3) by Ia, therefore the power equation (relationship) becomes: where: the term, [V. Ia], represented by P, which is the power supplied from the d.c. source and delivered to the armature of the motor, (i.e. the input power), the term, [EIa ], represents the delivered mechanical power, Pm, (output power)- which is developed by the armature (part of this output power is lost in friction etc.). The difference between these two powers is pointed to the copper loss, in the form of (Ia2 Ra ), which is caused by the armature winding. Note: As stated above that the power developed by the armature is not all going to be delivered to the load, but some losses as that: due to the friction [which is in the bearings and the brushes], copper losses [in the field winding], and hysteresis and eddy current losses. Which are all lower the utility from the output power. Now, If T is the torque [in N. m] on the armature, and N is the speed [in rpm], and by neglecting the frictional losses etc. so then, Mechanical power, Pm, developed by the armature = [2 N/ 60] .T [in Watts],
Pm = [2 N] / 60] T [4] , where N is the speed of the armature.

V. Ia = E Ia + Ia2 Ra

Then, E Ia = [2 N / 60] T or or [2 z Np / 60 c] .Ia = [2 N / 60] T , [as: E = 2 z Np / 60 c, the induced emf] T = (1/ ) Ia . p (z /c) [Nm]

For a given machine, p, z and c are constants, then, the torque is proportional to both the magnetic flux and the armature current, where: T Ia and then: T = k1 Ia where k1 = z p / c Usually the Torque, T, equation is shown related to the mechanical power and angular velocity, , of the rotating: is the rotating at radian per second, and then the speed, N, in rev per min will be: N rev per min = [N / 60] rev per sec. = [2 N / 60] rad per sec = in rad per sec, so equation (4) can be written as: Pm = T and, then, T = Pm / 20

ed r: Spee of shunt - wound excited motor Mo otorequatio on:Eb,emf=VsIaRa andforE = k N N = [Vs - Ia Ra ] / k (1) then ..
]

If

IS Ia Eemf Ra ) agram: a) Circuit dia Shunt excit motor ted d.c. supply Vs

N constant N

Rf

deviation o N of at hig Ia gh Ia b) Characte eristic of the speed of th d.c. moto e he or.

igure 10: Th circuit di he iagram and speed chara acteristic of the d.c. shu excited m unt motor. Fi m uit e rrent drawn from d.c. v voltage From the shunt motor circu of Figure 10 a, IS is the line cur supp and it is equal: IS = Ia + If ply, s and, so, as : VS = If Rf [w , where the f field windin is connec ng cting across the fixed s s supply volta VS], then If is a fix current v age, xed value, therefore, oportional to IS, o [Ia IS] .. (2 2) Ia is pro w, of y d voltage drop [Ia Ra] is small ps, s Now as usual, the value o Ra, is very small, and then the v com mpared with VS, [usua Ia Ra is l than 5% of VS]. ally less % then the speed o equation (1) is appro n of oximately: N = VS / k (3) ) So, w when Vs is changed, th N and Ia change, [w hen which are fr rom (2) and (3)], for co d onstant flux x. tic peed, N vs a armature cur rrent, Ia, is s shown in Fig gure 10b. The characterist of the sp he ristic, the sp peed N is wi a slight d ith deviation for high Ia. r In th character que t otor: Torq of shunt excited mo The torque of th motor is given by: T = k Ia he for nt d que so, f the shun operation and at fixed , the torq is then: T Ia T oss Gro T Nett T Ia 21 armature rea a action

Ia depends on speed by the relationship: Ia = [VS E] / Ra = [VS - N k ] / Ra Then, T = k1 . (VS - k N ) / Ra With constant VS and , the torque, T, is inversely proportional to the speed, N. The torque - speed characteristic

N
Increasing V If is constant T Series Excited Motor:

N
VS is constant, and 3 > 2 > 1 1 2 3 T

the Speed: N = [VS Ia Ra] / k and, then, N = VS / k [for a small voltage dropped of Ia Ra comparing to VS] also, we have: Ia then N 1/ Ia The torque: T = k1 Ia Then: T Ia2 as: Ia InpracticethefieldcoilssaturatethemagneticcircuitatsomevalueofIaand becomesconstantabovethisvalue. Hence above saturation T Ia N = V / k = V / k Ia then: Ia = V / k N N, T torque, T, curve T Ia Speed, N, curve Ia T Ia2 = V2 / (constant . N) 2 22 T N [ is direct proportional to Ia]

T Ia2

Then: N = V / [T]1/2 Note: the speed, N, is dangerously high on light load, so series motors must never be run uncoupled from a load. Compounds Excited Motor: These have series and shunt field windings. The characteristics are a compromise between the series and shunt characteristics.

Motors Speed Control:

It is shown that the speed, N, of the d.c. motor is nearly proportional to the applied voltage, Vs, and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux, : N [V / ] Accordingly, the speed can be controlled either by varying the applied voltage or the flux. It is, also, that: armature current, Ia, is proportional to applied voltage, V, and the field current, If, is proportional to the magnetic flux. Therefore, varying these two currents, [i.e. Ia and If], can obtain a speed control of the d.c motor. This can be achieved by using a suitable resistances to be wound on in different methods of field connections of the motor, for self excited fields processes. For example, reducing the field current, If, in shunt wound (or separately excited) motor results in speed may be increased from its minimum value that occurs at maximum flux. This process is, usually, called field weakening. D.C. Motors are mainly used where their easy speed control is an advantage. There are many practical ways (methods) are used for speed control. These methods are applied by adding a resistance to the armature and / or to the field circuit in order to modify the armature current, Ia, and the magnetic flux, : The methods are: The Field Regulator method: It is a suitable method to use only with shunt and compound machine. Figure 11 shows the circuit of shunt connection motor using the field regulator method. A variable resistor, R, is connected in series with the shunt field winding, Rf, of a motor. The variable resistance, R, allows variation of the field current. Now, when the variable resistance, R, is increased, the field current, If, decreases, and then reducing the magnetic flux, which then shows an increase for the speed: N = V / k1 = V / k2 If , [N is inversely proportional to the If ]

23

 Vs S Shunt Connec ction Figure 11: the circuit o shunt con of nnection mo applyin the field r otor ng regulator me ethod. en g ble nce the is Whe applying the variab resistan R, the speed of t motor i possible to be incre eased to fac of three to four tim the spee when the field curre excitatio is at ctor e mes ed e ent on max ximum. Tha is if the sp at peed is N1 a the maxim at mum field c current excitation, If, th by hen redu ucing If bel low the ma aximum exc citation, the speed of th motor is increasing to N2 he s whic is many t ch times greate than N1. er Dive erter speed c control meth thod: his resistor Rd, k known as diverter, is used and con nnected in p parallel In th method, a variable r with the seriesw h wound moto field win or nding, Rse , a is shown in Figure 12. as Series field winding, Rse d Ia Vs Dive erter,RE Figure 12: T circuit f the const F The for truction of d diverter speed control m method. As t current passes thro the ough the va ariable resis stor Rd is i inversely pr roportional to the valu of its resistance, then changing Rd results in currents in ue n n nversely pro oportional to those o pass sing through RSe [as the two resista h e ances are in parallel]. n Ther refore, for l low speeds, N, we incre ease Rd, wh here its curre will redu ent uced and th the hen curr rent, ISe , of RSe is incr f reasing. Hen reducing the speed and vice v nce g d, versa for the high spee [N 1 / ISe]. It is avoided tha the const eds, at truction of Rd should n be show zero not ws If R E Rf

24

ue, s whole curren is passing through ze Rd and th field is sh nt g ero he horted valu as in this case the w out [no current is in the fiel resistance RSe]. ld e arately excit control method: ted Sepa In th applicat his tion the sep parately exc citation construction m method is us to contr the sed rol spee of the mo ed otor. The separated exciting ci ircuit of th motor is employed a variable resistance Rex, he s d e e, nected in se eries with t field resistance Rf. The constr the ruction of t applicat the tion is conn show in Figure 13. wn e Whe Rex vari it leave the excite field cur en ies, es ed rrent, If vari as well, but in inv ied versely prop portional to Rex. If magn netic flu ux, Rf Ra Eemf Vs Ia

Supp voltage ply

Rex

Exciting circuit ure n xcited method to contro the speed. ol Figu 13: The construction of using separately ex Now as Rex is decreased If increases and then th magnetic flux is inc w, he c creased, hen the nce back emf, E, of the armatur winding i increased This in tur allows th speed, N, of the k f re is d. rn he moto to be inc or creased, as w have: (N E). Whe we increase Rex, thi action will lead we N en is in in ndirect way to decrease the. This is a simple method of controlling the speed and usually applied i many dom s e d, in mestic appl liances. The controllin method c be used to achieve a variety of motors speed e ng can d e whe the variab resistanc Rex is co en ble ce onstructed w a switc with ching applie to variou field ed us wind dings, wher a long ran of resistance values c be obtai re ng can ined. Supp voltage control met ply thod: To c control the s supply volta is often applied by using pow electroni devices su as age n y wer ic uch thyr risotor, triac and diac. The contro is efficien by using these devi c ol nt g ices. This s sort of cont will be d trol discussed w when the pow electron devices subject wil be studied wer nics s ll d.

25

Starting operation of a d. c. Motor:

It is important to save the .d. c. motor form excessive [over load] current at starting operation of the motor, from its stationary situation. At the instant of switching on the motor from its stationary situation, the back emf of the armature is equal to zero. Then the current, Ia, drawn from the supply voltage Vs, is going to be equal to: Ia = Vs / Ra [according to Vs = Eb,emf + Ia Ra , and Eb,emf = zero], where Ra is the armature resistance, which is usually reasonably a very small resistance, fraction of one Ohm. This result will cause the current, Ia, to be sufficiently high (several or ten times than that current usually rated in operation motor). This will cause a damage to the motor form the sudden increase in the current, Ia. which will rise the heating in the winding to dangerous manner. For an example: when a motor with a supply voltage of about 100 V has a very low armature resistance of 0.4 (electrical hand-tools have a fairly low power rating and have a fairly high armature circuit resistance). Accordingly, when the d.c. supply is switched on, the current drawn by the armature under starting conditions is equal to 100 V / 0.4 = 250 A, which is very high current, and, so, causes sever damage to the armature winding by excessive heating due to the power loss [Ia2 Ra] dissipated in the armature circuit winding. Also, the sparking between the brushes and the commutator at the point of contact. Therefore, the starting current should be limited to a safe value. This problem will be overcome as son as the armature is going to rotate, and, then, the back emf is generated. The simplest method employed of reducing the starting current is achieved by connecting extra resistance R in series with the armature windings, [where R can be reduced to zero, when the speed builds up and the back emf of the armature starts to increase]. The method of connecting extra resistance, R, is that of comprise several resistors system connected in series with the armature, and as a system is connected between the supply and the shunt motor. The method to calculate the R is: for example, if the supply voltage is 100 V and the starting current must be limited to 25 A, the value of the total resistance is: Rt = Vs / Ia = 100 V / 25 A = 4 , and if the armature resistance is 0.4 , then the start resistance R, is: R = 4 0.4 = 3.6 . This value of the resistance, 3.6 , can be chosen from the series resistor system before stating the operation of the motor.

26

Problems Sheet D.C. Machines 1) When applying to use a DC machine, briefly explain the cause of residual magnetisation in the field excitation, and show its important effect in operation of d.c. machine. 2) A d.c. generator of 6 poles has 480 conductors and two parallel paths. Calculate the generating emf when the generator is driven at speed of 600 rpm and the useful flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. 3) What does the concept of generating effect mean, and show an example. 4) A shunt generator is supplying a load for a power of 8 kW at 200 V, and the resistances of armature and field coils are 0.05 and 80 respectively. Calculate the field current and the generated emf. 5) Explain briefly the concept of motoring effect. 6) A system of d.c. shunt motor applied by 400 V supply and deliver an armature current of 20 A, the resistance of the armature is 0.5 . The motor develops a torque of 40 Nm at speed of 800 rpm. Calculate the motor speed and torque when the motor is running from 250 V supply and deliver an armature current of 15A, and when the flux at 250 V supply is 0.9 Wb, of that at 400 V. 7) It is not save to start switching on a d.c. motor from its stationary situation unless a protection is made. Discuss this statement, showing a method applied before starting motor, and mention an example. Solved problems on d.c. machines: 1) A d.c. generator of 6 poles has 480 conductors and two parallel paths. Calculate the generating emf when the generator is driven at speed of 600 rpm and the useful flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. The generating emf, E, of the generator is given by: Eemf = 2 z Np / 60 c = 3 pairs of poles] [6 single poles is 2p, and p, the pole pairs of the poles, p = 6 / 2

Then: E = 2 x (480 / 2) x 600 x 3 x 0.03 / 60 = 432 V 2) A shunt generator is supplying a load for a power of 8 kW at 200 V, and the resistances of armature and field coils are 0.05 and 80 respectively. Calculate the field current and the generated emf.

27

The current in the load, IL = the power supplies on the load / voltage across the load IL = 8 000 W / 200 V = 40 A The field voltage, Vf, is equal to terminal voltage of 200 V, Field current, If = Vf / Rf = 200 V / 80 = 2.5 A Now: Armature current, Ia, = IL + If = 40 A + 2.5 A = 42 .5 A The voltage drops in the armature winding resistance = Ia Ra = 42.5 A x 0.05 = 2.125 V Hence, the generated emf, E = terminal voltage + volts drop in the armature resistance. E = 200 V + 2.125 V = 202.125 V 3) a) Briefly explain the initial process of emf working for self excited d.c. generator system when the winding current is zero. Before the operation is started, when the field current is zero, the field windings is, already, having a small amount of residual magnetisation [remanat flux] which is the amount of magnetisation retains in the poles of the field windings due to previous magnetisation operations. This magnetisation [flux] will act on the rotating armature winding to induce a small generated emf. b) A d.c. supply of 180 V excite a series wound d.c. motor by a current of 100A where the motor running at speed of 1000 rev/ min. The armature resistance and series winding resistance are 0.11 and 0.04 respectively. The armature circuit, then, connected to an additional series resistance where the speed is reduced to 800 rev/ min with a torque is being 85% of its former value. Find the value of the additional resistance. First case, before the additional resistance: The total armature circuit resistance, R = Ra + Rf = 0.11 + 0.04 = 0.15 So, the voltage drops across this resistance ,R, when drawn 100A is: Ia1 R = 100 A x 0.15 = 15 V. This value implies that the back emf is: Eemf = Vs Ia1 R = 180 V 15 V = 165 V We have E is proportional to the flux and speed, [E N], and as the flux is proportional to the armature current, [ Ia], then, E = k N Ia and k = E / N Ia = 165 V / (900 r / min x 100 A) = 1.833 x 10-3 V /A / rpm k = 1.833 x 10-3 V /A / rpm Also, we have the mechanical power: E Ia = [2 N / 60] . T1 T1 = 60 E Ia / 2 N T1 = 60 x 165 V x 100 A / [2 x 900] = 175.16 Nm, [this is at speed of 900 rpm] , then:

28

But, the required torque is 85% of the formal value, then the new torque T2 is: T2 = 0.85 x 175.16 Nm = 148.88 Nm So, there will be a new mechanical power to produce this torque, this power becomes: Pm = [2 N] T = 2 x 800 / 60 x 148.88 = 12.466 kW and accordingly, there will be a different armature current, Ia2 , generated emf for this new power and torque: we have: Pm = E Ia = k N Ia2, then: Ia2 = [Pm / kN]1/2 = [12466.0 W / (1.833 x 10-3 x 800)]1/2 = 92.3 A so, the back emf, Eb = Pm / Ia = 12466 W / 92.3 A = 135 V This means that the voltage dropped, Ia Rt, on the armature circuit is: Ia2 Rt = V E = 180 V 135 V = 45 V Now, the total series resistance, Rt, (including the additional one) can be found: Rt = 45 Volts / Ia2 = 45 V / 92.3 A = 0.4875 As we have before R = Ra + Rf = 0.15 , then the additional resistance, Rd, which must be placed is: Rd = Rt R = 0.4875 0.15 = 0.3357 4 a) It is important not to start drive the d.c. motor without a starter resistance. Briefly, discuss this matter, and mention a mathematical example. At the beginning of the operation the back emf of the armature of the motor is aero. This means that the current drawn from the supply is: Vs / Ra , which is usually very large as Ra is usually very small, and then the power loss is great. Then to reduce this large current, at the start of the operation, is very important, and that by adding a series resistance. Some details is in the notes p. 24 b) A d.c. motor is applied by 400 V voltage supply and deliver an armature current of 20 A, the resistance of the armature is 0.5 . The motor develops a torque of 40 Nm at speed of 800 rpm. Calculate the motor speed and torque when the motor is running from 250 V supply and deliver an armature current of 15A, and when the flux at 250 V supply is 0.9 of that at 400 V. Now: From the proportional relationship between back emf, E, speed, N, and flux, , we can make some ratios to find the results: We have that the speed is directly proportional to the back emf and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux: NE/ so then, N1 = k E1 / 1 and N2 = k E2 / 2

29

by dividing, we have: N2 / N1 = E2 1 / E1 2 .. (1) now, 2 = 0.9 1 and to find E1 and E2 , we can use the motor equation: E = Vs - Ia Ra E1 = 400 V [20 A x 0.5 ] = 400 V 10V = 390 V E2 = 250 V [15 A x 0.5 ] = 250 V 7.5 V = 242.5 V By using equation (1): N2 / 800 rpm = 242.5 V x 1 / 390 V x (0.90 1) = 0.622 Then, N2 = 0.622 N1 = 0.622 x 800 rpm = 497.6 rev / min , which is the speed when the voltage supply is 250V. For the torque, T, using the relationship: T is proportional to the magnetic flux and the armature current: T Ia T2 / T1 = 2 . Ia2 / 1 . Ia1 = 0.9 1 x 15A / 1 x 20 A = 0.675 so: T2 = 0.675 T1 and T2 = 0.675 x 40 Nm = 27 Nm , which is the torque when the supply is 250 V 5) a) explain briefly how generated emf in the armatures conductors of a d.c generator depends on both the number of pairs of poles of magnetizing winding and the rotating speed of the conductors. The poles are acting by their flux on the conductors to create a generated emf in the conductors. So as the pairs increasing the action o generated emf increases. Also, the generated induced emf will be increased as long as the poles flux will be cut rapidly in time, i.e. for amount of time of running which is the speed. So, as the speed increases the induced emf is increasing. This is, as well, can be seen from the relationship between the generated emf and both the number of pair pole and the speed: Eemf = 2 z Np / 60 c b) A system of shunt generator produces a full- load output of 5 kW at a terminal voltage of 200 V. The resistances of the armature and the field circuit are 0.3 and 100 respectively. When the machine is running as a motor on no- load, it was found that the iron and friction losses are 600 W. Calculate: a) the power required at the driving shaft to provide the full- load output, b) the input torque at full load if the driving speed is 1000 rev/ mi, and c) the full load efficiency. Solution: To find the power driving the shaft, the mechanical power, [from motoring effect], we should find the generated emf, E and armature current, Ia,

30

load current and field current: t To find Ia we should find l a) 00 IL = P0 / V = 5 x 103 W / 20 V = 25 A Ia If Ra E 200 V Rf P0 = 5 kW IL Vo

Now w: To f find the pow driving the shaft, the mechan wer g nical power, [from mot toring effec we ct], shou find the generated e uld emf, E and a armature cur rrent, Ia, To find Ia we should find l load current and field current: t a) 00 IL = P0 / V = 5 x 103 W / 20 V = 25 A 200 If = V / Rf = 2 V / 100 = 2 A then n, Ia = IL + If = 2 + 2A = 27 A 25A

to fi the gene ind erated emf, E form the generator equation: E, E = V + Ia R a E = 200 V + [27 A x 0.3 = 200 V + 8.1 V = 20 7 ] 08.1 V now generated power is: Eemf Ia = 208.1 V x 27 A = 5618.7 W w, and the input po ower, Pi, is: Pi = E Ia + Iron loss power = E Ia + PF r Fe tion] frict Pi = 5618.7 W + 600 W = 6218.7 W b) : For the torque, T, we have: T = Pi / , ere angular velo ocity of rota ation. = 2 N rad /s , whe is the a = 2 x 3.14.26 x 1000 / 60 (rad /s) = 104.66 rad / s 6 0 So, T = 6218.7 / 104.66 = 59.42 Nm 7 m Ia . Eemf on losses [iro and torque

31

c) efficiency = output pow / input p wer power x 100 % 0 the e effic ciency = P0 / Pi x 100 % = 5000 / 621 18.7 x 100 % = 80.4 % Plot the cha aracteristic Voltage vs Load cur s rrent, of co ompound wound in a d.c. 6) P gene erator, and b briefly expla the char ain racteristic. It is the Figure 8b in the no ote Discus the p practical wa [method] to control the speed of a d.c. m ay ] l motor. Then show n 7) D meth hods to be used for c controlling t speed, and explain the proce of one of the the n ess meth hods. The practical w is to con way nnect a resis stance to the armature a / or to t field circuit in e and the er ying the arm mature curren and the m nt magnetic flux. orde to modify The methods ar to use: re Field Regulator controller and diverte speed con d r, er ntroller. Mor details are in Pages o the subjec re e of ct. 8) A shunt moto runs at 50 rpm on a 200 V d.c. supply whi taking an armature c or 00 ile n current [in a addition to a field curre of 30 A the effective resistan of the a ent] A. nce armature cir rcuit is 0.5. . a) Find the valu of resisto that must be placed i series wit the armature to redu the ue or t in th uce ed armature cu urrent remaining consta ant. spee to 300 rpm with the a b) I the load is changed but the resistor of par (a) remain in place and the arm If rt ns mature curr is 15 A, what is the new motor speed? rent , e r Ra Rf R Eemf Vs= 200 V

e ltage equati to find the generat emf, E1, at speed o 500 ion ted of We can use the motor vol m. ional relatio between the generat emf and the speed t find on ted d to rpm Then use the proporti the generated e emf, E2, at speed of 3 300rpm. Th to find the value of the additional hen resis stance, by ap pplying the voltage equ uation again for the val of E2. n, lue Mot voltage e tor equation: Vs = E1 + Ia Ra (1) [o we can us the speed relation: N = ([s Ia Ra ) / k or se d

32

where k are constants. Apply N for 500 rpm and for 300 rpm to find the additional resistance. now, from (1) at speed N = 500 rpm: 200 V = E1 + (30 A x 0.5 ), then E1 = 200 V 15 V = 185 V When the speed, N, is reduced to 300 rpm, this means that the generated emf, is reduced as well to be E2 while the supply voltage and the flux are not changed, then: applying the proportionality between N and E: E1 /E2 = N1 / N2 185 V / E2 = 500 rpm / 300 rpm = 1.666, then E2 = 111 V at speed of 300 rpm. The speed is reduced to 300 rpm and the induced E2 becomes 111V is because of adding a series resistance, R, with the armature. The new resistance is now: [ Ra + R] , then, again, apply the voltage equation of the motor: Vs = E2 + Ia (Ra + R) 200 V = 111 V + 30 A (0.5 + R) Then, 0.5 + R = (200V 111V) / 30 A = 89 V / 30 A = 2.966 Hence: R = 2.966 0.5 = 2.466 When the armature current is changed, the induced emf is changed to be E3, which is: E3 = Vs Ia2 (Ra + R) = 200 V 15A (2.966 ) = 200 V 45 V E3 = 155.0 V which will be at speed of N3. The speed and generated emf proportional relationship, will yield: E3 / E1 =N3 / N1 155 V / 185 V = N3 / 500 rpm = 0.8378 Then, N = 0.8378 x 500 rpm = 418.9 rpm 9) An 8 - pole d.c. generator has 576 conductors and two parallel paths. The generator is driven at 500 rpm and has a useful flux per pole of 0.09 Wb. Calculate the generated emf. P = number of pair poles = number of single poles / 2 = 8 single poles / 2 = 4 pairs of poles, Z = number of conductors per pole pair = 576 / 4, and c = the number of parallel paths = 2 Eemf = 2 z Np / 60 c = 2 x (576 / 4) x 500 x 4 x 0.09 / [60 x 2] then, Eemf = 432 V

33

xcited d.c. g generator is 200 .Wh the hen 10) A resistance of a field circuit of a shunt ex put enerator is 1 kW, the terminal vo 100 e oltage is 500 V and the generated emf is e outp of the ge 525 V. When th output is 60 kW and the termina voltage is 520 V calculate: he al a) T armature resistance. The e . b) T value of generated e The f emf.. Usin generator voltage eq ng r quation: Eemf = Vo + Ia Ra f Ra Ia If IL V0 Rf = 20 00 P1 = 100 kW P2 = 60 k kW

Eemf

Ia = If + IL Now w: Ra = [Eemf Vo ] / Ia and b using Vo as the shun field volta of the ou by nt age utput voltag ge. a) T fine the a To armature cur rrent, Ia, we should calculate both the load, IL, and the field, If, e curr rents: then, IL = P0 / V0 , t IL1 = P1 / V01 = 100 kW / 5 V = 200 A 500 0 Vf1 = V01 = 500 V , so, the 0 en 500 0 If1 = Vf1 / Rf = 5 V / 200 = 2.5 A nce, Hen Ia1 = IL1 + If1 = 200 a + 2.5 A = 202.5 A Ra = [E1 Vf1] / Ia1 = [525 V 500 V] / 202.5 A = 0.123 5 b) T find the v To value of the generated e emf, E2, at o/ of 60 kW /p W: IL2 = P2 / V02 = 60 kW / 52 V = 115.4 A 20 Vf2 = V02 = 520 V , 0 If2 = Vf2 / Rf = 5 V / 200 = 2.6 A 520 0 w, 4 Now Ia2 = IL2 + If2 = 115.4 A + 2.6 A = 118 A Thu E2 = Vf2 + Ia2 . Ra = 5 V + [11 A x 0.123 ] = 520 V + 14.5 V us, 520 18 3 E2 = 534. V. .5

34

11) Explain briefly the concept of motoring effect. Motoring effect: We can start to say: a motor is a machine which delivers a mechanical power output, when it supplied by electrical power input. When a conductor is acted by the interaction of two independent magnetic fields, a force is exerted on the conductor and a torque [or turning moment] is produced, and then causes the armature loop to rotate.

35

Single phase A.C. motor

A Motor is a machine delivers a mechanical power output (rotating rotor) when it is supplied by electrical power input. Motor effect: When a conductor, [as the loop circuit of an armature]. is acted by the interaction of two independent magnetic fields, a force is exerted on the conductor and, then, a torque [or turning moment] is produced, which, may, cause the armature loop to rotate. The effect can be illustrated when a current carrying conductor is applied by a magnetic flux of an external magnetic field. So, now, there are two independent fields; the field of conductor current and the applied field. Accordingly, attempt to rotate the motor (rotor) we should create two, or more, of different fields, [i.e. different field sources different phases], to act on the rotor. Effect of a Single - phase motor: When applying a single phase voltage supply to a stator of one coil motor, [as: a single turn winding], so, then an alternating current flows in the stator winding and will set up a pulsating magnetic field in the system of the motor, which is not a rotating magnetic field. The pulsating of the field of the coil, which is associated with current in the coils, is following the alternating pattern of the current. So the outcome of the pulsating field occurs as that: the field is going to build up its strength in one direction when the current is increasing at the positive half of the cycle, and then decay to zero. Then, for the negative half of the cycle the field builds up its strength but with opposite polarity, (to that of positive half), and then to decay again. This means that the field is pulsing in and out, of the coil, and will not rotate past the coil. Now, the effect of this pulsating field causes the rotor of the motor to vibrate which is entirely not a rotational effort, and, in fact, the starting torque is zero. Important of two sets of coils in the single - phase induction motor: Following the pulsating field effect of single phase motor, it can be said that: If, however, by some means, the rotor is set in motion, then the rotor conductors will link the stator magnetic field (flux). So, then, induced emfs is generated in the conductor windings of the rotor and in turn, the rotor is induced current which will flow in its conductor windings.

36

This induced current will produce a rotor flux, R, which is in normal direction, [i.e. vertical magnetic field, HR], to that of the stator flux, S, and, thereby, because the rotor conductors are inductive, the rotor flux will be lag 900 behind the stator flux. Hence, this means that in the resultant we have a set of two magnetic fields which are physically displaced by 900 as if they were produced by a two separated sets of coils, [for their 900 displacement they are as a two phase system]. It can be seen that the conditions are almost perfectly correct to produce a rotating magnetic field which will set up and exerts a torque on the rotor. This condition is virtually a two phase system and once started, the rotor will continue to rotate and so to have speed of almost synchronous speed. Therefore, single phase A.C. Motors operation should depend on providing to produce a second phase to start its single phase action. This, [as it is mentioned], is because the action of the single phase motor when operating is only producing a pulsating magnetic field, and then a vibrating rotor with zero torque. Some characteristics of the machine for, A.C. Commutator motor This is almost identical to the series d.c. motor Series motors are often manufactured as universal for a.c. or d.c. use Applying an alternating magnetic field will reverse both the armature and field currents simultaneously, and then this process: Gives torque in a constant direction but varying in magnitude. Available from very small sizes to 750 W and speeds from 200 to 12000 rev/min. Used for vacuum cleaners, power drills, food mixers etc. Small devices operating at high speeds. We apply the single phase Motors for: a) single phase induction motors and b) single phase synchronous motors: They are, generally a small motors, where they used in low power applications. Their usage, e.g. for office machinery, turntable drive motors for record players, electric clocks.

Single phase induction motors:

Single phase induction motor is usually has: a distributed stator winding [produces a rotating magnetic field when excited] and, a cage rotor with a rotor contains a cylindrical cage of conductors in laminated iron. The cage rotor is induced current (by the effect of the magnetic field of the stator). Consider that the stator winding forms a two pole system, (motors often have more than two poles). When the stator winding is excited by a supply, a magnetic field, [and then a

37

magnetic flux density], B, is produced by the poles of the stator. The magnetic field Bat an angle is giving by: B =k i sin Where i is the instantaneous current through the coil of the stator, and k is a constant. B B Magnetic pole Figure 1: shows a stator forming two pole, and the producing of a magnetic field. If the current, i, through the coil is sinusoidal with r.m.s. current I, then, B = k 21/2 I sin t sin Is a stationary sinusoidal flux with alternating amplitude The equation can be written as: B = [k 21/2 . I / 2 ] [cos ( t ) - cos ( t + )] this can be interpreted as two separate magnetic fluxes of maximum value of [21/2 k I ]. The position of the maximum flux will vary with time, as max flux occurs when: Cos ( t - ) = 1, for one flux B1, and where cos (t + ) = 1, for the other flux B2 i.e. the position of B1 is [1 = t] and position of B2 is [2 = t] Hence they are two magnetic fluxes rotating in opposite directions at synchronous speed. The value of: cos (t ) term is the forward rotating field (rotating in the positive direction at speed ). The value of: cos (t + ) term is the backward rotating field (rotating in the negative direction at speed ). Hence both rotate at synchronous speed Ns rev/min. Now, suppose the rotor is rotating in the positive direction at a speed Nr rev/min, then: The speed of the rotor relative to the rotating magnetic field is called slip, therefore: The slip, s, is: s = synchronous speed rotor speed = Ns - Nr , and, Per unit slip, S = [ Ns - Nr ] / Ns with respect to the forward rotating field. [where we can find that, Nr = Ns (1 -s) ] The percentage slip S is: S x 100 Example: 38

An induction motor runs on full load at 3 % slip for synchronous speed of 1200 rev per min, determine the speed of the rotor. Percentage slip = [Ns Nr ] / Ns 3% = [1200 rev per min Nr ] / 1200 rev per min 3 /100 = [1200 rpm Nr ] / 1200 rpm then, Nr = 1200 rpm [(3 / 100) x 1200 rpm] = 1200 [3 x 12] = 1164 rev per min Now, to find the slip with respect to the backward rotating field, the slip, s is: Slip, s = [ - Ns - Nr] / [- Ns ] , and as: Nr = Ns (1 -s)] then: s = (Ns / Ns) (1 + 1 - s) = 2 s There will thus be two currents induced in the rotor: a) one current of frequency s due to the forward rotating field and producing torque in the positive direction, and b) another current of frequency (2s). due to the backward rotating field and producing torque in the negative direction. Resultant torque is the difference between the two currents [as two different magnetic fields are produced]. As another attempt of viewing the single- phase induction motor, is that to determine the magnetic field which is the resultant of the two equal counter rotation fields, as it produces identical, but opposing, torque speed curve, as is shown in the next paragraph [Torque vs Slip]. The torque produced will be cancelled when the speed is zero.

Torque vs slip
The torque, T, verses slip, s, is shown in Figure 2: Torque resulting torque 0 10 slip (s) Figure 2: the characteristic of Torque vs Slip The curve of T vs s is the resultant of torques produced by two equal counter rotation fields (which is cancelled at zero speed motor, where the slip = 1 or 100 %). 39

At slip = 1 Then, S = [Ns - Nr ]/ Ns , 1 = [Ns - Nr ]/ Ns then: Nr = Ns - Ns = zero At Slip = zero zero = [Ns - Nr ]/ Ns , then Nr = Ns

i.e. stationary [standstill] motor

When the motor is at state of standstill (S = 1, when the speed, Nr is zero), then there is no net resultant torque. Therefore, a single-phase induction motor will not start by itself when it has only one winding.

Starting single phase induction motors:

To develop a torque in a single phase induction motor, it is necessary to produce a rotating magnetic field. Therefore, it is important to create two windings with 900 physically displaced in space and approximately 900 out of phase. Where, the single phase supply, of one coil, can only produce a pulsating magnetic field, and then a vibrating torque. So, then, to produce a rotating magnetic field, it should employ a system using a voltage supply with more than one phase. This is to say, employing at least two different winding of coils [e.g. in the stator of the motor]. Each of the two sets of coil windings should be exited by different current, and then there will be a phase difference between the two currents. Therefore, to overcome the pulsating magnetic field and to produce a rotating field, it is important to produce a second phase from the single phase supply in order to start single phase motor. There are some ways for this purpose, which is said to be: Starting Single- Phase Induction Motor. Accordingly: Starting requires a stator should have a second winding which is 90 displaced in space from the first [main] winding and carrying a current approximately 90 out of phase with the current through the main winding. These two currents will produce two fluxes 900 out of phase between them. [Note: the process is usually is that: instead of using two voltage supplies to produce the two different magnetic fields, we can have only one single phase voltage supply with two windings which are 900 physically separated apart, which will produce the two magnetic fields]. This starts the motor as to be a two phase machine. There are several ways of methods to achieving the starting single phase motor, and they are:

40

 Split-phase Capacitor s start motor Capacitor m le Shaded pol motor eluctance sta art - Re

otors: Split - phase mo As t purpose for this ach the hievement, th aim of th method o split pha is to ma the the he of ase ake stato with two windings instead of only the m or o f main one [w which is, a a two phase as mac chine]. The stator field rotates wh there is a set of alternate po d hen oles excited by a d curr which is out of pha with the main stator field. rent s ase r The starting tor rque can be p provided by making the stator field rotates. y d The main wind ding, [the m main phase], is the runn ning windin It is conn ng. nected direc to ctly hase supply Another winding ad y. dded to the stator is a high resi e istance the single - ph rting windin which is connected t the suppl and to the running w ng to ly e winding, as s shown Star in Figure 3. ings, now, are the ru unning wind ding (the m main windin and the start ng) e The two windi ding which has a highe resistance and hence there is a ph er e hase angle ( (phase diffe erence) wind betw ween these t two windin They ar mounted physically at 900 to ea other an the ngs. re ach nd phas displacem betwee their two currents is sufficient. se ment en Ther refore, in ac ction, we wi have the same effect as a two phase supp connecte to a ill t ply ed two phase stat winding tor g. Rotor

rifugal Centr switc ch a a.c. supply

ing g Runni winding (the m windin ) main ng

ase) (Single pha High resis stance ting winding (the addin winding) g ng Start gure 3: split phase meth for start t hod ting single phase indu uction moto or. Fig

41

he uced will be a rotating one, and the machine i selfe e is Accordingly, th magnetic field produ ting. While, also, some torque is g , e given, becau of this s use sufficient ph hase displac cement start of th two curre he ents. This to orque will le the motor to start in c et correct direc ction. Onc the machi will reac its operating speed t about 75 % of synch ce ine ch to hronous spee the ed, force of the cen ntrifugal sw witch, [which is mounte on the ro shaft], causes the s h ed otor switch cont tact to open, where t start wi the inding will be discon nnected, as it is in a series conn nection with the centrif h fugal switch Then the m h. machine wil continue t operate only on ll to its m windin the runni winding main ng, ing g. on With the start w h winding to b disconnected, at the motor start, a preventio to the po be ossible rapid overhea could be c dly at caused by th small diam he meter of the start windi conduct e ing tors. The machine ha usually an efficiency of about 60 % , power factor of 0.7 lagging a as n y 0 r and ting current of 6 times the full lo current. oad start Capacitor start m motor: With this arran h ngement, th start wind he ding is con nnected in s series with a capacitor [start r capa acitor], as sh hown in Fig gure 4. Start cap pacitor Rotor

C Centrifugal switch single phase a supply a.c. ning Runn wind ding

High resista H ance Starting win S nding apacitor star motor me rt ethod for sta arting single phase ind e duction mot tor. Figure 4: ca then, will h have the effe of causin the 900 p ect ng phase differ rence betwe the een The capacitor, t f winging and the running winding ( g (main windi on the s ing stator). two currents of the start w s hat ent h acitor and st winding leads tart g This is, since th the curre through the circuit of the capa the v voltage acro the capa oss acitor by 900. It is obtain as the adding [seco ned ond] phase. 90o VC IC

42

, h ning windin is connected directly to the ng The first phase, [the usual one], which is the runn gle supply. The running w e winding is h highly induc ctive becaus it is wou on se und sing - phase s iron n. Ther refore this method is, again, like the method of the spl phase, w d lit where the ro otating field is produce in the m d ed motor. Then the system of the mot is operat tor ting as if a two phas supply co se onnected to a stator win nding). The results of th method are: his Star rting current is about 3.5 times the full- load cu t 5 urrent. Star rting torque is up to 3 ti imes the full load torq l que. The efficiency o the mach is high. of hine or: Capacitor moto In ca apacitor mo the arran otor ngement is by adding a running ca apacitor. Also it is arra o, anged to us an auxil se liary windin and to b placed i series w ng be in with an electrolytic capacitor [start capacitor], as shown in Figure 5. t n Runn ning windin ng

Star capacitor rt

Rotor S Single phase e a supply a.c. ntrifugal Cen sw witch

Runni capacito ing or

A Auxiliary wi inding capacitor mo method for starting single ph otor d g hase inducti motor. ion Figure 5: c the y s d with t and pacitor As t auxiliary winding is connected in series w the start capacitor a this cap is w current leads the v with voltage across it by 900, then it is possible to obtain 900 phase disp placement b between the currents o the auxili of iary windin and the running winding, ng whe a result is to produce a rotating field. ere e he ifference be etween the two curren (of the capacitor m nts, motor metho od), is If th phase di grea than tha for the (sp phase motor meth ater at plit hod), then th capacitor motor met he r thod is also have a grea starting torque than the split phase moto method. ater g n or 43

In this capacitor motor method of arrangement the auxiliary winding is left in the circuit, so the machine runs as a two phase motor (while in capacitor start method, the auxiliary start winding is disconnected by the centrifugal switch). Also, the run capacitor is including in the system, for starting. Capacitor motor have tended to replace resistance split phase motor. The characteristics of the capacitor motor method, are: Smoother running but the auxiliary winding must be continuously rated. Starting capacitor too high for normal running so part of the capacitor is switched out when the motor is up to speed. Efficiency is 80 85% and p.f. around 0.8 at full load. Shaded pole motor: The shaded pole, single phase motor is formed from a cage rotor and a two pole core [laminated]. Part of each pole, of the core, carries a single shaded ring of solid copper round. Figure 6 shows the way of arrangement. The main coil (the single phase stator coil), is fed from an alternating supply, where the act of the current of the coil creates an in phase alternating magnetic flux, Core, in the core of two poles. So the changing (alternating) flux of the core poles will link with the shading rings causing an induced emf in each ring. The induced emfs in the rings, in turn, induce currents in the {shading} rings coils, and these currents, in turn, producing magnetic fluxes at the shaded pole faces. Cage rotor core Poles of the core single - phase Stator coil to a.c. supply core shaded rings Figure 6: Shaded pole motor for starting single phase induction motor. Therefore, generally, there are two fluxes link with the rotor, and as their maximum values are not occur simultaneously, but they have no ideal conditions of 900 physical displacement in space or 900 phase displacement. The result is a rotating component of the field and some torque is produced where the rotor will run at near synchronous speed. The characteristics of shaded - pole motor method are: solid copper Shading coil

44

The motor has low torque, and a very low efficiency of 5% to 35%. Very cheap (the cheapest way of building an electric motor). Starting torque < 1.5 times full load torque. Can produce some speed change by varying the supply voltage. Reluctance start induction motor: Figure 7 shows a 4 pole motor. The leading tip of each pole is cut away to increase the air gap.

rotor pole

Stator Figure 7: Reluctance start induction motor This results in distortion of the magnetic flux which enables the motor to start in a similar way to the shaded - pole motor method. The distortion of the flux path makes running speed poor. The characteristics of reluctance start motor method are: Starting torque < 50% of full load torque. High slip. Similar cost to shaded pole motor method. Lower efficiency than the shaded pole motor way arrangement.

Single phase synchronous motor:

It is for the rotor of motor to run at synchronous speed, which means that, it has to be its running speed is exactly as that speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator.

45

Small motors are used where a constant speed is important e.g. Clocks, timers, record turntables. Either hysteresis or reluctance motors. The reluctance motor has a permanent magnet rotor, but in practice its magnetic polarity is produced by electromagnet. This is when the rotor is excited by a d.c. power supply, and then it is equivalent to permanent magnet. The stator winding is supplied by an a.c. supply, where a rotating magnetic field is produced by the current of the winding (coil). The rotor is placed inside the rotating magnetic field of the stator, as is shown in Figure 8. Then the operation of synchronous speed of the rotor is applied as: The north pole of the rotor is attracted towards the south pole of the rotating field of the stator, and the south pole of the rotor is attracted with the north pole of the field. This will provide a pull between the rotor and rotating field.

Rotating magnetic flux

N

n the rotor
S

the stator

s Stator winding a.c. supply

Figure 8: representation of single phase synchronous motor. While this operation is continued for the half cycle of a.c. supply, the polarity direction of the rotating field is reversed [as the current in stator winding is reversed], so the rotor is repelled by a pole of the stator field and attracted by other pole. The result is that the rotor rotates at the same speed of the stator field, which is at the supply frequency. Characteristics of the single phase synchronous motor: May not self-start if stopped half way between pole pieces. The hysteresis motor version relies on using a high hysteresis material for the rotor and the poles are induced on the rotor by the stator. This is often used as a clock motor with shaded poles for starting. Hysteresis motors are often used for record deck drives and they were used for capstan drives for tape systems. 46

Problems Sheet : Single phase Motors Solve the problems: [try to solve and check with the subjects notes ]. 1- Explain briefly: a) the aim of using motor machine, b) the motoring effect. 2- For single phase induction motor: a) Comment on the stator magnetic field produced, and b) why the starting torque is zero. 3 - Briefly explain what procedure is to be applied on a single phase induction motor to develop the torque for the rotational effort. 4) A rotor of induction motor runs on full load at speed of 485 rev per min where the percentage slip is 2.5%. calculate the synchronous speed of the stator field. ans: S = [NS Nr / NS 0.025 = [NS 485 rpm] / NS NS = 485 / 0.975 = 497.4 rpm 5- For single phase machines compare between the induction motor and the synchronous motor form: a) construction and b) operation 6- The concept: starting single - phase induction motor concerns with the developing the operation of the machine. Mention the methods [ways] to achieve this development, and briefly explain two of them. 7- Plot the Torque vs Slip characteristic for single phase induction motor. Comment on the characteristic. Answers to the theoretical problems can be found in the notes. Answer to problem 4: 4) S = [Ns - Nr] / Ns , 2.5 / 100 = [Ns 485 rev per min] / Ns , Ns = 485 / 0.975 = 497.4 rev per min

47

Th hree pha ase po ower

Intro oduction: lectrical pow A.C ma wer, achines can be operated by applyin a single n d ng phase syste em In el [but after develo t opment]. W Where in prac ctice, it is fo ound that sin phase system ngle e emp ployed in ele ectrical mac chines is not satisfactory as that wh applied this system to t y, hen d m indu uction motor where th rotating m rs, he magnetic field is import tant. uction motor employs s r single phase is not self starting m machine, and accordingly it d Indu need an auxilia winding which it m ds ary g, means that a reasonably great additional power y r requ uired to perf form the ope eration of th machine. he As w as, it is found that employing three phas system w improve the rotating well se will e g mag gnetic field, and, also, it is more eco t onomical. It is saving a considerab amount i t ble in copp when tra per ansmit elect power c tric comparing to the single - phase or t - phase o two syste ems, at the same voltag ge. ee ied er otors and ot ther heavy loads. Thre phase system is, also, appli to powe large mo Ther refore, Prac ctically, all c commercial power is ge enerated by three pha alternato ase ors. Whi most dom ile mestic load [at house and shops customers use singl phase p ds es s] le power, beca ause of the l lower cost o distributio of on. App plying three phase pow system: wer : of tric generation, t transmission and distrib n bution. It is a method o A.C. elect power g his , g s endent wind dings, [thre single phase ee In th system, it is using three sets of indepe wind dings], whe they are internally c ere connected. I effect the are three identical si In ey ingle phas alternator (generato containe in one ma se rs ors) ed achine. Thre phase sy ee ystem is hav ving three similar loops [of windin conducto coils] whi are s ng or ich sym mmetrical and physically spaced by an angle of 1200 from each other i the mach y f in hine. phase R R Y B

The winding ph hases are 0 120 apart from each other, m de ic and rotate insid a magneti d.. field

1200 N 1200

p phase B B Y R

phase Y Figure 1: An arran e ngement of three phas system in a machine. f se n

48

s e (phase angle between the three s (loops) of the e), sets This will give a difference in phase ( wind dings by 12 0. The arr 20 rangement o displaced phases are as shown schematica in of d n ally Figu 1. ure Whe a magnet field is a en tic applied on t three p the phase system the emf [voltage] in m, nduced in ea winding [as a phase is known as: the phase voltage. ach g e] h minating in a pair of slip rings too carried on the shaft (of the arma p ol n ature). Each loop term Then in operati n, ion, the thre phase loo are prod ee ops ducing emfs spaced 1200 apart. 0 The generated i induced emf Es, of th three ph fs, he hase loops c be illust can trated by the three e ve f wn e wav signals of Es, as show in Figure 2. The coils are usually conn nected so tha these gen at nerated volt tages are ca arried by a s system only three se of condu ets uctors. The result is th the three phase power is smoother hat e of o than the single n phase pow or two p wer phase powe er. ctrical powe is transmi er itted as a th hree phase system, bu it is comm e ut monly supplied to Elec the c consumers [ [houses, sch hools, stores etc.] as a single phas circuit. s se Eemf (volts) f

angle Figure 2: Eemf signa waves rep al presentation for the thre phase sys n ee stem. ually, the thr phase vo ree oltages are d described as: Usu Red phase volta written as: VRN d age, Yell phase v low voltage, writ as: VYN tten N Blu phase vol ue ltage, written as: VBN n w where (N) re epresents the neutral po for the c oint common con nnection of the three ph f hases ( N is usually connected to the earth for neutra y d h al).

49

w, method of co onnection to form thre - phase sy o ee ystem: if th three sep he parated Now for the m sing phase w gle windings, a each con are nnected to it own sepa ts arate load, th two wir are hen res used for each ph d hase windin with its lo ng oad. So, t then, there a six wire for the thr separated single pha are es ree ases, and if this form is being s appl in the st lied tator of the machine, th the arran hen ngement is c called as: th phase six hree e, wire system. It is found t e t that this thr phase six wir system is not econo ree e, re omical adva antage. Inste the con ead, nnection of t three sin - phase and their t the ngle es three loads are by four wires, as is shown in F r s Figure 3 in e ent: So, i four wire arrangeme One end wire o each pha is conne e of ase ected to a co ommon point [neutral N], and the outer e wire (of the th es hree phases) are called t Lines, w the where each o the wires is called th line s he of of th correspon he ndent phase [as can be shown in F e, Figure 3]. o, mon neutral N] is connected by the four wire to t common point s rth the n Also the comm point [n [point O] of the three load of the ph ds hases. This forth wire in the centr is the common re wire and its cal e lled the neu utral line (w wire). This arrangemen of the ph nt hases and lo oads is calle Star or Y connection as is show in Figure 3. ed n, wn e [Not the three phase system in the machine ca be arranged in differe configur te: e an ent ration, calle Delta]. ed

Star Connec ction:

Iph, R

IR (is IL )

R
line (w wire)

Phase R

L Load N Phasor: iR + iB + iY = zero ne eutral line O

[Vph ]
Iph,B h

P Phase B, [Vph ] V Iph,Y

Phas Y, [Vph] se

Line (wire) ) Y

IY (is IL) IB
(is IL)

line (wire)

Figure 3: Three ph hase, four w system Star Conn wire m. nection conf figuration.

50

When a three phase voltage supply is applied to the three phase winding system, the three windings are offering currents which are differ in phase with each other by a third of a cycle, i.e. the phase angle between each two currents is 1200. The currents, iR, iB and iY are the instantaneous phase currents in the three windings. When each of the three phases in the system has equal value of phase voltage,Vph, [like each other], and is displaced from each other by 1200, then the system is called: Balanced three - phase supply system. When the single phases of the system has unequal phase voltage with each other, or the phase voltages are displaced by phase angle which is not 120, this system is called: Unbalanced three phase supply system For balanced load, the three phase currents at an instant [e.g. t = 0] are: iR = Im sin [0] iY = Im sin [0 2 / 3] iB = Im sin [0 + 2 / 3] iB 120
0

1200 1200

iR

iY the current phasor diagram Hence, currents in the neutral wire are: iR + iB + iY = Im [0 + sin 2 / 3 + sin (- 2 / 3)] = Im [0 + sin 2 /3 - sin 2 /3] = zero Then, for a balanced load the neutral wire is redundant, [not in need], and we can have a three wire system. If the three loads are identical [i.e. have same impedance and phase angle], then the currents flowing in three lines are identical. Therefore, in general, the line current (for any line wire in the connection) is denoted by: IL and the phase current is denoted by: I ph . Relationship between line and phase quantities in star connection system: a) Current relationship: From the star connection of Figure 3, it is shown that the line current, IL, is the same as the current in the corresponding phase of the generator winding and load, (i.e. the phase current, Iph). Then, Line current = phase current IL = Iph [for three phase, star connection].

51

Voltage relat tionship: b) V ng a, ates tionship betw ween line an phase vo nd oltages: Usin Figure 3a to illustra the relat We can realise t any pai of phases are represen by the two corresp that ir nted pondent line es. The voltage bet tween any p of lines (wires) is c pair called line v voltage, VL. So, for exa ample, the v voltage of L R relati to the vo Line ive oltage of lin Y is said to be VRY, and it is the same ne e for o other lines. For balanced sy ystem these line voltages are eq es qual and, in general, th line volt n he tage is give a symbol, VL. en IL, R [= Iph, R]

(line - wire) ) R VL [VRY] VL [VR ] RB

Vp R ph,
Phase R N IN Vph, Y Phase B P Phase Y e IL, Y [= Iph, Y] IL, B [= Iph, B]

N Vph, B

Y ( line wire)

VL [VYB] B

(line - wire) (

Fi igure 3a: Th hree phase Star conn e, nection: the relationship between t line and phase p the volta ages and c currents. ge, the he ate The line voltag VL, is t phasor difference between th appropria pair of phase ages, Vph. volta For example, th line volt he tage VYR is the voltag phasor d s ge difference be etween the phase age d hase voltage Vph, Y and Vph, R]. es, d volta VYN and the phase voltage VRN [i.e. the ph N .. .. .. eneral: VL = Vph 1 Vp 2 [in phasor rela n ation] .(1) ) In ge ph find an exac relationsh ct hip: To f A simple geom metrical me ethod can b used to find the re be elationship between th line he age, d ee connection: volta VL, and the phase voltage, Vp , in the thre phase c ph Assu ume that th three ph he hase voltag are as s ges shown in F Figure 4a, where the phase diffe erence betw ween each o them is 1200. According to the equation (1), Figure 4b is of e show wing the co onnection of Vph 1 and (- Vph2), [w f where, Vph 2, is in opp posite direct tion to h itsel in Figure 4a], then, th line volta VL, is th resultant of these two phase voltages. lf he age, he

52

The angle between Vph 1 and (-Vph 2) is 600 , and because Vph 1 and - Vph 2 are equal in their magnitude, then the resultant line voltage, VL ,is divided the angle between these phase voltages, where the angle between VL and Vph 1 is 30 0 . The normal line from point A to point B on VL, will form the triangle 0AB with the angle AOB which is equal to 300, then: VL Vph 3 C -Vph 2 B 1200 1200 0 A Vph 1 Vph 1 300 Vph 2 Figure 4a Figure 4b Figure 4: The phase and line voltages arrangement and the relationship between them. OB = Vp1 cos 300 = (31/2 /2) . Vph 1 Now, VL is represented by OC, and OC is double of OB. Then, VL = 2 x (31/2 /2) . Vph 1 = 3 1/ 2 Vph 1 , where Vph 1 is any phase voltage in the stator system, (three phase system), so then, Line voltage = 31/2 phase voltage VL = 31/3 Vph It is important to illustrate a phasor diagram to show the phasor relationship between line voltages and phase voltages. This is shown in Figure 5. This figure shows that the phase difference between line voltage and phase voltage is 300 (i.e. by /6 phase shift). This value of the angle is indicated in Figure 4b. VBR , (VL) VBN , (Vph) VRY , (VL) VRN , (which is Vph) 300 VYN , (Vph) VYB , (which is VL) Figure 5: Three phase Star connection: Phasor diagram illustrating the relationship between line and phase voltages

53

The Power Dissipated in the three - phase star connection system: The power, p, dissipated in one phase is: p = Vph. Iph cos , where is the angle between Vph and Iph p = [VL / 31/2 ] IL cos [as Iph = IL]

The total power, Pt, dissipated in the three phases, is three time that dissipated in one phase: Pt = 3 Vph Iph cos = 31/2 VL IL cos (2) It can be seen that the power dissipated is [31/2 ] times greater when phase components are used comparing with that of using line components, as can be seen in equation (2). Note: the power dissipated is that the power as a heat wasted by the resistor of the load of resistance R. The power dissipated in one phase can be calculated as: P = Iph2 . Rph , [this is the same and equal to Iph Vph cos = IL VL cos / 31/2 ]

Note: for three phase system, the supply voltage is always indicted to be the line voltage, VL, of the system. Solved Examples: 1) A three phase supply of 450 V, 50 Hz is applied to a star connected balanced load. The load impedance of each phase includes a series connected of resistance, R, of 20 and inductance, L, of 0.05 H. Calculate: The phase voltage, b) the line current (drawn from the supply), and c) the power dissipated in the system of the windings. For star connection: a) We have: VL = 31/2 Vph , then, Vph = VL / 31/2 = 450 V / 31/2 = 259.8 V b) Also, we have : Iph = IL Iph = Vph / Zph , Z ph = [Rph 2 + XL,ph2 ]1/2 , where, XL = 2 f L = 2 x 3.14 x 50 Hz x 0.5 H = 15.7 Zph = [(20 ) 2 + (15.7 ) 2 ]1/2 = 25.4 , then, Iph = 259.8 V / 25.4 = 10. 22 A then, IL = 10.22 A [= I ph]

54

c) The power dissipated in each phase, Pph, is: , then, Pph = Iph2 . Rph Pph = [10. 22 A] 2 x 20 = 2088.97 W, and for the three phases of the system, the total power dissipated is: Pt = 3 Pph = 3 x 2088.97 W = 6266.9 W [= 6.267 kW]. 2) A three phase synchronous generator of 12 poles, where the total flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, and it is sinusoidally distributed. The stator of the machine has 108 slots, and there are ten conductors in each slot. The machine is driven at a speed of 450 rev. per min. calculate: a) the frequency of the system, b) the values of the phase and line of the output voltages, and c) the number of slots under each pole phase on the stator. a) The frequency of the system, f, is: f = N p where N is the speed of the generator and p is the pair poles of the excitation magnetic field. Number of pair poles = number of single poles / 2 = 12 / 2 = 6 pair poles the speed is 450 rev.per min. = (450 / 60) rev.per sec [or to be written as: rps] f = (450 /60) rev. per sec, x 6 pair of poles = 45 Hz b) there are 108 slots in total for three phases in the machine, then: number of slots for each phase is: 108 / 3 = 36 slots for each phase. Now, there are ten conductors in each slot, therefore, the number of conductors in series in the slots is: 36 x 10 = 360 conductors (which represents the Z number). The sinusoidally emf, E, per phase is, Eemf = 2.22 f Z Eemf = 2.22 x 45 Hz x 0.04 Wb x 360 = 1438.6 V [which is the phase voltage, of E] The alternators are connected as a star, so that line voltage is: Line voltage = (3)1/2 phase voltage = (3)1/2 x 1438.6 V = 2491.66 V VL = 2491.7 V c) we have 36 slots per phase on the stator, and the machine has twelve poles. Then there are 36 / 12 = 3 slots, in average, under each pole for each phase. Then, there are three slots carry the red winding, three slots carry the yellow winding and three slots carry the blue winding. When the number of poles is increased, a machine increases in the number of groups of slots is required.

55

The Delta [or Mesh] co e r onnected g generator o three p of phase syst tem:
he f nection, the g generating c coils, of the three pha are joined in e ase, In th system of delta conn serie as is shown in Figur 6. es, re In th method o connectio there are only three - wire syste and, so, there is no way his of on, e em, , of co onnecting a neutral wir to this gen re nerator. ure ates ta on, ows ch Figu 6 illustra the delt connectio and it sho that eac load impedance [resistive - ind ductive wind ding - coil] is connected between t lines. d two Aga like star connection system, the three phas voltages a equal in magnitude and ain, n e se are o out o phase by 120 . of IL, R 1200 VL Iph 1 line (wire) e R

Vp 2 ph Iph 2

Vph 1

VL

al lways VL= Vph

1200 Vph 3 I L, B Iph 3 VL

1200 line ( (wire) line (w ) wire

IL Y L, Y B

re connection configuratio on Figur 6: Three phase system, Delta c tage relation nship: Volt It ca be shown that, for de conne an n elta ected genera ator: each pa of lines a connecte air are ed acro a corresp oss ponding pha winding, then: ase Voltage between tw lines, VL = Phase vo e wo oltage, Vph line Vo oltage = phase voltage, VL = Vph ationship in delta conne ection: The current rela ection system: the phas sum of th phase cur sor he rrents is equ to ual For the balance delta conne o, re ffs law: zero [see Figur 6]. Now, by kirchhof current l Iph1 + Ip + Iph3 = z zero [phasor sum [ m] ph2 ere, whe

56

The line current, IL, is the phasor sum of the correspondent two phase currents. Then, IL, for the balance, is the phasor difference between two phase currents, Iph: for example: IL, R = Iph 1 - Iph 2 [Phasor difference ] So, it is similar for other line currents with their correspondent phase currents. The current phasor diagram is shown in Figure 7. The phase difference between each two phase currents, of three phases, is 1200. Iph 3 1200 1200 1200 Iph 1

Iph 2 Figure 7: phasor diagram: phase currents of three phase system, delta connection Now, the line current, IL , is the phase difference between two correspondent phase currents: Take: IL, R = Iph 1 - Iph 2 Then, by using Figure 7, we can illustrate the phase and line currents relationship as in figure 8: . Iph 3 C Iph 2 A 1200 D 900 Iph 1 IL, R B

300 Figure 8: Phasor diagram of two phase currents and correspondent line current. In the diagram of Figure 8, the line current IL, R is represented by AB, which is twice than AD, and the phase currents Iph 1 and Iph 2 are represented by CB and CA respectively, [and they are equal], then, for the triangle ABC, angle ACB = 1200 and then angles CA D and CBD are equal and each of 300

57

Hence, AD = Iph 2 cos30 = Iph 2 31/2 /2 also, it is the same for DB, so then: Line current, IL, R = [31/2 / 2] Iph 2 + [31/2 / 2] Iph 1 [as phase currents are equal], and then, IL, R = 31/2 Iph 2 where IL, R represents any line current, and Iph represents any phase current, in the system Hence, in general: IL = 31/2 Iph , for balanced Delta connection. This is indicated that, when the load is balanced, it is always that line current, IL, is greater than the phase current, Iph, by square root of three. Also, the phase difference between line current and phase current is / 6 [= 30o], as is seen by the diagram of Figure 8. The phasor diagram for line currents and phase currents is shown in Figure 9:

IL, 2

Iph, 2 Iph, 1

IL, 1

300 Iph, 3 IL, 3

Figure 9: Phasor diagram represents the relationship between line and phase currents for delta connection.

The power dissipated in the three phase delta connection system:

The total power, Pt, dissipated is a phasor sum and giving by: for the three phases Pt = 3 V I cos [each phase has, p = Vph Iph cos ] Pt = 3 Vph Iph cos (3) Pt = 3 VL ( IL / 31/2 ) cos , where the angle is between I and V or Pt = 31/2 VL IL cos .(4)

58

This total power result shows, as it is for star connection, that the power dissipated when phase components are used is greater by the factor of 31/2 than that when using line components, as can be compared between equations (3) and (4). The power dissipated is that the power lost as heat by the resistors of the loads in the three phase system. Solved example on delta and star connection configurations: 1) A three phase supply of 450 V is connected to a balanced load of phase impedance 120 and a power factor of 0.85. the connection was in a) star b) delta. Find: the power dissipated in each kind of connection. a) for star connection: Phase voltage = line voltage / 31/2 , then Vph = VL / 31/2 = 450 V / 1.732 then, Vph = 259.8 V = nearly 260 V The phase current, Iph = the phase voltage / impedance, Zph = 260 V / 120 = 2.17A the power , P = 31/2 VL IL cos where is the angle between V and I Pstar = 1.732 x 450 x 2.17 x 0.85 = 1437.6 W For delta connection: Phase voltage = line voltage Vph = VL = 450 V Phase current, Iph = phase voltage / impedance, Zph = 450 V / 120 = 3.75 A Line current = 31/2 phase current IL = 1.732 x 3.75 A = 6.495 A Pdelta = 31/2 VL IL cos = 1.732 x 450 V x 6. 495 A x 0.85 = 4302.87 W This shows that: P delta > P star by about three times. 2) A three phase motor is supplied by a line voltage of 420 V, where the power factor of the motor is 0.9 lagging. If the motor has a mechanical output of 10 kW and an efficiency of 90 per cent, calculate: a) the line current that the motor draws, b) the phase current and phase voltage of the motor when: i) star connected, and ii) delta connected a) We have the efficiency = power output / power input, then input power = output / efficiency i / p = 10 000 W / 0.9 = 11111. 1 W, the input power. As an electrical motor is a balanced load, then:

59

Electrical input power of the motor can be given by: Pi = 31/2 VL IL cos , where is the phase angle between VL and IL hence, line current is: IL = Pi / [VL cos] IL = 11111 W / [31/2 x 420 x 0.9] = 16.97 A b) i) For star connected motor: Iph = IL = 16.97 A Vph = VL / 31/2 = 420 V / 31/2 = 242.5 V ii) For delta connected motor: Iph = IL / 31/2 Iph = 16.97 A / 1.732 = 9.77 A Vph= VL = 420 V

Some advantages of the three phase to that of single - phase system:

A three- phase machine has better distribution factor, where the whole of the stator is utilised. While for a single phase alternator utilises only two thirds of the stator slots. A considerable savings in cable costs for three phase system comparing with that of single phase, for the distribution of an equivalent amount of power. A three phase supply provides a rotating magnetic field and smooth torque in motors. While single - phase supply produces only a pulsating magnetic field and pulsating [or vibrating] torque in motor. The power output from the three phase machine is greater than that from a single phase machine, when both systems are applied to a similar given machine.

60

Two wattmeter power measurement in three phase circuits:

The Wattmeter instrument is usually used to measure the true power in any circuit, where the true power is the power dissipated by the resistance in the load of the circuit [power of the form, I2 R, in Watts]. The method of measurement by the wattmeter is that to measure the voltage and the current. The result of the measurement can show the phase angle, , [between the voltage and the current], and then the power factor, cos , of the load can be known. For a.c. single phase circuits the true power can easily be measured directly by one wattmeter. This is done by measuring the voltage of the phase by the voltage coil of the wattmeter, and the current of the phase by the current coil of the wattmeter. While for the three phase load there will be some problems. It is possible to measure the power by only one wattmeter if the load is balanced with the four wires. So then to measure the power of one phase and the reading of the wattmeter will multiply by three for the total power in the load for the three phases. Now, if the system is unbalanced star connection, where the star point is not located (accessible), then the measurements will cause problems for accuracy, and to be repeated. For delta - connected load system, there will be a problem, as well, to measure the power by one wattmeter, from the point of unbalanced load. To overcome the problems of using one wattmeter, the two - wattmeter method is used. The two - wattmeter are applied simultaneously for the power measurement, as is shown in Figure 10. In this method the current coil of each wattmeter, of the two wattmeter, is placed in series with one of the three lines of the three - phase system, [so two line currents of the three phase are connected to the coils of the two wattmeres, and leaving the third line current of the three phase is not connected], where this is illustrated in Figure 10 . The three phases components are given the symbol colours, Red, Blue and Yellow. Now, to consider instantaneous current and voltage values. The three currents meet at the star point, so, for the balanced load, the sum of the instantaneous values of the currents must always be zero, where:

iR + iB + iY = zero
when, iY is not connected to any wattmeter, then:

iR + iB = - iY

61

m ngement of the two w wattmeters m method of F Figure 10. the instanta aneous From the arran pow p, on the wattmeter readings a wer, e rs are: p1 (o W1) = vR . iR of and RY p2 (o W2) = vB . iB of BY IR W1 C Current coil R

Volt tage coil VRY IY Y

VYB

W2

IB

Voltag coil ge

B t current coil

Wattmeters method to m measure the power in e Figure 10: Arrangement of two W hase system. . three ph for eforms, the p power will r result in ave erage values as: s So, f the sinusoidal wave P1 = VRY . IR co 1 os os P2 = VBY . IB co 2 whe 1 is th phase dif ere he fference bet tween VRY a IR and wher 2 re is th phase diff he ference betw ween VBY an IB nd , an nd

For our three phase syste connectio of two w em on wattmeters, t true cond the ditions are: a) th impedanc [resistive - inductive is a balan he ce e e] nced load in the system, ,

62

b) if the phase angle of the load is, say, the phase angle between the phase voltage and the phase current is the same, , [as that between IB and VBN, and between IR and VRN ] , and, c) the line voltage displaced 300 from the phase voltage. Then we can consider the phasor diagram of Figure 11, which shows that: When the phase angle of the load is , [lagging], then this is so for the phase difference between the phase current and phase voltage. Therefore: this phase angle, , is the phase angle between IB and VBN and between IR and VRN.

VRY

+ 300 300

VRN

IR

IB VBY

300 300 VBN VYB

Figure 11: phasor diagram of the relationship between line voltages and currents. Now, as the wattmeter W1 is connected between red and yellow phases, then the phase angle between VRY and IR , will be ( + 300). [where, VRY = VL and IR = IL] Then the power P1 reads by W1 is: P1 = VRY IR cos ( + 300), or P1 = V L IL cos ( + 300) (1)

and we have that, VBY = - VYB, so then, the phasor diagram shows that the phase angle between VBY and IB is ( 300) Then the power P2 reads by wattmeter W2 is: P2 = VBY IB sos ( - 300), or P2 = VL IL cos ( 300) ..(2) and from equations (1) and (2):

The total power, Pt, is the sum of P1 and P2 ,

Pt = P1 + P2 = VL IL [cos ( + 300) + cos ( 300)] , then, by the geometrical arrangement, we have:

63

[= P1 + P2] . ..(3) Pt = 31/2 VL I L cos [which is the total average power, readings of both W1 and W2 ] By subtracting the reading of the power of the two wattmeters, we have: P2 P1 = VL IL [cos ( 30) cos ( + 30)] = VL IL sin . ......(4) Divided equation (4) by (3), results : tan = 31/2 [P1 P2] / [P1 + P2] , [the constant is by changing to phase voltage]

hence, the phase angle of the load parameters , , is: = tan-1 31/2 [P1 P2] / [P1 + P2] Therefore, the method of two wattmeters in a balanced three- phase system is useful to determined the power parameters, where it is important to find the load p.f., [= cos ]. To examine the readings of the two wattmeters, we can use the power factor of the balanced load for different phase angles: Apply P1 (reading of W1) and P2 (reading of W2) of equations (1) and (2) respectively to find that: When < 60, so the load p.f. > 0.5, then both W1 and W2 give a positive readings. When = 60 , so the load p.f. = 0.5, then W2 indicates the total power and W1 is zero. When > 60 , so the load p.f. < 0.5, then W1 will indicate to be a negative reading. Therefore, the connection to the voltage coil of W1 should be reversed, but taking the reading as a negative value. Therefore, the total power will be P1 P2 (instead of added the values of the two readings). Note: for the solution of balanced three phase circuits, it is better to follow the steps: - Convert all quantities to single phase. - Solve as single phase problem. - Re- convert to three phase quantities. Solved example: A balanced load three phase is applied for power measurement by using the method of two Wattmeters. The reading of the Wattmeters were 2.8 kW and 4 kW respectively. Calculate: a) the load power and b) the power factor of the load.

64

a) The reading of the two Wattmeters represent the powers P1 and P2, Where, Pt = P1 + P2 = 2.8 kW + 4 kW = 6.8 kW , which is the load power b) We have: tan = 31/2 [P1 P2] / [P1 + P2] , where is the phase angle of the load parameters, then: = tan-1 31/2 [P1 P2] / [P1 + P2] = tan-1 31/2 [(4- 2.8) / (4 + 2.8)] = tan-1 0.305 so, then, = 170 , and, then cos = cos 170 = 0.956 , the power factor of the load.

Active, Reactive and apparent Power:

A supply voltage, VS, is applied to an a.c. circuit of components include resistance, inductance and capacitance, R-L-C, where I is the current flowing in the components of the circuit: The product magnitudes of VS and I is known as volt ampere product [for short, VA] and is given by symbol S. [so S = VS I] , measured by units of volt ampere, VA]. The volt ampere product is known as the: Apparent power, which is the power applied by the source and consumed by the circuit or device/ s. If the applied voltage vS = Vm cos t and the current flowing i = Im cos(t ) where is the angular velocity , and is phase difference [phase angle] between the supply voltage, vS, and the current i in the circuit. then the instantaneous power p = v .i = Vm Im cos t cos (t - ) Now, dealing with geometrical relations, result: P = V I cos + V I cos cos 2 t + V I sin sin 2 t P = real or active power + reactive power a) Real or active power [measured by units of Watts], is produced either as a work or heat (which is consumed by the resistor of resistance R). It is the power wasted as heat dissipated in the pure resistive R, in the form: IR 2 R. Average real power is given by: P = VS IR cos [in Watts] where the angle is the phase angle between VS and IR.

65

b) R Reactive pow it is cal Volt A wer, lled Ampere reactive, [for short, VAr], measured by the units of Volt - A Ampere], sy ymbol Q. s o ctive, L, an / or cap nd pacitive, C, reactance. Pure , . This power is applied to the induc capa acitive react tance or ind ductive reactance [i.e. n - resistive compone non ents], is rec ceiving the power form the circui (the supp m it ply) in one half of the cycle and returns the same e pow in the oth half of t cycle. wer her the So, t then, for rea actance, [ind ductive or c capacitive], t average power is ze in each c the ero cycle. Peak Q of the re k eactive pow is given by: wer PQ = VS I sin [measu ured by unit of reactive Volt - Am ts e mpere (VAr) )] If th phase ang is posi he gle itive, then Q has a +ve v value (induc ctive circuit L) t, If th phase ang is nega he gle ative, then Q has a ve v value (capac citive circui C) it,

The power in the a.c. co e n omponent and the p ts power fac ctor, p.f :
.c. where the vo oltage suppl is VS and the circuit current i I, as ly d ts is In R - L C a. circuit w show in Figure 12 a. The phasor diag wn e gram of the c components is as show in Figure 12 b. s wn I VS L VR a) VC b) IS R C VL VS VL VC

12: nd hasor diagram of the cir m rcuit compon nents. Figure 1 a) The a.c. circuit an b) the ph he e, The power of th resistance R, is: PR = VR . IR the phase a angle betwe VR and IR is zero . een we e ource voltag VS, then: ge, If w related the resistances voltage, VR to the so VR = VS. cos , where is the phas angle bet se tween VS an IR, [IR = I in the circu nd uit]. then the power of the resis n r stance is: PR = VR . IR = VS cos . IR. The power of th inductanc L, is : PL = VL . IL he ce, the p phase angle between VL and IL is 9 0 . 90 we e supply volta then: age, If w related the inductances voltage, VL, to the s VL =VS sin where is the phas angle betw n se ween VS and IL, [IL = I i the circui d in it]. n r uctance is: PL = VL . IL = VS sin . IL then the power of the indu 66

The power of the capacitive, C, is: PC = VC IC = (- ) VS sin . IC the phase angle between VC and IC is - 900 If we related the capacitances voltage, VC, to the supply voltage, then: VC = - VS sin , where is the phase angle between VS and IC, [IC = I in the circuit]. VC = - VS sin then the power of the capacitive is: PC = VC . IC = VS sin . IC Now, if the circuit is a pure resistive (i.e. only a resistance R is included in the circuit), then: VR = VS , and the phase angle is zero between the voltage and the current in the pure resistive circuit. Therefore, in such a circuits the power factor = cos = cos zero = 1. Which means that the waste, dissipated, is a maximum. The power in the pure resistive circuit is: P = VS IS = VR IR = IR2 R [Watts] When the circuit is (non resistive), and only reactive (L and / or C), then the circuit current, IS, and the resultant voltage, VS, are out of phase by an angle of 900 (as can be judge from figure 12b). Then the power factor (= cos = cos 900) is equal to zero. Which means that the power dissipated by the reactive is zero i.e. there is no power wasted. When the reactance (inductive, L or / and capacitive, C) is included with the resistance in the circuit, then the circuit current, I, and the resultant voltage, VS, (of the component voltages), are out of phase by an angle . Hence, the power factor, (= cos ), of the circuit is not one and not zero, but depends on the phase angle, , where, then depends on the values of the three components. The power dissipated depends on R, which shows that the dissipation depends on the angle . Now, as the phase angle increases the p.f. decreases. This means, [and it can be shown by Figure 12], that the effect of reactance is greater than the resistance. Therefore, the power dissipated is decreasing, until the angle is approaching 90 degree, [non - resistive], then there will be no waste in the circuit. While, as the angle is decreasing, which means that the effect of the resistive is going to be greater than the reactances. Then the power dissipated is increasing, until the angle is approaching zero [pure resistive], then the waste is nearly a maximum, which is, we express this result to call it as, the power factor is one.

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The Power Triangle:

it is the triangle, of Figure 13, which concerns the three parts of the power in the circuit: apparent power [volt amp, VA], reactive power [reactive volt amp. VAr], and the real power [Watt]:

Apparent power ,S = VS I [Volt - Ampere]

reactive power, Q = VS I sin [reactive Volt Ampere]

Real power, P= VS I cos 9 [Watts] Figure 13: The power triangle. Now, it is important to relate cos [and the power factor] to the power triangle: When we employ an A.C. circuit, it is important to know the ratio between the power which is wasted or dissipated, (it is the real power), in the circuit, to that power (apparent power) which supplies the circuit. the ratio, between the real power to the apparent power, in the circuit is: VS I cos Real power = = cos apparent power VS I This ratio can explain the level of utility which may be obtained by using a certain components and their arrangement, in a circuit. so the item cos represents the factor that is pointing to the ratio of the waste power to that power is supplied to the circuit. This factor [cos ], now, we call it the power factor of the circuit, where through it we can judge the amount of the waste and how useful is the arrangement of the components in the circuit. As it is stated in the previous subject and from Figure 12, for a.c. circuit: if cos [= p.f.] is approximately equal to zero, [for is approaching 900]. This means that the components of the circuit are approximately pure reactive, [non resistive], and, then, the circuit arrangement is very good, as there is no waste in power occurs in the circuit.

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While if cos is equal to one, [for = zero], then this means that all the power been supplied to the circuit is dissipated as a heat, where, this is not useful to the circuit. The components, capacitor, C, and inductor, L, are, practically, not pure, where they arise some resistive effect. This resistance will share to increase the real power (waste loss) in the circuit. Then to reduce the wasted power, components C and L should be chosen for this purpose.

The three phase power:

[note: L here represents the line, and not the inductive.] Three phase real (active) power = 31/2 VL IL cos Three phase (reactive) power = 31/2 VL IL sin = 31/2 vL IL [in the resistance, R]. [in the reactances, L and C, given and returned]. [from the source]

Three phase apparent power

From the power triangle: Apparent power = [ (real power)2 + (reactive power)2 ]1/2 = [ (31/2 VL IL cos )2 + (31/2 VL IL sin )2 ] 1/2 = 31/2 VL IL [cos2 + sin2 ] = 31/2 VL IL Which is the same value of the apparent value shown above.

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Solved problems
1) State what does three phase power mean, and state their relation to each other. Three phase system is a method when using three sets of independent windings, [three single phase windings], where they are internally connected. In effect they are three identical single phase alternators (generators) contained in one machine. Three phase system is having three similar loops [of winding conductor coils] which are symmetrically and physically spaced by 1200 from each other in the machine. This will give a difference in phase (phase angle), between the three sets (loops) of windings by 1200. 2) plot a schematic diagram to show wave signals of the induced emfs generated of three phase loops. [see the notes] 3) briefly explain what do we mean by balanced three phase supply system. Balanced three - phase supply system is: When each of the three phases in the system has equal value of phase voltage, Vph, [like the others], and is displaced from each other by 1200, the system is called: 4) plot a diagram for the three phase system, star connection showing: the phase voltages and currents, and the line voltages and currents. [see the note and Figure 3a] 5) plot a diagram of delta connection for the three phase system, showing: the phase voltages and currents, and the line voltages and currents. [see the notes , and Figure 6] 6) briefly describe the method of using two wattmeters to measure the power in the threephase circuits. Show and explain an expression for the phase angle of the load, by using the two readings of the two wattmeters. [see the notes concerned] 7) A three phase star- connected alternator (generator) has a line voltage of 11 kV, 50 Hz. The out put of the generator is 12 MVA at a power factor of 0.85 lagging. Calculate: a) the phase voltage b) the power output and c) the line current. a) phase voltage = line voltage / 31/2 Vph = VL / 1.732 6.35 V b) we have the output of the generator is 12 MVA, which is the VI of the generator [equal to 12 MVA]. So the power output is the power of the form: 31/2 VL IL cos . So then, power output = 31/2 VI cos = Ms VA cos

70

wer 2 pow out put = 12 M W x 0.85 = 10.2 M W he the A nd r c) th generator generates output of t form VA which is equal to 31/2 VL IL , an the gene erated amou is 12 M V unt VI then the curren line, I L= M n, nt MVA / 3 VL =12 x 106 VI / 3 x 11 x 103 = 630 A 0 hase delta connected load cons d sists of three coils, ea of ach 8) A balanced three ph resis stance value of 4 an inductance of 0.02 H Determine the total power wh the e nd H. l hen V, coils are connec to 400 V 50 Hz, th - phase supply. s cted hree e

400 V, 5 Hz 50

eactance, XL = 2 f L = 2 x 50 H x 0.02 H = 2 = 6.2 Hz 28 The inductive re 4 The impedance, Z = [R2 + XL2 ]1/2 = [42 + 6.282]1//2 = 7.44 44 76 elta ion, V Iph = Vph / Zph = 400 V / 7.4 = 53.7 A [in de connecti Vph =VL] The power per p phase: Iph2 R = (53.76 A 2 x 4 = 11560.5 W A) al the hases = 3 x 1 11560 = 346 W = 34 681 4.68 kW Tota power in t three ph or, to app the phas method: ply sor phaseor imp pedance, Z = R + j XL = 4 + j 6.28 8 the p [as XL = 6.28]

then Iph = Vph / Zph = 400 V / [4 + j 6.2 n 28] , now [multiply by (4 j 6. w, y .28)], then: Iph = 400 V [4 j 6.28] / {[ + j 6.28] x [4 j 6.28 = [1600 j 2512] / 55.4 [4 8]} Iph = 28.9 j 45.3 . .(1) maginary ter rms We now have a real and im on e The power is, p = Iph Vph , then multiply equatio (1) by the voltage Vp , ph 0 p = [28.9 j 45.3] x 400 V = 11560 j 45.3 x 400 Watts) equal to 11560 W per phase l e real power (in W three phases P = p x 3 = 11560 W x3 = 34680 W = 34.68 kW s, 0 8 for t [whi is the sa as befor ich ame re]. 71

9) A three phase system of 440 V voltage supply is applied to a balanced load, where each phase has an impedance of 40 and a phase angle of 300. Calculate, for star and delta connections: a) the current, b) the total power dissipated. c) comment on the total power dissipated in both connections. Usually, work on one phase, and then find the result for the three phases. For star connection: phase voltage, Vph = line voltage, VL / 31/2 , Vph = 440 V / 1.732 = 254 V Then the phase current, Iph = Vph / impedance ph = 254 V / 40 = 6.35 A the line current IL = phase current = 6.35 A The phase angle, , between the current and voltage is 300, then: , [the power factor] cos 300 = 31/2 / 2 = 0.866 1/2 the total power, Pt = 3 VL . IL cos = 1.732 x 440 V x 6.35 A x 0.866 Pt = 4190.75 W, which is the total power dissipated in the three phases. For delta connection: Vph = VL = 440 V Phase current = phase voltage / impedance Zph is the phase impedance Iph = Vph /Zph = 440 V / 40 = 11 A Line current = 31/2 phase current IL = 1.732 x 11 A = 19 A the total power, Pt = 31/2 VL . IL cos = 1.732 x 440 V x 19 A x 0.866 Pt = 12539.6 W The ratio of total power in both connections is: Pt, delta / Pt, star = 12539 W / 4190.75 W = 2.99 6 , which is nearly three times, This means that the loads in delta connection draw three times the power of the same loads in star connection. 10) The two wattmeter method is used to measure the input power of a three- phase motor. If the reading of the two wattmeters were 5.3 kW and (-1.8 kW), and the line voltage, VL, is 450, calculate: a) the total power, b) the power factor of the system, and c) the line current. a) Total power = the total power on the reading of the two wattmeters: Pt = 5.3 kW + [- 1.8 kW] = 3.5 kW = 3500 W

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b) To find the power factor, cos , we should know the phase angle, , of the power factor. Applying the relationship: tan = 31/2 [p1 p2] / [ p1 + p2] , where the p1 and p2 are the power readings of the two wattmeter respectively tan = 31/2 [5.3 (-1.8 )] / [5.3 + (- 1.8)] = 1.732 x [7.1 / 3.5] = 3.513 so, = tan-1 3.513 = 74.10 then, cos = 0.277, the power factor Pt = 31/2 Il VL cos

c) we have: so: then,

3500 W = 31/2 x 450 V x 0.277 IL IL = 16.2 A

11) A voltage supply of 430 V, 50 Hz delivers a line current of 25 A, at a lagging power factor of 0.24, when connected to a three- phase balanced load. The power dissipated is measured by using the method of two wattmeter. Find: a) the two wattmeter readings, b) the amount of power dissipated, and c) comment on the results. Pt = 31/2 VL IL cos = P1 + P2 , where P1 and P2 are the separate readings of the two wattmeters respectively. Also, the power reading on each wattmeter is given by: P1 = VL IL cos [300 - ] , and P2 = VL IL cos [ 300 + ], So to determine the power on each wattmeter reading, we should use the separate equations for P1 and P2, {or we can use the equation of tan to find the readings, which is a long solution}. Now: first to find the phase angle, form the power factor: cos = 0.42, then , = 65.170 a) then, the reading on the first wattmeter, [first power]: P1 = VL IL cos [300 - ] P1 = 430 V x 25 A x cos (300 65.170) = 8787.8 W The reading of the second wattmeter [second power] is: P2 = VL IL cos [30 + ] P2 = 430 V x 25 A x cos (300 + 65.170) = - 967.8 Watt b) The value of the power dissipated is the total power, P1 + P2 We have:

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Pt = P1 + P2 = 8787.8 + (-967.8) = 7244 W = 7.244 kW c) To obtain the negative reading on wattmeter W2 [measure P2], the connections to its voltage coil must have been reversed. 12) A balanced three phase delta connected load is fed from a 400 V, 50 Hz supply. A power to the load is measured by two Watmeters W1 and W2 which indicate 5.5 kW and (- 1.5) kW respectively. a) Determine the power and the power factor of the load. b) What is the value of the resistive part of the load per phase? a) The total power measured by W1 and W2 is = 5.5 kW + (- 1.5 kW) = 4 k The power per phase = total power / 3 = 4 kW / 3 = 1.333 kW To find the power factor, cos , we need to find the phase angle, , of the load, Apply the relationship formula of tan and the power: tan = [p1 p2] / [ p1+ p2] = [5.4 (- 1.5)] kW / [5.5 + (1.5)] kW = 3.03 hence, = 71.7 , so then cos = 0.31, which is the power factor of the load. The supply voltage, V = 400 V is the line voltage and it is equal to the phase voltage (for delta connection), then the phase voltage is 400 V, then: The power per phase = [supply voltage]2 / resistive per phase = V2 / R 1333 W = 4002 / R , and so, R = 4002 / 1333 kW = 120 13) A three phase voltage supply of 250 V applied on a balanced load of three resistive impedance, each of 60 , and they are connected in a) star and b) delta to the supply. Determine, in each case of connection: i) the phase voltage and phase current, and ii) the line current. Note: usually the the voltage 250 V given in the question, is the line voltage. a) star connection: line voltage (each phase), VL = 250 V, then the phase voltage is: Vph = VL / 31/2 = 250 V / 31/2 = 144.3 V phase current = phase voltage / phase load resistance Iph = Vph / Rph = 144.3 V / 60 = 2.4 A In star connection, Line current = phase current , then IL = Iph = 2.4 A b) delta connection: phase voltage = line voltage, then. Vph = VL = 250 V phase current = phase voltage /phase load Iph = Vph / Rph = 250 V / 60 = 4.17 A Line current = 31/2 phase current IL = 31/2 Iph = 1.732 x 4.17 A = 7.2 A 74

75

Induction motor
The main purpose for constructing of a motor is to have the ability to rotate the rotor. This rotation will be, then, by a torque exerts on the rotor [armature] to rotate it.
Induction motor so called this name is because of its method of operation. The operation concerns with the induced electromotive force, e.m.f., generated in its rotor windings, by the effect of rotating magnetic flux of the stator. The rotor, of the motor, is the moving part to drive the load, and the stator is a stationary part.

Induction motor is an A.C motor where it is energised by a single phase or three Phase supply. Motoring effect: The general process for the operation of the motoring effect is that: When an interaction occurs between two independent magnetic fields, on a conductor, A force, then, experienced to exert on the conductor. Where, accordingly, a torque [or turning moment] exerts on a conductor [rotor] to rotate it. Therefore, it is the importance to prepare two independent magnetic fields, [magnetic fluxes], to be in action on the rotor. Winding coils connecting to an A.C supply will produce an alternating magnetic field, [a magnetic flux, c], by the current through the windings. The magnetic field will act to induce a generated electromotive force, emf,, E, across the conductor. The induced emf across the conductor will be, then, a source of a voltage supply to an external circuit where an induced current can flow in the external closed circuit, [or through the conductor winding]. Then, in turn, we can have a rotating magnetic field from this induced current. Now, when we produce two independent rotating magnetic fields, in the system of the motor, one from the current of the A.C supply and the other from the induced current. The two fields are, now, in a process of interacting with each other. Two different acted regions are usually created. One region is where the two fields asses, [strengthening], each other, and the other region is where the two fields are opposing [weakening] each other. Therefore, a force will exert from the region of the strengthening fields to that of weakening fields. A torque, in turn, exerts by the action of this force, to rotate the rotor. This is, in general, the process of motor action.

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Thr Phase Inductio Motor ree e on

For three phas system, w have ind se we dependent th identica windings, where they are hree al , y 0 phys sically displ laced from e each other b an angle of 120 and distributed in one part of by d d t the m motor [eithe the stator or the rotor er r]. Now each wind w, ding is calle a phase o the windi ed of ing. Also, a three - pha voltage s ase supply is co onnected to the three - phase wind ding [load]. T current which are delivered by the The ts, e volta supply i the windi age in ings, will pr roduce a rot tating magnetic fields. nstruction of the three - phase induc f ction motor: Con
A th hree-phase ind duction moto consists of two main pa or f arts; stator an rotor: Bot parts are m nd th made of lami inations to reduce the edd current los dy sses.

Figure 1: Squirrel cage rotor e l e on ee winding, [Re Yellow and Blue], which ed, The stator: the constructio is of thre - phase w 0 displaced ph hysically by 120 from each other, and connec to three - phase sup y cted e pply. are d A stator rotatin field is produced in the syst ng tem of the motor. Th way of stator his struction is t same as that of the stator in syn the nchronous m motor. cons As t winding of the sta are conn the gs ator necting to th voltage s he supply, then the speed of the n stato magnet field will be at the sy ors tic l ynchronous of the supp frequenc In this ca the ply cy. ase stato magnetic field is ca ors alled a synchronous spe NS, of t stator. eed, the g ve ed s. The rotor: it is the moving part to driv the load, where it has the induce windings he rel p w s The form of th rotor is the squirr cage. It is built up from low hysteresis steel inations and has longitu d udinal slots into each o which is p of placed a sin ngle bar of c copper lami or al luminium co onductor. Two thick con o nducting rin of copp are rive ngs per eted to eac end of t rotor an the ch the nd cond ductor ends are brazed or welded to these, s s d d shorting all the conduc ctors togethe and er form ming a cage. (Figure1). .

77

Wound rotor phase windings in slots connection in star or delta and brought out to three slip rings devices. Principle of operation: At just the starting time of operation, the rotor is standstill, [stationary], as it is not, yet, energised by any magnetic action. As the stator windings are switched - on to the a.c. voltage supply, an alternating currents flow into the stators windings to produce an alternating magnetic fields [fluxes] within the stator, where the stator fluxes rotate at synchronous speed, NS, as it is affected by the voltage supply. As this rotating magnetic field, of the stator, is in the system of motor, it sweeps past the rotor conductors, and then its magnetic flux will linkage with the conductors of the stationary rotor. The conductor bars of the rotor will, now, be generated an alternating induced emf. [Note: the result of cutting action of the stators field by the rotors bar conductors would be great. It occurs when the per unit Slip of the speeds - is 100 %, which means it is when the speed of the rotor is, now, just to be near zero, as the rotor is just to have started turning]. The process of creating the magnetic field from the induced current, and then the action of the torque is as that been mentioned earlier. The force action is on the diameter of the rotor, where the torque effect to rotate the rotor. The direction of the rotation speed of the rotor is the same as that direction of the stators magnetic field. During operation: While the rotor, now, gains speed, then the relative speed between the rotor and stators magnetic field is reduced, which means that the speed of the rotor and the stator field are nearly [but not exactly] similar. This situation will not let the rotors conductors to be able to cut (linkage) the magnetic field of the stator as before [i.e. as when the rotor was at stationary situation]. Then the result is that the generated emf of the rotors conductors will be reduced, and accordingly reduce the induced current in the rotors windings, where, in turn reduced its magnetic field. Therefore, the torque on the rotor will be, now, less than before. If we assume that the rotor is continued to be accelerated, [by the action of force exerts], and to gain a synchronous speed as that speed of the stators field, so, then, the relative speed between the rotor and the field speeds is approximately equal to zero. Therefore, there will be no longer cut (linkage) to the stators magnetic field by the conductor bars of the rotor. Accordingly, there will be no longer a current induced in the rotors conductors, where the rotors rotating falls to zero. Approaching this situation will prevent to produce a torque on the rotor. The rotor, then, will slow down, which means

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that increasing the stators field linkage by the rotors conductors, and then the induced emf. will reappear (as a result of reasonably a big difference between the stators field speed and the rotors speed). This process shows that: For any certain load applied to the motor, there is a speed at which the rotors induced current is producing just enough torque to drive the load. That is to say: for very small speed of the rotor [comparing with the stators field speed] the induced emfs in the rotors conductors and then the induced currents, are going to be large enough to produce an accelerating torque on the rotor. While, for very high speed of the rotor, the rate of linking stators flux and then the induced emfs and currents in the rotor bars will be reduced, and then reducing the torque, where the rotor will slow down. It is concluded that, for normal operation of induction motor to produce a reasonable torque, the rotor should not rotate at the synchronous speed as that speed of rotating magnetic field of the stator. Accordingly, there should always be a difference between the speeds of the rotor and the synchronous speed, NS, of the magnetic field of the stator. This difference in speeds is called slip of the motor. The slip : Slip, then, is essential and it is showing the difference between the rotors speed and stators field speed. We can represent Nr to the rotors speed, and NS to the synchronous speed of the stators magnetic field. The difference in these speeds is given the symbol s. Then, mathematically: slip, s = synchronous speed actual rotors speed s = NS Nr [in revolution per minute, rpm] The slip, also, can be expressed as a fraction or per unit value of the synchronous speed, and in this case, it is given a symbol S. per - unit slip, S is: S= synchronous speed rotors speed = synchronous speed Ns Nr Ns slip [in rpm] = synch. speed [in rpm]

Also, the per unit slip, S, can be calculated as a percentage slip = S x 100 Normal percentage slip values for full load of rotor are from 2% to 6% , [i.e. NS Nr / NS x 100 % = 2 % to 6 %].

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(Note: the synchronous speed, NS, of the stators magnetic field is given by; NS = f / p, where f is the frequency of the a.c. voltage supply and p is the pair poles of the motor system). Example: Calculate the per unit slip, S, of a three phase, four pole machine which has a voltage supply frequency of 50 Hz, if the rotors speed is 1450 rev per min. Four single poles set is equal to two pairs of pole, i.e. p = 4 /2 = 2 Synchronous speed, Ns, is: Ns = frequency / number of pair poles = f / p = 50 Hz / 2 NS = 25 revolution per second [rps]. Then, Ns in rev. per min. = 60 x (Ns rev. per sec.) = 60 x (25 rev per sec.) NS = 1500 rev / min, so then: [rev. per min is: rpm] Per unit slip, S = [Ns Nr ] / Ns S = [1500 rpm - 1450 rpm] / 1500 rpm S = 50 / 1500 = 0.033 per unit slip, which is 3.3 % This means that the rotor runs at a speed less than that of synchronous speed by 3.3 per cent, which is acceptable speed. [Note: referring to the principle of induction motor operation, it can be seen that, at just the start of the moror operation, the rotor is nearly at stationary situation, which means that its Nr = zero] Then the per unit slip is: S = [Ns Nr ] / Ns = [Ns zero] / Ns = 1 = 100 % which is the relative speed between rotors speed and the stators field speed. This situation means that the induce emf in the conductor bars of the rotor would be great [maximum]. While during the operation when the two speeds, [Nr and NS], are nearly similar to each other, the slip will fail to low value, leaving the rotors conductors of much less ability to be induced by the stators magnetic field, [as we have seen from the earlier explanation]. So .generally: at just the starting of the operation, when the motor is not yet running, we have : Nr = zero, then the % of the per unit slip, S % = Ns 0 / Ns x 100 % = 100 % or1 While, when the motor runs at synchronous speed (externally driven), where: Nr = Ns , so the % of the per unit slip, S %, would be: S % = (Ns NR) / Ns x 100 % = (Ns Ns) / Ns x 100 % = zero

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Then, it can be seen that as the motor runs faster the slip becomes smaller, and so S falls to approach zero when Nr approaching the synchronous speed, NS. Solved problems: 1- If a machine with a synchronous speed of 40 rev / s and running rotor at 36 rev /s, then the slip, s, is: s = Ns Nr = 40 rev per sec. 36 rev per sec = 4 rev per sec. and the per unit slip, S, is: S = (NS Nr ) / NS = s / Ns = 4 rev per sec. / 40 rev per sec. = 0.10 per unit slip = 10 % it is high for S, which is not acceptable for the standard applied. 2- An eight pole induction motor connected to a 50 Hz voltage supply, where the motor runs with a per unit slip, S, of 5%. Determine the slip speed and the speed of the motor. 8 single poles = 8 / 2 = 4 pole pairs, p. We have, the synchronous speed, NS = f / p NS = 50 Hz / 4 = 12.5 rev per second The slip, s, is: s = S . NS = 5 % x 12.5 rev. per sec. = 5 / 100 x 12.5 r.p.s.= 0.625 rev. per sec. then the speed of the motor, Nr, is: Nr = Ns s = 12.5 rev. per sec. 0.625 rev. per sec. = 11.875 r. p. s. 3- For the principle of the operation of the induction motor, comments on the resultant running of the rotor and the torque exerts, when: a) the rotor is at a time just after its stationary situation, b) when the speed of the rotor is 5% below the synchronous speed [stator speed] c) when the rotor is same speed as the stator speed (synchronous). a) When the rotor is just after its stationary situation, so, then its speed is just nearly zero. The per unit slip is: S = [ Ns Nr ] / Ns = [ Ns zero] / Ns = 100%. This means that the generated induced emf in the rotor bars is great, so then the rotor running is great as the result of the great experience force and then to deliver a high value of torque.

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b) When the speed of the rotor is 5 % , [S = 0.05], below the synchronous, then the induced emf in the rotor conductors is much less than that when the rotor is just started form its stationary situation, but still there will be a force experience to deliver a torque and run the rotor. c) When the rotor is at synchronous speed [as the speed of stators magnetic field], then the per unit slip, S, is zero. Therefore, no relative speed between the rotor and stators field speeds, and then the slip is zero. The rotor, then, no longer gain any induced emf, and there is no force experience in this situation, and so the torque is going to be zero.

Rotor Voltage, Resistance, Current and the torque, in an induction Motor:

The rotors conductors are being cut (linked) by the stator rotating magnetic field at the slip speed, s: S =Ns Nr ( rev/min) We have, the relationship between the supplys frequency f, Hz, the number of pairs of poles p and the synchronous speed, N, is: f = p. N /60 Then the frequency of the rotors induced e.m.f. is: fr = [Ns Nr] p / 60 and as: NS Nr = S NS fr = S. Ns p / 60 thence: and while, the frequency, f, of the voltage supply to the stator is; f = Ns p / 60 then: fr = S . f Note: if we want to examine this relationship, we can say that: at S = 1, where Nr = zero, which means that the rotor is at standstill (no rotation), where the induced emf is maximum, and the emf frequency is the same as that of stators magnetic field. Then this shows that: fr = f , ( which is right result). If S = zero, where Nr = Ns, so then there will be no induced emf., and there is no frequency exists. Then fr = S f = zero f = zero, (which is correct result) The Voltage: The induced e.m.f., Eo, is generated in each rotor phase when the rotor is at standstill. Eo is proportional to: the magnetic flux () due to the stator, and, the frequency, f, of the stators field, (where, f is the supply frequency). Hence, the proportionality of Eo is: E0 f (1) Now, when the rotor is rotating, the flux, , will be unaltered, but the frequency will be the frequency of the rotor e.m.f. [fr].

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Then, as the rotor has its frequency fr in the rotating, so, then the relative speed between the rotor and the stator field is, now, less than that when the rotor was stationary. This shows that, as the rotor rotates at frequency of fr, so, its conductors linkage to the stator magnetic field in a manner to have an induced emf of Er, which will be less than that when the rotor was at stationary state (where the emf generated is Eo). Now, as the rotor is in rotating process, then the emf of the rotor phase, Er , is proportional to the original magnetic flux and to the frequency of the rotor: Er fr and so, then:

Er (S. f ) .
Er = S E0

[as fr = S . f ]

[from equ. (1), as E0 = f ], (as the proportionality is one).

Rotor resistance and impedance: If the resistance per phase of the rotor winding is represented by R, and the leakage reactance per phase of the rotor winding at standstill is represented by X0 where Xo =2f (leakage inductance) per phase), then if the slip is S: so the rotor reactance per phase is: as fr = S f Xr = S X0 , [where, fr is the rotor frequency and f is the frequency of the stator field, which is the frequency of the voltage supply ] So, then, the rotor impedance per phase, Zr is:

Z r = [R2 + (Xr)2]1/2 , and then, 2 2 1/2 Z r = [R + (S X0) ]

Also, the rotor current per phase, Io, at standstill is: [as, S at standstill = 1] Io = Eo / Zo = Eo / [R2 + (X0)2]1/2 and, if Ir is the rotor current per phase at slip S, then this current is: Ir=Er/[R2+(Xr)2]1/2=S.Eo/[R2+(SX0)2]1/2 Ir=SEo/[R2+(SX0)2]1/2(where,Er=S.EoandXr=SXp) The phase relation between the rotor parameters: If the angle r is the phase difference between Er and Ir , then, by the impedance triangle: tan r = Xr / R = S. Xo / R Zr r R Xr

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cos r = R / Zr = R / [R2 + (S. Xo)2 ]1/2 The Torque: If T is the torque (in Nm) exerted on the rotor by the rotating flux, then the power transferred from the stator to the rotor = 2 Ns T / 60 This is the input power to the rotor, and the output of the rotor is applied as: a) the mechanical power, to produce the torque, and b) the losses including I2 R power loss in the windings. Voltage supply stator V, f power o/p o/ p i /p power transferred Losses rotor i/ p o/p mechanical power [to produce a torque] losses

A diagram to illustrate the power process from the supply to the final stage of producing a torque. The total mechanical power developed by the rotor is = 2 Nr T / 60 The difference between these two powers must be the power loss, (I2 R), in the resistance, R, of the rotor. Hence, (I2 R) loss in rotor windings = 2 Ns T / 60 - 2 Nr T / 60 the power loss, I2R = 2 T (Ns - Nr) / 60 Therefore, (I2 R) loss in the rotor / input power to the rotor = where, S is the per unit slip. 2 T (Ns Nr) / 60 2 T Ns /60 =S

Then, the total (I2 R) power loss in the rotor = S x rotor input power (in Watts) . . . (2)
[where the rotor input power is the power transferred from the stator to the rotor].

Solved example: A three phase induction motor draws 150 kW from a 50 Hz supply, where the stator losses are 8 kW. Calculate :

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i) the total mechanical power developed in the rotor at per unit slip of 0.03, and ii) the output power when the losses of friction and winding in the rotor are 7.0 kW. Solution: The 150 kW is the output power drawn form the voltage supply to the stator input: 150 kW V S, f Supply power transferred stator Losses = 8kW i) rotor o/ p mechanical power losses = 7 kW

the rotor input power = stator input power the losses in the stator the rotor input power = 150 kW 8 kW = 142 kW

Therefore, to find out the power developed by the rotor, the power losses in the rotor windings, [I2 R] should be calculated, so we apply equation (2): the power losses (I2 R) in the rotor = rotor input power x per unit slip (S) Power losses in the rotor = 142 kW x 0.03 = 4.26 kW then, the power developed by the rotor = rotor input power rotor losses the power developed by the rotor = 142 kW 4.26 kW = 137.74 kW ii) the output power = developed power - the friction and winding losses in the rotor = 137.74 kW 7.0 kW = 130.74 kW Now, back to the motor and the generated rotor: the electrical power generated in the rotor, Pr = m Ir Er cos r (Watts) where m is the number of phases of the rotor, then: Pr = m . Ir . Er = m. {S Eo / [R2 + (SX0)2]1/2 }. {S Eo . R / [R2 + (SX0)2]1/2 } [for the power loss, in R the power factor, cos r = 1]. The, Pr = m S2. E0 2 . R / [R2 + (SX0)2] So, the power is dissipated as [I2 R] in the rotor circuit. So, as the torque on the rotor is proportional to the power generated by the rotor, then, for a given machine, where m is fixed and Ns (the synchronous speed) is fixed by the supply frequency, then the proportionality of the torque is: T S. E0 2 . R / [R2 + (SX0)2] where, E

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then, [fixed], so then,

T S 2 . R / [R2 + (SX0)2]

and for a given supply voltage and frequency, then the flux, and Er remain constants T S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2] , which is important as the torque proportionality. Note: let us first to equate this torque relationship (or proportional), to be: T = constant x S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2], then, it can be shown that at per unit slip, S, equal to zero, the torque will be zero. This is at (Nr = Ns), so there is no rotors conductors linkage with the stators magnetic field, and then no induced emf in the rotors windings. Accordingly the rotation fall down, and there will be no torque. While, at S = 1, ( maximum value), when the rotor is just leaving the standstill situation, then the torque is not going to be maximum immediately. Also, it can be seen from the torque proportionality relationship which shows that S is in the numerator and denominator of the equation, and then when S = 1 is not necessarily the torque is at a maximum value. Then the maximum torque, Tmax, occurs at a value of S greater than zero and less than one.

Torque - Slip (Speed) Characteristics

Variation of torques proportionality with slip, while other factors remain constant: As we have: S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2] T , for constant flux and E. The Torque proportionality is: {S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2 } Torque
0.06

D, [Rd = 8] C, [Rc = 4] 0.04 B, [Rb = 2 ] 0.02 A, [Ra = 1] 0.01 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.05 0.6 0.8 1.0 for all graphs Xo = 8

Per - unit Slip (S) Figure 2: Variation of Torques proportional with Slip (represents Torque - Speed).

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The target is to plot the proportionality, {S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2 }, (to the torque), against the per unit slip, S, with some conditions as the following: We will fix the value of the leakage inductance, X0, and plot the proportionality magnitude at different values of R and S. A variety values of the rotors resistance R can be applied, at different values of S, where: S values are: 0.1 , 0.2 , 0.3 . and 1.0 The characteristic illustrates many graphs, each shows a maximum of the proportionality occurs. Now, in Figure 2, the condition of the items chosen are: the leakage inductance, X 0, is at a fixed value, and equal to 8 , Ra = 1 , Rb = 2 , Rc = 4 , Rd = 8 When the graphs of {S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2 } vs S are plotted, the results show that the maximum always occurs at the magnitude of [0.06], as is seen in Figure 1. We can prove this result by choosing a value of the resistance, R, and slip S, to calculate the result, as: For graph A, Ra = 1 , and the maximum of the graph occurs at S = 0.1, then apply the value of the proportionality: S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2 = 0.1 x 1 / [ (1)2 + (0.1 x 8)2 ] = 0.1 / [1 + 0.82] = 0.06 For graph B, Rb = 2, and the maximum of the graph occurs at S = 0.2, then: S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2 = 0.2 x 2 / [ (2)2 + (0.2 x 8)2 ] = 0.4 / [4 + 2.56] = 0.06 For graph C, Rc = 4, and the maximum of the graph occurs at S = 0.5, then, when applying the proportionality the result is 0.06. Also, for graph D, Rd = 8 , and S = 1.0 for the maximum, the result is 0.06, as well. This means that the maximum value of the torque is always the result of: (0.06 multiply by the constant), for each of these graphs. But these maximums occur at different values of S when the rotors resistance per phase, R, is changed . Example: The data below show the relation between the torque and slip, S, of an induction motor. Slip, S: 0.05 0.1 0.2 Torque, T: 35 87 54 68 0.3 55 0.5 36 0.8 28 1.0 24

Plot the relationship T S, and find the value of slip at maximum torque occurs. 70 65 60 x 50 40 x 30 20 10 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Slip , S 0.8 0.9 Nr = zero 1.0 x x x Torque, N .m x

The maximum value of the torque is approximately 66 N. m, which occurs at Slip , S, equal to 0.22. Find the rotor speed, NR, correspondent to each slip S, and write that under the values of S of the characteristic. [ex. when S =1, NR = zero, etc ] According to: S = (NS Nr ) / NS , then, When: S = zero, Nr = NS S = 0.1, Nr = 0.9 NS S = 0.4, Nr = 0.6 NS S = 0.7, Nr = 0.3 NS S = 1, Nr = zero

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Maximum Torque:
Maximum torque can be found by mathematical method: From the torque relationship: T S.R/[R2+(SX0)2] T = k. S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2] .. (3) where k is the constant value of the proportionality To find the maximum Torque, we differentiate equation (3) with respect to S, and then the result equated to zero, then we apply: dT / dS = {[R2 + (SX0)2 ] . k R kSR [2 SX02] } / [R2 + (SX0)2 ]2 for maximum torque, is when dT / dS = zero so, we have, R2 S2 X02 = zero and then, R = S . X0. Hence, maximum torque occurs when: S = R / X0 Therefore, the larger the value of rotors resistance the higher the value of slip (and hence the lower is the value of speed), for maximum torque. Then for torque in equation (3): T = k SR / [R2 + (SXo)2] , the maximum torque is when: S X0 = R, and then, equation (3) becomes:
The maximum torque: Tm = k S R / 2 R2 then:

Tm = k S / 2R or Tm = k / 2 X 0 , Hence, the maximum torque is independent of R.

Starting Torque:

From the torquespeed diagram the starting torque increases with rotor resistance as far as R = X0 , [for starting torque, S = 1]. Also, high rotor resistance will give a high power loss (I2 R), and, then, it is heating of the motor. Hence, if the rotor resistance is kept low, so, then, this is giving a low starting torque. To solve this problem: it is usually wound the rotor by extra resistance, (it is introduced via slip rings device), just for starting torque, and then switched the extra resistance out.

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Variation of Torque with the supply voltage: 2 We have: the torque, T and, supply voltage then: T [supply voltage]2 Solved Example: 1- A three - phase induction motor has a synchronous speed, Ns, of 20 rev /s, standstill rotor voltage, V1, of 120 V / phase, rotor resistance per phase, R, of 0.25 / phase and standstill rotor reactance per phase, Xo , of 2.0 / phase. Find the torque of the motor at standstill, slip S = 1 Solution: The torque of three phase induction motor equation is given by: T = 3 Eo 2 . R . S / o [(R)2 + (S.Xo)2] (where m =3, no. of phases) and o = 2 NS = 2 x 3.14 x 20 = 125.6 rev /s T = 3 x (120V)2 x 0.25 x 1 / 125.6 x [(0.25 ) 2 + 1 x (2 ) 2] = 10800 / 510.25 = 21.166 N. m

Machinelosses:
Input power to the stator is applied for: 1.copper power loss [I2 R] in the stator windings. 2. iron power loss in the stator core. 3. power transferred to the rotor. Power transferred to the rotor [from the stator] is applied for: a) copper power loss [I2 R] in the rotor windings b) iron power loss in the rotor core (usually negligible) c) mechanical power developed in the rotor. This power gives a useful mechanical power out, also, friction and winding power losses. Solved Example: Three phase induction motor has 6 poles and draws 100 kW from a 50 Hz voltage supply with 4.0 kW stator losses. Calculate: a) the total mechanical power developed at 0.04 slip and the output power, if the friction and winding losses in the rotor are 1.8 kW. b) if the maximum torque of 50 Nm is developed at speed of 950 rpm, find the torque at the 0.04 slip and at starting if the rotor resistance / phase is 0.02 Ohms.

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The supply gives the stator a power of 100 kW, where the stator losses copper and iron power losses, and transfers the rest to the rotor. The rotor losses as copper and friction power loss, and the rest is used to apply the torque. Voltage supply power VS , 50 Hz o/ p i /p 100 kW stator o/p 96 kW power transferred i/ p Losses = 4 kW rotor o/p mechanical power [to produce a torque] losses

Input power to the rotor = 100 kW 4 kW = 96 kW and as, the rotor power loss, [I2 R], / rotor input = S [the per unit slip] Hence, the rotor loss = 96 k W x 0.04 = 3.84 kW Then, the mechanical power developed by the rotor = 96 kW 3.84 kW = 92.2 kW Therefore, the power out = 92.2 kW 1.8 kW = 90.4kW Max. torque, Tm = k / 2 X 0 , then, 50 = k / 2 Xo , and then, X0 = k / 100

also, we have system of 6 single poles, [i.e. p = 6 /2 = 3], and 50 Hz motor, then the speed N is: N = 60 f / p = 60 x 50 / 3 = 1000 rpm Then, at speed of 950 rpm, the per unit slip S is: S = (1000 950) rpm / 1000 rpm = 0.05 then, Tm = k S / 2 R 50 = k x 0.5 / 2 x 0.2 Ohms , k = 2 / 0.05 = 40 Then Xo = k / 100 = 40 / 100 = 0.4 Now, the torque, T = k S R / [R2 + S2 Xo 2] for S = 0.04, T = 40 x 0.04 x 0.02 / [0.0004 + 0.0016 x 0.16] = 0.032 / 0.00066 T = 48.4 Nm For starting torque, [S = 1, Nr = zero], then, T = 40 x 1 x 0.02 / [0.0004 + 1 x 0.16] = 0.8 / 0.16 = 5 Nm

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Starting the cage rotor induction motor:

Useful information on the starting rotor: If an induction motor is connected directly across the voltage supply, then a 47 times the full load current will be taken for starting. Except for small motors this is unacceptable and special methods are required. StarDelta: The stator winding is connected in star for starting, and when it is running the connections are changed to delta. it is only 1/ (3)1/2 of the running voltage is applied to each stator phase for starting. Then, this reduces the starting current to 1/ (3)1/2 of the direct starting value per phase. Hence only 1/3 of the line value is for direct starting. While, the torque, (which is proportional to the volt 2), reduces the starting torque to 1/3 of the direct starting value.

Starting the induction Motor:

a) using an Auto transformer: A threephase auto transformer can be used to give a reduced voltage for starting. The amount by which the starting current is reduced for starting varies with the allowable starting current and starting torque requirements. b) applying a wound rotor induction motor: External resistance is added to the rotor via slip rings for starting. The resistance is gradually reduced as the motor speeds up until the slip rings are short circuited when the motor is up to speed. This can give maximum torque on starting. Characteristics of the cage rotor induction motor: 1. Almost constant speed, slightly less than synchronous speed. 2. No simple speed control. 3. Needs a starter of some type except for the smallest motors. 4. Poor starting torque hence generally started on no load or light load. 5. No slip rings or commutator, so it is explosion proof (safe). 6. Cheap and efficient. 7. High starting current and lagging power factor. Characteristics of the wound rotor motor: 1. Almost has a constant speed. 2. Speed control possible by external rotor resistance but wasteful and lowers efficiency. 3. Good starting torque (can be 2 to 3 x full load torque). 4. Slip rings produce extra maintenance and explosion risk. 5 More expensive than cage rotor but still inexpensive. 6. Same efficiency and power factor characteristics as the cage rotor motor.

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Solve the Problems:

1- Explain the motoring effect. [try and see the notes]. 2- Show in some details, the process which lead to induce generated emf in the rotor of the three phase induction motor, explaining the torque development in the whole process. Comment on the relative speed between the stator field and rotor. [try to solve it and see the notes]. 3- Find the per unit slip of a three phase induction motor, when the synchronous speed is 1500 rpm and the rotor speed is 1485 rpm. Comment on the result. 4- Calculate the per unit slip, S, of A three phase, four pole induction motor is connected to a supply of frequency 60 Hz, and the rotor rotates inside the stator at speed of 1680 rev per min. Calculate: a) the per unit slip of the machine, and b) the frequency of the rotors induced emf. 5- Explain why the torque on the rotor is inversely proportional to the speed of the rotor in the induction motor. Draw a diagram showing your explanation. [note: try to find out what will happen to the field linkage with the rotors conductors when the speed of the rotor increases or decreases, and relate that to induction and then to the torque] 6- Comment on the relationship between the torque, T, on the rotor and per unit slip [S], and show an illustrated diagram for this characteristic. [try and see the notes, where there are details] 7- A three phase induction motor receives a power from a 50 Hz supply, where, the rotors losses is 3 kW, and then the rotor is developing its mechanical power at per unit slip of 0.015. Calculate: i) the power received by the stator from the supply, when the stators losing is 10 kW and, ii) the output power when the losses of friction and winding are 6 kW. 8- prove that, for a maximum torque: R = S X0 , where R is the phase resistance of the rotor, X0 is the leakage reactance per phase of the rotor, and S is the per unit slip. [see the notes]. 9 A three phase induction motor, connected to a supply of 50 Hz. The motor has 6 poles, and the rotors phase resistance is 0.06 . The maximum torque was at rotors speed of 850 r.p.m. Calculate the torque at slips of 1 and 0.05, with respect to the maximum torque.

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Answers: 3) the per unit slip, S = (Ns Nr) / Ns S = (1500 1485) rpm / 1500 rpm = 15 / 1500 = 0.01 = 1% as the slip is small, the rotors conductors will have lower linking with the stators magnetic field, and reduced induced emf in the rotors windings. The rotation and torque are going to fall. 4) a) the stators speed, (synchronous speed), Ns = [f / p ] x 60 Ns = (60 Hz / 2) x 60 = 1800 revolution per minute per unit slip, S = (Ns Nr) / Ns S = (1800 1680) rpm / 1800 rpm = 120 / 1800 = 0.06 = 6% the slip is high, and there is an opportunity for the rotors conductors to have a linkage with the stators magnetic field. b) the frequency, fr , of the induced emf in the rotor is: [where f is the frequency of the supply], fr = S .f fr = 0.06 x 50Hz = 3 Hz 7) i) to calculate the power received by the stator (from the supply), we should know how much the stator transfers a power to the rotor, [i.e. the rotors input]: The rotors input power = power loss in the rotor / per unit slip, S the rotors i / p power = 3 kW / 0.015 = 200 kW, which is the amount of the power transferred from the stator to the rotor. The stators power received form the supply (stators i / p) = power transferred from the stator + losses in the stator then, stators i / p = 200 kW + 10 kW = 210 kW ii) The o/p power of the motor = mechanical power developed by the rotor the friction and winding losses the power developed by the rotor = the power received from the stator rotor losses = 200 kW 3 kW = 197 kW Hence, the o/p power = 197 kW 6 kW = 191 kW. 9) To find the per unit slip, S, for maximum torque, we need to calculate the synchronous speed, Ns , NS = [f / p] x 60 = [50 Hz / 3] x 60 = 1000 rpm , (where, p, the pole pairs = 6 /2 =3 ) then, S = [Ns - Nr] / Ns S = [1000 885] rpm / 1000 rpm = 150 / 1000 = 0.15 94

where the maximum torque occurs, Tmax = k S / 2R = k x 0.15 / 2 x 0.06 = 1.25 k, then, k = Tmax / 1.25 . (1) to find the torque, T, at different per unit slips, S, we need to find the leakage reactance of the rotor winding at standstill, Xo , which a constant value, Xo = R / S , [which is for the maximum torque], then, Xo = 0.06 / 0.15 = 0.4 The torque equation is: T = k. S. R / [R2 + (SX0)2] Now, at starting, where S = 1, the torque, T1 is: T1 = (Tmax / 1.25) x 1 x 0.06 / [(0.06)2 + (1 x 0.4)2] T1 = approximately 0.3 Tmax = 30 % Tmax , at S = 0.05 T2 = (Tmax / 1.25) x 0.05 x 0.06 / [(0.06)2 + (0.05 x 0.4)2] T2 = 0.6 Tmax = 60 % Tmax

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Synchronous motor
Synchronous machine is connected with the frequency of the alternating system. Then, it is the machine of having its rotor runs at a speed in synchronism with the alternating voltage applied to the machine, or at speed determined by the frequency of that system. This means that: synchronous machine, under steady state condition, has its shaft rotates in synchronised with the frequency of the a.c. current of the supply. A synchronous machine can function as: a generator when supplies a current to the circuit system, or a motor when draws a current from the circuit system. General construction of synchronous machine: Stator part is the outer stationary part: it is usually the armature, and it carries three phase windings. The stator windings deliver output induced current to the external circuit, [in the synchronous generator operation], or draw current form a three-phase voltage supply, [in the synchronous motor operation]. Rotor part is the inner part (inside the stator): It carries the magnetic field windings, where these winding are excited by the current of an external d.c. voltage supply, and magnetic poles are formed on the rotor by this excitation process. The rotor may have distinct magnetic poles (salient pole rotor) or just consist of a cylinder (non-salient pole). As the machine may be large and rotate at 30,000 or 36,000 revolution per min, [rpm], the rotor must be strong. Salient pole machine are normally low speed. Dealing with synchronous machines: generator and Motor:

A.C. Generator or alternator:

Note: Synchronous machines are usually used as generators, especially on the demand to produce large electrical power generating systems, as that of turbine generators and hydroelectric generators in the power supply system. A C1 B1 rotating rotor carries poles [S -N] stationary stator caries B three phase windings C A1 Figure 1: stationary stator (outside part), and rotating rotor (inside part).

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The synchronous generator has two parts: Thestator: it is the outside and the stationary part. it carries three-phase armature windings. These windings are physically displaced from each other by 1200 [phase difference]. The windings are: AA1, BB1 and CC1 [as is shown in Figure 1]. Through the generating operation process, the stator windings can deliver output to induce current in an external circuit. The stator connections are, generally, simple, but often carry a current of several thousands amperes at 33kV. The rotor: it is the inside part, and carries magnetic poles. The magnetic poles can be a simple bar magnet, (used for small machines), or carries the magnetic field windings, (for large generators). When the method of magnetic field winding is used, the rotor windings are excited by a d.c. current supplied by an external d.c. voltage supply. The d.c. supply is connected to the rotor windings via slip rings and brushes or to a revolving DC source via a special brushless configuration. Therefore, by this excitation process, magnetic poles [north poles and south poles] are formed on the rotor. During the generating process, the rotor with its magnetic poles rotates inside the stator. The rotor rotation is performed by a source like a steam or turbine. The rotor can have a simple robust construction, so it can run at high speed. Rotor construction: There are two types of rotor constructions: the salient pole rotor, and the cylindrical rotor. Salient pole rotor: poles bolted to a steel yoke of the rotor. These poles are used on generator drive at low speed, e.g. water turbine. When using a large number of poles, it is then to get the frequency of 50 Hz at low speed. Cylindrical rotor: a cylinder with slots for the rotor conductors is used. It is used for the condition when the mechanical forces on salient poles are too great for high speed. Generating Operation Process The rotor is rotated inside the stator by aids of power by some sources as that from water fall or steam etc. When a motion of a north pole, [N- pole], of the rotor past against a particular conductor on the stator, there will be a positive peak, [maximum], of emf generated on that stator conductor. This process occurs once in each cycle of the rotor. The same process occurs by the following south pole [S - pole], but in this case the generated emf on the stators conductor is in opposite direction to that performed by the N- pole of the rotor. So, then, we call the action of the S- pole on the stators conductor, a minimum emf generated. While, when no pole of the rotor is being acted against the stators conductor, [when, both N and S poles act equally and opposite to each other], then the resultant action on the stators conductor will be zero.

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Therefore, the process of each rotation sequence of N - S, (of the rotor), will perform one complete cycle of generated emf on a stators conductor. Then the complete process of generated emf is performed as that: The start is from zero level, it is the beginning when no magnetic pole is acting. Then there will be a maximum performance of generated emf,, followed by a zero again, and then a minimum performance of generated emf, then lasted to be zero. This is for the full one revolution of the rotor. Now, the three phase of the stationary windings of the stator will be acted upon to produce three phase generated emfs output, as each phase of the winding is induced emf by the rotors magnetic field. The Frequency of the generator: Now, to find the frequency of the generator through the generating process, as the following: During one revolution of the rotor, there are p pairs of poles passing by the stators windings, and then there are p complete cycles of the output generated emfs, on the stators windings, [as p represents the number of pole pairs on the rotor]. Then, if the rotors speed is N rpm, hence for each one revolution of (N) there are (p) number of complete cycles passing the stators conductors. Accordingly, for the speed N, the total number of cycles per minute are: [p. N], which is the output frequency of the generated emf. in the stators conductors. Hence, the output frequency, f, cycles per min, [cpm], is: f = p .N cpm , and then for cycles per second [cps] f = p . (N / 60) cps = (p . N / 60) Hz. Solved problems: If a rotor has 3 pairs of poles, [p = 3], and the rotor is driven at 2000 revolution per min [rpm], this will cause the output frequency to be: f = p .N = 3 x 2000 rpm = 6000 cycles per min = (6000 / 60) cps = 100 Hz If the demand is to produce an output frequency of 50 Hz [as is the British system], by using a rotor carries two pairs of poles, then the rotor should be rotated at Nr = f / p Nr = 50 Hz / 2 = 25 rps = 25 rps x 60 s = 1250 rpm For a certain frequency, fo , the speed, N, is oppositely proportional to the number of pole pairs, p. Usually, the demand, by the authors is for the frequency of 50 Hz mains, [Britain mains], by using a system of two - pole machine [p = 1] Then the speed for the generator system is: Nr = 60 fmains / p = 60 x 50Hz / 1 = 3000 rpm 3000 rpm is the most common speed for the generators rotated by the aid of steam turbine. 98

The operation process of the generating induced an emf: by the generator machine: The stator windings are distributed over several slots on the stator, as this method produces a better sinusoidal waveform of generated emf. This distribution, also, will help to dissipate the heat power rises due to I2 R power loss in the conductors of the windings. The process of the synchronous generator is usually applied by constructing the number of groups of the stators conductors to be the similar number of poles on the rotor, [e.g. four groups of the stator conductors and four poles on the rotor two south and two north poles]. If the data of the generator is as the following: the number of the stators conductors in series per phase is: Z, the number of pairs of poles of the rotor is: p, the useful flux per pole is: and the speed of the rotor is: N. then: when a conductor on the stator will link [cut] with the poles magnetic flux in one revolution, then, the magnetic flux been cut by a conductor is counted as that: the amount of magnetic flux for each pole multiply by the number of poles of the rotor. This is equal to [ . 2p ], and, then, the magnetic flux cuts a conductor by unit time [one second], which means that it is for the number of revolutions of [(N / 60) rps], then the amount of the generated emf is equal to: . 2p . N / 60 , [per second] This value, mathematically, represents the average amount of the induced emf generated in 1 sec [unit time] on one conductor of the stator. Therefore, this result shows that the frequent [i.e. the sequence] of the process for a conductor on the stator to be induced by generated emf is going to be the same as that of the speed of the rotor, i.e. the frequency of the generated emf on each conductor of the stator is the same as that the frequency of the rotation [synchronous] of the rotor. Hence, this amount, [ . 2p . N / 60], of induced emf generated is supplied each conductor of the windings if all of these windings were concentrated in one slot per phase [as there is no phase difference between the conductors when they are in one slot on the same phase]. Therefore, the average value of the induced emf, generated for Z number of conductors per phase is Eemf , so. The average value of the generated emf per phase, is: Eemf = Z . 2p . N / 60 (volts) .. [1] Sinusoidal operation of the synchronous generator: In the system of the synchronous generator, the requirement is to produce a sinusoidal waveform of the generated emf., Eemf . Accordingly, the magnetic flux, which is

99

produced by the current of the stators windings, must vary sinusoidally as the rotor poles pass under the stators conductors. The physical parameters of the sinusoidal waveforms are calculated by the mathematical method called the root mean square, [r.m.s.], rather than the average results. Therefore, the average values of the generated emfs should be changed and to be calculated by the rms values. The mathematical relationship to find the root mean square, r.m.s., values, from the average values is: r.m.s. value = 1.11 x average value, So, then, to change our average values of the generated emf, E, to be in r.m.s. value, then equation [1] becomes: rms of E = 1.11 x Z . 2p . N / 60 (volts) (2) note: the r.m.s. of generated emf, E, is written as: E rms and, as the term [pN / 60] represents the frequency, f, of E, then equation 2 becomes: E rms = 2.22 f Z per phase An induced current is drawn in an external circuit for each phase of the stators winding. So, for three phase system, there may be three different external circuits. Solved example: Find the output value per phase of a sinusoidal generated emf induced in the stators windings, of 20 conductors per phase when the useful magnetic flux per phase is 0.05Wb and the frequency of the generated emf is 120 Hz. By applying the generated emf equation: E rms = 2.22 Z f per phase then: E rms = 2.22 x 20 x 120 Hz x 0.05Wb = 266.4 V per phase 266.4 V x 3 = 799.2 V the induced Eemf for the three phases

Rotating magnetic field:

The three phase winding of the stator are distributed in arrangement that the phase winding are at 1200 intervals (i.e. physically displaced are by 1200) around the stator. This arrangement will produce a rotating magnetic field inside the stator. [note: if it is only one phase, so it produces a pulsating magnetic field]. The rotating magnetic field is, of course, the result of the induced currents in the windings of the three phases, as each current has its own magnetic field [and then a magnetic flux], and these magnetic fluxes are out of phase by 1200. 100

currents and magnetic fluxes, and then the m d magnetic flu resultant of the ux The voltages, c e e ically shown as the foll n lowing: three phases are mathemati Supp pose that: th voltages, [emfs across the windi he ings coils], of the three - phase in the , e stato are: or ia va = Vm sin t vb = Vm sin [ t - 2 / 3] vc = V sin [ + 2 / 3] t vb va 120o vc

ib

ic

ee r ent ator The thre phase star arrangeme in the sta r ance load, L the curren is lagging the voltage by 900, L, nt e For the inducta henc the induc currents of the thre - phase sy ce, ced s ee ystem in the stator are: ia = Im sin [ t - /2 ] ib = Im sin [ - 7 / 6] t ic = I sin [t + / 6] t VL 90o IL

IL lagging VL by 900

etic which are in phase with the current are: n h ts, also, the magne fluxes, w s a = m sin [ t - /2 ] = - m cos t b = m sin [ t - 7 / 6] = - cos [ t - 2 / 3] c = m sin [ t + / 6] = - cos [ t + 2 / 3] The magnetic fl phasor d flux diagram of t three ph the hases is as sh hown in figu 2: ure c c cos / 3 600 c sin / 3 a b cos / 3 b Figure 2: the phaseor diagram of the three p r f phases. b sin / 3

101

By applying the geometrical relation of: sin (a+ b) = sin a cos b + sin b cos a, and cos (a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b then, Summing horizontal components of the flux, as: h = a - b cos / 3 - c cos / 3 = - m cos t + m cos [ t - 2 / 3] x (1/2) + m cos [ t + 2 /3] x (1/2) Then: h = m cos t (-1 1 /2) = - (3/2) m cos t Summing vertical components v = b sin / 3 c sin / 3 = m cos ( t - 2 / 3) x (31/2 / 2) + m cos( t + 2 / 3) x (31/2 / 2) , then v = - (3/2) m sin t Then, the resulting total flux, t, is: t = [h 2 + v 2]1/2 = - (3 /2) m and the phase angle, , of resultant is: = tan-1 v / h . Then, we can have a magnetic flux of constant magnitude rotating at angular velocity of rad / s. Generator [Alternator] equivalent circuit: A simple equivalent circuit can be shown form the general characteristics of the synchronous generator operation. The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3. Each phase in the stator is identical and is generated an identical emf. As the rotor is excited by a direct current, If, [of a d.c. voltage supply], so the magnitude of the induced emf generated, Eo, in each phase of the stator is proportional to If, [provided that the magnetic circuit is not saturated]. The impedance per phase of the stators armature winding has: a phase inductive reactance, XS, known as the synchronous reactance, and a phase resistance, Rs, The resistance Rs is very small and can be neglected, since the phase inductive reactance Xs is greater than the phase resistance Rs by a factor of more than 50, and the equivalent circuit per phase is accounted for only the XS , which takes the simple form without Rs.

102

refore, whe the altern en nator is sup pplying a lo of Z, (w oad where EL is the voltage drop e Ther acro the load then the equivalent circuit of th alternato is reduce to an ind oss d), he or ed ductive reac ctance XS, [i Z = Xs , without Rs] as in the F i.e. ], Figure 3. If Flux d.c c sup pply E0 VL Load Z inductive, XS mm , I

Figur 3 : the eq re quivalent cir rcuit of a syn nchronous g generator, p phase. per , hen nt hrough Xs [f loaded for For [no load], we have Eo = Vo/p .Wh a curren I flows th erator], then there will b a voltage difference between E0 and VL, an [Eo > VL] The n be e nd ]. gene curr passing will create a magnetic filed in the winding of XS and it is a demagne rent f s etising field to oppose the main fie d eld. ternator outp voltage: put Maintaining alt m alent circuit of Figure 3 t 3: From the equiva The load voltag VL, will b less than the generat emf, E0, if the powe factor of t ge, be n ted er the d e ctive the c current lags the voltage] ]. load is lagging, [i. e. for the load induc Incr reasing the c current I in t circuit w increase the demagn the will e netising ma agnetic field of d XS. Then the difference bet tween VL an E0 will in nd ncrease. he s ve e ctor load is lead ding the c current If th load Z is a capacitiv one, [the power fac of the l lead the volta ds age], the de emagnetising field of t armatur reactance Xs, causes the the re e, term minal voltage to increase with incre e e easing of the load. e

Typ pical termi voltag regulati characteristic: inal ge ion

This is concerne with the stability of the termina voltage in transmissio power lin s ed al n on ne. It is important for the wo s orking in el lectrical po ower system to keep a m always the output volta [terminal voltage], constant [o with very small variation]. age or This is an impo s ortant factor when trans r smitting the power to th output [r e he receiving en of a nd transmission lin should be at const voltage. ne] d tant w, cal n: Now in practic operation The terminal voltage varie with the armature c es current or lo current, at constan field oad , nt curr rent.

103

Therefore, when a generator is supplying power to a load, so the voltage output at the terminals of the load is the full load voltage, which is the rated voltage [or it is called loads rated voltage], Vrated. If the load is, then, removed, the voltage at the output terminals will increase [rise], which is the terminal of the (no load) voltage. The term voltage regulation, VR, is used to determine the stability of the terminal voltage [i.e. whether it is constant or not], at the receiving end of transmission line. Accordingly, the voltage regulation is defined as: The ratio of the output voltages for (no load) and (full load) to that of the (no load) voltage [full load i.e. rated voltage, Vrated]. Voltage regulation, VR , is mathematically expressed as: Voltage regulation, VR = Change of terminal voltage / full load terminal voltage (no- load) terminal voltage - (full load) terminal voltage VR = no - load terminal voltage

VR = [Vno- load Vfull - load ] / Vno - load and the percentage voltage regulation is: % VR = 100 x [Vno- load Vfull - load ] / Vno- load The acceptable range of the percentage regulation is: 1 % to 3%. The regulation should not exceed a certain value limited by the designers, [which is not more than 3 %]. While, if the regulation is excessive, there should be an automatically maintain a constant voltage output. Usually there is a designed to automatically maintain the voltage regulator to a constant voltage output. The field current may be used as an automatic control where to maintain an approximately constant terminal voltage when the load is changed. When single alternator, (generator), is connected to a very large electrical supply system, the single generator cannot influence the voltage and frequency. In this situation, it is said that the generator is connected to an infinite bus. To connect the generator to the bus, the generator must be synchronise its speed exactly and make its open- circuit terminal voltage equal to the voltage of the electrical supply system in both magnitude and phase.

104

Solved problems: 1) A generator delivered a power to a load of 30 where the voltage across it was 85 V. When the terminals are opened the voltage was 90 V. calculate the percentage voltage regulation of the system, and comment on the result. Applying the voltage regulation formula: % VR = 100 x [Vno- load Vfull - load ] / Vno - load = 100 (90 V 85 V) / 90 V = 100 x 5 / 90 = 5.55 % The percentage of the regulation is high and the full load voltage should be maintained to be approximately similar to that of no- load voltage. 2) A resistive load of 50 received a transmission power from a generator, where the current passing in the load is 5 A. When the percentage regulation is calculated it shows a value of 2 %. Calculate the no- load voltage, when the load is removed, and comment on the regulation of the system. The full load voltage (rated voltage) is: Vfulll - load = IR .R = 5 A x 50 = 250 V % VR = 100 x [Vno- load Vfull - load ] / Vno - load 2 % = 100 x [Vno- load 250 V] / Vno-load Vno- load (100 0.2 ) = 250 V x 100 V no -load = 251 V The system is useful as the regulation percentage, of 2 %, is including the permission value of the working.

105

Three Phase Synchronous Motor:

The motor is drawing a current from a supply system to rotate the rotor (performing in opposite of the generator). The construction: The construction of the stator and the rotor are similar to that of synchronous generator: The stator winding connected to the three phase A.C voltage supply where the stator's winding, is excited by the current of the three phase supply. The current will produce a rotating magnetic field of the stator. The rotor carries the magnetic field winding. Where the conductor of the winding is excited by a d.c. current supplied by an external d.c. voltage supply. The d.c. current produces the rotors magnetic poles, [where p is the number of pole pairs on the rotor]. The aim of the synchronous motor is that: these rotors poles should follow the rotating of the stators magnetic field, by dealing in attraction and repel with the alternating magnetic field of the stator. Then, the rotor must always rotates at the speed of the stators rotating field, which is the synchronous speed, Ns rpm, where: Ns = 60 (f / p) , [where f is the frequency of the a.c voltage supply]

The operation of the synchronous motor:

Now, from the construction of synchronous motor, we have a rotating magnetic field of the three - phase winding of the stator, and the field of the rotors permanent magnet, (by the magnetic poles). The process of the operation is aimed to rotate the rotor by the influence of the rotating magnetic field of the stator, where, then, the rotor is rotating at a synchronous speed, as that of the stators rotating field. Schematic diagram of Figure 4 shows these rotations.

rotating of the stator magnetic field

the rotor rotation

Figure 4: Schematic diagram to show the movement of stator field and the rotor.

106

The principle steps of the operation: When the stators alternating field sweeps past the pole magnets of the rotor, a northpole on the rotor is, then, attracted to the south- pole of the stators rotating magnetic field, and the south pole on the rotor is attracted to the north pole of the stators rotating field. This performance will show a lock on of the rotar to the stators rotating magnetic field and, accordingly, the rotor will runs at the same speed of that of the rotating field. The condition should be realised in this situation which is that: the magnetic pull has to be strong enough between the rotor and the rotating field. This condition is applied when the rotor is having a little inertia, (i.e. light rotor), and then, not to preventing the [lock on] to occur. Now, in practical operation: there is a mechanical load which is connected to the shaft of the motor, (it is the normal wound of the rotor), then the inertia of the rotor increases. Therefore, the rotor tends to slow down, and then the rotors poles will start to form a deviation angle behind the stators poles. The result is that the poles of the rotor and that of the stators field are not to be in the same alignment. This situation will prevent a complete [lock on] to occur on the rotor. The occurrence of the deviation angle results in that, there will be a phase difference between the generated emf, E and the applied voltage. The deviation angle depends on the rotors load, and, then, if the mechanical load becomes great, the rotors poles fail to lock onto stators poles. Such a condition is known as the [pull out] torque, and the rotor, then, slows down and stops. While, at a critical load, the rotors poles are only slip back to the next stators pole where alternately attracted by and repelled by the stators field and then rotors poles [locks on] again [pole slip]. During the operation, while the rotors (lock on) is perfectly occurring, the motor is said to be in synchronisation. Starting the operation of the synchronous method: Synchronous motors are not self-starting motors. This property is due to the inertia of the rotor, [because of the mechanical load, as stated earlier]. This means that to starting the operation of the synchronous motor, some aids have to be applied. For this reason, the synchronous machine is started as an induction motor. The aid supplied on starting synchronous motor is as: A pony motor is used as an aid: it is a small induction motor with two poles less than the synchronous motor, so it runs faster.

107

This small induction motor is coupled to the synchronous motor and is connected to the end of the shaft of the synchronous motor. The small induction motor will go on to drive the main motor to synchronous speed on (no- load). The pony motor can be electrically independent of the main synchronous motor. The induction motor is running on a reasonable light load, so the slip will be small. As the induction motor reaches the demand speed, the voltage supply is connected to the synchronous motor to be synchronised. The rotor of the synchronous motor will, also, excited to a normal d.c. supply at speed near synchronous speed. So it will be smoothly pulled into synchronism and be able to pull- in, lock- on, and, then, continue running at synchronous speed. When the starting operation is completed, the small induction motor is now switched - off from the supply. Note: The comparison between the operating of the synchronous motor and the induction motor are: For the induction motor, the rotors conductors have no poles, and the stators a.c. magnetic field induces generated emf in the conductors of the rotor to rotate. Wile, in the synchronous operation, two magnetic fields are interacting with each other to rotate the rotor. The two fields are, one by the magnetic poles on the rotor from a d.c. source, and the other is the stators a.c. magnetic field. The motor has to be supplied with a pony motor, (a special starting small induction motor), for the operation on synchronism, Also, economically it is higher than the induction motor for the cost of power per k Watt. Therefore, the points of need to d.c. source, pony motor and the economical cost are accounted the disadvantages of the synchronous motor comparing with the induction motor. The Synchronising state: A synchronous motor develops a back e.m.f. that is when the rotor runs up to speed. Where generated back emf is as a generating effect, which is the result of a conductor rotates inside a magnetic field. The back emf tends to oppose the main field, which is according to Lenz law. The back e.m.f generated, E, in a phase of a synchronous motor will have a magnitude that depends on the d.c. rotor excitation current. While, from the starting operating of the synchronous motor, it should be satisfied with that: The voltage of Stators three phase windings is the same as that of voltage supply. The speed of the machine is at synchronous speed, and then the frequency of the machine is the same as that of the voltage supply.

108

Problemsonthreephasesynchronousmachines: [trytosolvetheproblemsandcheckwiththenotes]. 1Statethesynchronousspeedinelectricalmachines. 2Describe,ingeneral,theconstructionofthesynchronousmachines. 3ExplaintheoperationofanA.C.threephasesynchronousgenerator. 4Comparetheconstructionandoperationbetweenthethreephaseinductionmotor andthreephasesynchronousmotor.

109

Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a type of d.c. motor which perform its action by dividing the complete rotation into many number of steps [variety number of steps as it is required]. So, then, the stepper motor is that type of motors which rotates in steps from one position to the next position in a sort of a sequence of discrete movements. This means that the stepper motor is not rotate smoothly and continuously. Using a stepper motor may be for the necessity of some applications, as that concerns with the ability to control the speed of the drive accurately and to know the actual position of the rotor of the motor at any precise instant. This is can be useful, for an example, as an application when a machine tool is required to cut a series of teeth in a gear wheel, where the gear blank would be turned or indexed from one cutting position to the next one by using an electrical motor. Now, for the preparing the stepper motor, the angular extent of the steps can be within a range covering up to, say, 300. For the manner of the motor steppes movement, the motor is accounted as a digital device, where it is usually operated under a digital control, to rotate form one position to another, which is not smoothly and continuously. This means that it is operated with pulses rather than continuous input signals, where it converts digital pulses into mechanical. So then, according to this pulsating movement characteristic, the stepper motor is used for many purposes, such as in robotics, in computer controlled plotters and in teletype printers. There are certain advantages of using stepper motor, including that this type of motors are simple and relatively low cost to design, also no need for brushes in their construction [this is called maintenance free], and they have high reliability. There are some basic types of stepper motor, as: The variable reluctance and the permanent magnet:

The variable reluctance stepper motor:

The construction and the principle of operation can be explained as: It has a stator with windings to be energised, and a rotor of soft iron which rotates freely as it has no magnet on it. The stator and rotor, usually, have different number of teeth. This type of motor has step angles in the range 8 to 30 degrees.

110

on pping motor for 300 ste is that: eps The constructio of the step ter as indings, wh here each winding The stator, (out part), ha six poles, with three separate wi y. can be energised separately

ure mple e otor, [stator w two separate wind with dings]. Figu 1: a sim variable reluctance stepper mo The rotor, (insid the stator has four poles teet -, [it has n magnets or winding coils, de r), th no s g ched], and s it is not energised. It rotates inside the stator. so attac The windings o the stator are each en of nergised in a time, whil others are not. An ex le e xternal trol pplied to ene ergised the w windings. cont circuit is usually ap The winding po oles, on the stator, are AA, BB and CC a shown in the diagra e e as n ams of ure he ition called (0) position [as it is th starting o n he one], and th the hen Figu 2. Let th first posi follo owing positi ions will be 1, 2 , 3 etc e: c. Whe the wind en dings AA is energised, the rotors teeth will b moved (o started to be) in s be or posi ition [0]. Th is when the rotor is attracted a aligned with the w hat s and winding AA as is , show in the diagram (a) o Figure 2. wn of

A B rotor C A B 0 1

C 2

stator (outer part)

F Figure 2: Di iagram (a) n urned off, w while the w winding BB is, now, e energised. T rotor is, then, The , Then AA is tu mov to posit ved tion [1], wh attracted and align with wi hen ned indings BB, as is sho own in diag gram (b).

111

For the next step, windings BB are turned off, and CC are energised, then the rotor is moved to position [2], when it is attracted and aligned with the windings CC, as shown in diagram (c). A B 0 C A B 1 2 C

Figure 2: Diagram (b) A 11 12, 0 B 10 9 4 C 8 7 6 A 5 B 2 3 1 C

Figure 2: Diagram (c) If this sequence is repeated then the rotor will be moved to positions 3, 4, 5, .. until 12, [Note: position 12 is the same as the starting position 0]. Where, now, the rotor makes a complete revolution, each step is by: 3600 / 12 = 300. Generally, the value of the step angle, , depends on both, the number of stators phases, s , and the number of rotor teeth, n. To relate the step angle to components of the motor, the relationship will be as follows: The angle for the complete rotation is 3600, which the rotor will perform at n steps for each winding of the stator. Then there are an amount of (n multiply by s) steps required to perform the complete rotation. Therefore, the angle, , for each step is: the angle of each step = the angle for a complete rotation / number of steps , then: = 3600 / (n.s)

112

mple Exam ariable reluc ctance stepp motor h a stator of s numb of separ winding and per has ber rate gs A va n number of rotor teeth p phase, f per find: a) an e expression to the step a o angle, b) the value e of th step angle if the stato windings are 3 and th rotor teet are 6. he or s he th As mplete rotati is 3600, and its for t rotor of moving n steps ion the a) A the angle for the com for e each windin of the st ng tator. Accor rdingly, we have a num e mber of ste which a the eps are resu of [(n) x (s)] required for the complete rotat ult d tion. The, th value of each step [i the he i.e. angl ], is: le, = 3600 / (n n.s) b) if n = 4 and s = 3 then th step angle is: f he e = 3600 / (6 x 3) = 3600 / 18 = 200 which is the value of th angle for each step. 6 he r

Perm manent m magnet step pper motor r:

The constructio of the per on rmanent ma agnet steppe motor is s er shown in Fig gure 3: The stator e of able reluctan stepper motor], th nce r hree separate windings. The ed has, [like that o the varia rmanent ma agnets. Then the rotor is no longer has teeth as with the va n s s ariable rotor carries per ctance moto Instead the rotor is a d.c. mag or. s gnetized wi alternate north and south ith e reluc pole situated in a straight line parallel to the rotor shaft. es n l These magnetic rotor poles provide an increasing magnetic f c s n g flux intensit and beca ty ause of this act the pe ermanent m magnet moto exhibits improved torque cha or aracteristics when com mpared with the variable reluctance type. e

Fig gure 3: Perm manent stepper motor: a the rotor of permanent magnet a a) and, b) the stator hol the wind lds dings. The main opera ation depends on the re eaction taki place be ing etween the r rotors perm manent mag gnets and the stators m e magnetic field d. 113

ates the nd ration is per rformed on the attractio and on The rotor opera inside t stator, an the oper ulsion betwe the roto permane magnet and the stat een ors ent tors electro omagnet pol [of les repu the windings]. The stator windings are energised in turn [like that of the va r n, t ariable reluc ctance step motor], an the posi p nd ition of the rotor will be held w e l when the stators wind ding is de- e energised, u until other w winding is en nergised. Ener rgising the stators win ndings in tu urns will rot the roto with steps size deter tate or rmined by which is now the nu n s umber of rot poles. tor The usual char racteristics of permane magnet stepper mo ent otor are tha the moto has at: or simp construc ple ction and th low co The spe is relati hen ost. eed ively low, a also ha low and as torq It has st que. teps of 450 o 900. or

Win nding arra angement f stepper motors: for r

The industrial p production o the stepp motors is concerned with applic of per s d cation in ne for eed a ce ertain type o stepper m of motor. The main difference in pr roduction of variety typ of f pes stepper motor is by the met s thod that the motors w e winding ener rgised. nerally, indu ustrial produ uctions, hav two basic winding a ve arrangemen for the s nts stepper Gen moto and they are configu or ured as: Bipo and Un olar nipolar.

Bi- polar stato winding or g:

Fi igure 4: The Bipolar sta winding e ator g.

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It is constructed to have bidirectional current, where it applied by two power sources for the currents. Bi-polar has a single winding per phase. As comparison with that of uni- polar, bipolar stepper motor is having greater torque as it is more powerful from the point that the windings are in a more useful arrangement manner. While the mechanism of bipolar is more complex and more expensive than the unipolar. The rotor in bipolar stepper motor is split into two parts, sand the two pars are separated by a permanent magnet making half of the teeth south poles and other half of the teeth north poles.

The construction and operation:

Suppose that the stepper motor has four poles with stators windings [A1, A2, B1 and B2], with A1 opposite A2 and B1 opposite B2. The polarities of the current through the coils reverses periodically. There are three ways that the coils are sequentially excited: Wave drive: it is only one set of winding which is energised at a given time. The stators windings energised according to the sequence: A1 N, B1 N, A2 N, B2 N. 90 step. Normal [Full step drive ] : two phases are energised at the same time. The stator is energised according to the sequence: A1+B1 N, B1+A2 N, A2+B2 N, B2+A1 N. 90 step. In this mode, one digit pulse from thee driver will result in one step. - Half step drive: it is a combination of both wave drive and full step drive. It is one winding is energised followed by two windings are energised, alternately. This operation is affected the rotor to rotate half the distance, which yield a resolution of twice as many steps. The stators windings are energized according to the sequence: A1 N, A1+B1 N, B1 N, B1+A2 N, A2 N, A2+B2 N, B2 N, B2+A1 N. 45 step. Half step mode produce a smoother motion than the full step mode.

Unipolar stator winding:

In the unipoloar method, two coils per pole are constructed [and then there is twice the amount of wire in the same space]. The current in a winding is always in the same direction. Figure 5 shows the construction. of the unipolar mode. The winding are A1, A2 produce flux in the opposite direction to 1A, 2A. It is a single phase energized a time for the full step mode.

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ntially excite Wave d ed: drive, full ste drive and halfstep d ep d drive sequen nces The coil sequen otation can b used as w bipolar windings, b having s be with r but separate win ndings inste of ead of ro reve ersing the cu urrents whic makes the switching easier. ch e

eunipolarst tatorwindin ng Figure5:The drive is simp in construction and operation and then is not expe ple d n, ensive, The unipolar d oloar. mparing with that of bipo h com In ap pplication, u unipolor dri ivers are ope erating at re elatively low rates. w

Step pper moto drive cir or rcuit:

Step pper motor p performance is strongl dependen on the dri circuit. Figure 6 sh ly nt ive hows a driv circuit fo one phase A forcing resistor, R is connec ve or e. g R, cted in serie with the stator es field winding of inductance L. d e, The stator time constant L / R can be reduced so that th current through the field e d, he e ding will ris more rapi se idly. wind The base of the transistor w be drive from a logic circuit. will en ent each full va as rapid as possib for good performanc alue dly ble d ce. The stator curre should re esistor help with this performan ps s nce, and th forcing resistor an the his nd The forcing re stance of th field win he nding act as a voltage divider, so the supply voltage m s y must be resis high than the voltage req her quired across the windin s ng.

116

Fig gure6:Step ppermotordrivecircuit. Whe turnoff the energy stored in t winding coil [indu en the g uctance] is c collapsed ra apidly, whe a curre passes through th circuit c ere ent he contains th forcing resistor an the he nd freew wheeling re esistor via th diode, the demolish he en hed. Exam to sho the comp mple ow ponent value es: A va ariable reluc ctance stepp motor ha Inductanc per as ce,L=12m mH;Resistan = 32 a nce and Rate current = 1. 2 A. ed If 99 of full ra current is to be ach 9% ated t hieved withi 1 ms of tu in urn-on, a) fi the valu of find ue forcing resistan and sour voltage r nce rce required. b) on turn-off th current is required to collapse in 0.8 ms. fin compone values. n he s o n nd ent Answer: The d ill ved imes consta [i.e. after 5 x L/ R, a L ant r as a) T full rated current wi be achiev after 5 ti /R is the time co s onstant], wh R is equ to: the p here qual phase windin resistanc Rph, and the ng ce, forcing resistan Rf, [R = Rp + Rf]. nce, e l % lue reached in 5 time The current rise should be exponential so that 99% of full val will be r stants. cons urrent [whic is 1.2 A] is achieved within a tim of I ms, and this is ch d me The full rated cu formed by 5 times (of ti constan , 5 x L / R ime nt R). perf Then each value of time co n e onstant, L /R required a time dura R, d ation of: -3 L / R = 1 x 10- /5 = 2 x 10-4- s 0 so R required = L / time co onstant = 1 x 10-3 H / 2 x 10-4 s 12 then R = 60 ; n and, R = Rph + Rf , , so fo orcing resist Rf = R Rph = 60 32 = 28 tor, then source vol n, ltage, Vs, re equired = rat current x resistance ted e Req quired volta Vs = 1.2 A x ( 28 + 32) = 72 V age, 2 117

b) b Now, in turn off the current, th circuit of freewheelin is concer n e he ng rned. So then n, we h have three resistances, p phase windi resistanc Rph, for ing ce, rcing resista ance, Rf, and the d freew wheeling re esistances, Rw. Then the total Rtoff = Rph + Rf +Rw n we c now, us the 99% figure for tu can, se urnoff the c current, so: requ uired time c constant = ti for turn off the cur ime n rrent / 5 L / Rtoff = 0.8 x 10-3 s / 5 = 1.6 x 10-4 s nce time constan nt Hen required resistance, Rtoff = L / t Rtoff = 1 x 10-3 H / 1.6 x 10-4 s = 75 12 refore, freew wheeling resistor, Rw = 75 (28 + 32 ) = 15 8 Ther irectional dr circuit: rive Bidi This is another type of driv circuit: s ve The transistors are switched in pairs (T T2, T3 T4) T1

e tional drive circuit Figure 7: Bidirect

near rs: Lin Motor

Figure 8: The linear motion co e ontrol.

118

ear control: the linear motio can be m on measured fro rotating of the rotor of the om Line motion c stepper motor. A controlle device lea screw / w er ad worm gear drive can b used to convert be the r rotor motion of stepper motor to a linear motio as can b shown in Figure 8. n r on, be This can be app s plied since t that the pitc (lead) of the lead scr is a line distance travel ch rew ear for o revoluti of the screw. When the length of lead is, then, divided by the nu one ion n h umber of fu steps per revolution of the rotor to find leng per step. ull r r gth An i induction m motors stato can be laid out flat an still have a magnetic field that m or d nd c moves at a constant speed, but in a straight lin Figure 9 : shows the linear indu ne. e uction moto or.

e nduction mo otor Figure 9: linear in

ear is e and Line speed vs = 2 w f m/s , where w i the width of one pole pitch (m) a f is the freq quency of the supply (H Hz). e A simple aluminum or cop pper plate ca be used a the rotor. an as

pes on Typ of linear inductio motor:

The rotor can be the static r or on th moving v rail he vehicle. Vers sion (c) is th best for r he railways as t forces on the rail ar balanced. the re

119

Figu 10: Type of linear i ure es induction m motor These linear mo otors can be combined w magne levitatio in very high speed rail e with etic on i a syste ems, but con nstruction c costs are hig gh.

120

Solve the problems:

1- Explain, briefly, how can the stepper motor accounted as a digital device. 2- Mention some device applications using stepper motor. 3- Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the operation of a simple single- phase, 30 (12 steps) of the variable reluctance stepper motor. 4- Show that: d = 3600 / (a .b), where d is the step angle, a is the number of stator separating windings (phases) and b is the number of the rotor teeth per phase, for a stepper motor. 5- Compare the construction and operation between the variable reluctance stepper motor and the permanent magnetic stepper motor.

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Tr ransfo er forme
Single - P Phase Tr ransforme er
A T Transforme is an el er lectrical de evice whic is used to transfe the elec ch er ctrical pow wer from one circu to ano uit other throu ugh induc ctively ma agnetic co oupled conductorst the transfo ormer's coils. Where different v values of voltages, i the in ould be the result of t transformation. e the two circuits, co e mer wo ed g und on the same co or e ore The transform has tw separate winding coils wou wou one on the top of the other round a core. One o the coils is connec und n f of cted to an a alternating voltage supply, which called t the primary winding, while the other y coil is not conn nected to a supply, w which called the secon d ndary wind ding. e portions of the core a referre to as th Limbs a are ed he and the top and p The vertical p bott tom portion are the Y ns Yokes, whe the prim ere mary and s secondary coils are w wound on t limbs. T the This arrang gement is s shown in F Figure 1.

the t core Figure 1: the arrangement of a ideal transformer. an So, the two in nductors (c coils) are s sharing a c common m magnetic p path throug the gh core It can b said tha any two inductors placed re e. be at: o s easonably closed to each othe will work as a trans er k sformer, if one of them is energ m gised by alt ternating su upply. The more clo e osely the c coils are c coupled m magnetically the mor efficient they y, re t bec come This device is applied to either rais (step up or lower (step dow voltage and s o se p) r wn) es curr rents in an electrical circuit out n tput. In mo odern elect trical distribution sys stems, tran nsformers a used to boost volt are o tage levels and lower the curren at the ou s r nt utput.

122

ecrease the line losse during the transm e es mission, [where, when the n, So then to de rent, I, is de ecreasing t power loss, I2 .R decreases the s.]. curr The transform is essential for all modern e e mer l electronics equipmen and ther are nt, re very few devic that do not use th y ces hem.

Mag gnetism an Inducto nd ors:

A st tatic magnetic field h no effe on the t has ect transforme While w er. when a cha anging [alte ernating] m magnetic fie is in the vicinity o a coil of wire (an in eld e of nductor), an emf [volt tage] is ind duced into the coil w which is in sympathy with the applied mag gnetic field d. Whe an elec en ctrical curre is pass ent sed throug a coil o wire, a m gh of magnetic fi ield is crea ated - this works with AC or DC but with DC, the m h C, h magnetic field is obviously stat tic. For this reaso the transformers cannot be used dire on, e ectly with DC, althou ugh a mag gnetic field exists, it must be a alternat d an ting (chang ging) to induce a vo oltage, [p.d at the te d.], erminals of the other coil. f The alternating magnetic flux, , (o the magnetic field), in the cor also links with e g c of re the secondary winding of the coil and indu y uced and a alternating e.m.f, [electromot tive force], voltage, o e2, as is shown in Figure 1. If the magnetic leaka is of age neg glected, the the same flux links with the p en s primary and secondar turns. d ry nsformers are bi-dire ectional, and will wo regardless of where the input is ork Tran connected. Indu uction law w The magnitud e des of the emf,s ( (voltages) induced across th primary and he y seco ondary coils may be calculated by Farada law of electromag ay's gnetic indu uction, whic states th ch hat: The instantane e eous induc emf, (th voltage) e, is equal to the in ced he ), nstantaneous rate of change in the ma e e agnetic flux (i.e. d/d per unit turn linkin with the x, dt), t ng wind ding of the coil wound on the co d ore.

Fig gure 2: the relationship between the induc emf, e, and the m n, ced magnetic flu . ux

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Graphically, the relationship shows sine waves, (as assuming a sinusoidal voltage source), of the magnetic flux, , waveform is 90o lagging behind the induced voltage wave, e, as is shown in Figure 2. From Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction, the mathematical relationship between the magnetic flux, , and the induced, emf, (voltage), e, is: e = - N . d/ dt (1) where e is the instantaneous induced emf, N is the number of turns in the coil winding, is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil, and t is the time in seconds and [d / dt] is the rate of change of the magnetic flux . the minus sigh in the equation indicates that, e is out of phase by 900 with respect to the magnetic flux, . The result of the phase difference between e and can, also, be found when analyses equation (1) as: , where is the angular velocity of the wave form, Applying: = m sin t and equation (1), becomes: e = N . d/ dt = N . d (m sin t ) / dt = N . .m cos t then, e = 2 f N. m sin (t + 900). Therefore, the induced emf, e, is also sinusoidal but leads the flux by 900.

principles of the Transformer function

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, is that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and secondly is that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage, [p.d.], across the terminals of the same coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. Then the changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil, as well. For the ideal transformer, which is shown in the Figure 1, a current passes through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both primary and secondary coils. The core material is usually made of a laminated ferromagnetic material, (which has a very high magnetic permeability). [Note: The word iron is still used instead of ferromagnetic material, as that at the beginning of construction the transformers, a block of iron was used as a core, while recently the applications for the ferromagnetic materials are used as a transformers cores].

124

The transformer is working on AC current system, and it has no moving parts (while each of the generator and the motor has moving parts). When the primary coil is connected to an ac supply voltage, V1, a varying current [a.c. current] is flowing in the primary winding. This alternating current creates a varying magnetic flux, , in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field, [or flux], is through the secondary winding. The magnetic flux, , in the core, lines with the primary winding and then causes an induced e.m.f., E1, across the primary winding which opposes the applied voltage, V1, (where this is according to Lenzs Law). The induced emf, E1, is almost equal to the applied voltage, V1, and therefore only a small current flows in the primary winding. This current is just sufficient to maintain the magnetisation in the core and referred to be as the magnetising current, Im. The alternating magnetic flux, , in the core also links with the secondary winding which is induced and generated an alternating e.m.f. voltage of E2, across the secondary winding as is shown in Figure 1. If the magnetic leakage is neglected, then the same alternating magnetic flux links with the primary and secondary turns: 1 = 2 The induced emf relation is explained as that: By applying Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction, e = N . d/ dt and, also, for sinusoidal wave of Figure 2, it can be seen that the magnetic flux is changing from its maximum value, [+ m ], to its minimum value,[the absolute value of - m,] in half of a cycle, where the half of the cycle means the magnitude [(T / 2) = 1/ (2f)] second, where f is the frequency of the magnetic wave, which is: f = 1 / T, and T, (seconds), is the period of the sine wave. so then, the sinusoidal waveform of the magnetic flux is given by: = m sin t = m sin 2 f t where is the radian of the value (22/7). Therefore, the average rate of change of magnetic flux, d/ dt, is: 2 m / (1/2f) = 4 f m (Weber / second), accordingly, the average value of the induced emf, e, per turn is equal to 4 f m (volts): eave. = 4 f m Mathematically, the root mean square (r.m.s.) or the effective value is equal to 1.11 times the average value, then: for the sinusoidal wave, the rms value of the induced emf, e, per turn is:

125

er m s = 1.11 x 4 f m = 4.44 f m
The Transformer equation: Since the same alternating magnetic flux, , is produced in the core and links with both the primary and secondary coils, (windings), in an ideal transformer, therefore, the instantaneous values of the voltages (induced e.m.f.s), e1 and e2 of the primary and secondary coils respectively, are: and e2 = N2 . d/ dt e1 = N1 . d/ dt where N1 and N2 are the number of turns of the primary and secondary coils respectively. Note: e1 is the same as ep, and e2 is the same as es Then, the r.m.s. values of the induced e.m.fs. in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer are: (E1 )r.m.s. = 4.44 N1 f m . [1] (E2 )r.m.s. = 4.44 N2 f m . [2] Solved problems 1) A single phase core type transformer has 6000 V / 400 V, f Hz and 60 turns of the primary winding. The design required a maximum magnetic flux density, Bmax, of 1.5 T , and the net cross section area, A, of the core is 0.05 m2. Find: a) the number of turns of the secondary winding, b) the frequency, f, of the operation, and c) the maximum value of the magnetic flux, m. [Note: the expression, 6000 V / 400 V means that the primary voltage is 6000 V and the secondary voltage, output, is 400 V]. a) by dividing E1 and E2 of equations [1] and [2], then: N2 = [400 V / 6000 V] x 60 turns = 4 turns b) Using the transformer equation: Erms = 4.44 f . N . Bmax . A for the primary circuit, 6000 V = 4.44 x f x 60 x 1.5 T x 0.05 m2. thus, f = 6000 V / [4.44 x 60 x 1.5 T x 0.05 m2] = 300 Hz c) m = Bmax . A = 1.5 T x 0.05 m2 = 0.075 Wb 2) A 4800 / 300 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has an approximate 12 volts of e.m.f. per turn and operates at a maximum flux density, Bmax, of 1.5 Tesla.

126

Calculate: a) the number of the primary and the secondary turns, and b) the net cross- section area of the core. Solution: a) E = 12 V x N E1 = 12 V x N1 so then, E2 = 12 V x N2 and then, N1 = 4800 V / 12 V = 300 turns N2 = 300 V / 12 V = 25 turns

b) the r.m.s. [root mean square] of the induced e.m.f., Erms is given by: and = B . A Erms = 4.44 f. N. max (Erms)1 = 4.44 f. N1 . Bmax .A 4800 V = 4.44 x 50 Hz x 300 x1.5 T. A, then A = 4800 V / [ 4.44 x 50 x 300 x 1.5] = 0.048 m2 = 480 cm2 the same result of the area, A, is found when we use the formula for E2.

The ratios of voltages, induced emfs and number of turns of a transformer:

From equations (1) and (2), the ratio of induced e.m.f.s. E1 and E2 gives: E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 Where E1 / E2 is called the voltage ratio, and N1 / N2 is called the turns ratio. The ratio of the voltage across a transformer winding to the number of turns of that winding is called the voltage per turn. This ratio E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 is important since it leads to ratio of the applied voltage, V1, and the out put voltage, V2. If there is a very small difference between the applied voltage V1 and the induced e.m.f. E1 , which is neglected, then the ratio will be: E1 / E2 = V1 / V2 = N1 / N2 This gives the basic equation for step up or step down the voltage 3 V1 / V2 = N1 / N2 When the number of turns of the primary winding coil N1 is greater than the secondary winding coil N2, then V1 is greater than V2 , and the transformer is step down [as the out put voltage is less than the input voltage]. While when V2 is greater than V1 [as N2 > N1], then the transformer is step up. The difference between the applied voltage, V1, and the induced e.m.f. E1 is small [where E1 is less than V1]. This difference is due to the magnetising current flowing through the resistance of the primary winding coil.

127

Therefore, to set up equation (3) approximately true, the primary winding resistance must be arranged to be small, and also, the magnetic flux leakage is very small. The leakage flux can be practically, [approximately], eliminated by either: By winding the primary and secondary one over the other, uniformly around the laminated core of a uniform cross section. Or, by sandwiching the primary and secondary windings. In sandwiching method the primary winding is wound in two sections, one on each limb, so each section is being sandwiched between sections of the secondary windings. Solved Example: A single phase transformer is used to step up the primary voltage, V1, of 120 V to 600 V. Calculate, a) the required turns ratio and b) the secondary number of turns when the number of turns of the primary is 50. Solution: a) since V1 / V2 =N1 / N2 = n (the turns ratio), then the turn ratio = 120 V / 600 V = 0.2, and the required turns ratio is 1:5 b) N1 is 50 turns, and N2 is five times of N1, then N2 = 50 x 5 = 250 turns. The characteristics of the ideal transformer: For the ideal transformer, it is assumed that: -No losses are there in the magnetic or electric circuits. This means that the resistance and magnetic leakage of the coil are ignored. -No current is required to produce the magnetic flux in the core. -The primary and secondary currents are in phase [phase angle is zero]. Then, there is no power loss, and the input power is equal to the output power: Pin = P0ut .

[No- Load] Phasor Diagram of the Idea Transformer:

The (no- load) means that the secondary terminals, of the transformer, are open circuit. This is to show that the secondary terminals are left disconnect, so the transformer is unloaded, and then there will be no current flows in the secondary circuit, in other words the secondary coil does nothing. Phasor of The phasor diagram [directionally representation] is the phasor representation to the components quantities that are common to the two windings.

128

The cores magnetic flux is the common for both windings. It is regarded as the reference phasor, relative to which other phasors have to be drawn. As the cores magnetic flux is common to the two windings, then the convenient phasor of is usually drawn in the horizontal direction. The induced e.m.f.s, E1 and E2, in the primary and secondary winding respectively, are in the same direction, [i.e. they are in phase], since they are induced by the same magnetic flux. Therefore, E1 and E2 can be represented by phasors lagging 900 behind the magnetic flux . [note: the flux and the current are in phase (phase angle is zero), and the current and the voltage emf, - are out of phase by 900, then the flux and emfs are out of phase by 900]

E1

E2

Phasors of E1 and E2 For the ideal transformer, the supply voltage, V1, is equal to the E1 but they are in opposite direction, [Lenz effect.].

V1
Phasor of V1 The phasors constructing of the components , E1, E2 and V1 in one phasor diagram, can be shown in Figure 3. it is the phasor diagram for ideal transformer on (no load).

V1
E1 E2

Figure 3, Phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on (no-load).

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Practical (Real) transformer on the (No- Load):

The characteristics for the real transformer are: There is a small current flows through the primary [approximately 5 % of full load current], when there is no current in the secondary. The real transformer, [practical], has to be considered with losses existing in the practical working. Now: the primary coil, in the (no-load) transformer, possesses a small current, Io, which is made up of two components: a) The magnetising current, Im, which is required for the useful magnetising flux linking with the primary and secondary coils. This current is in phase with the magnetising flux, , and lags the voltage by 900.Then the phasor diagram is as shown in the Figure: V1

Im b) The current, Iw, which is supplying the power lost in the core, (iron loss). This current is responsible for the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. The core loss current Iw is in phase with the supplied voltage V1, so then: the core power loss = Iw .V1 [as the angle between Iw and V1 is zero, then cos zero = 1] The phasor diagram for Iw and V1 is shown in the Figure below: V1 Iw The phasor diagrams shows that the magnetising current, Im, lags the core power lost current, Iw, by 90 0. Io Iw Im Figure 4: The phasor diagram of the primary current, I0, and its components Im and Iw, on No- Load transformer.

130

Therefore, the no- load of the primary coil current, Io, of the transformer, is the resultant of the two current components Im and Iw. The phasor diagram of these currents is as shown in the figure 4. For the magnitude of I0: I0 = (Iw)2 +(Im)2

The power factor (P.f.) = cos = Iw / Io or Iw = Io . cos Also, the power factor can be measured from the relationship between the power and Volt - ampere: Power = Voltage x current x cos [where V and I are not in phase] P = V1. I0 .cos Then, the power factor = cos = the power, P / [ voltage, V1, x current, Io ] While V1 and Iw are in phase [ = zero, and then cos = 1 ] Therefore: and P = V1 x I w Iw / Io = P / [V1 . Io] = the power factor

then the core loss current, Iw, can be calculated by: Iw = P / V1 Now, the (no load) phasor diagram for the real transformer is constructed by the particular phasors of , V1, E1, E2, Iw, Im and Io. which can be in the figure 5.
V1 I0
IW

900Im

E1 E2

Figure 5: The phasor diagram for the real transformer on no- load.

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Solved examples: 1) No - Load single phase transformer of 500 V / 100 V, and frequency 50 Hz, has a core (iron) loss current of 0.4 A and a magnetising current of 2 A in the 500 V winding. Calculate: a) the power of the core loss, b) the no load current of the transformer, and c) the power factor of the primary and the phase differencethe phase angle, (angle between the input voltage and current). Draw phasors of the results. The solution: a) The power loss of the core loss, P = Iw . V1 = 0.4 A x 500 V = 200 W b) The no load current, Io, is the phaseor addition of the magnetising current, Im, and the core loss current, Iw, then: Io = [(Im)2 + (Iw )2 ]1/2 = [22 + 0.42 ]1/2 = [4 + 0.16] 1/2 = 2.04 A Iw Im The phasor diagram of Io, and its components Iw and Im c) the power factor, p.f. = cos = Iw / Io = 0.4 A / 2.04 A = 0.196 or from the power loss: p = V I cos , then: p.f. = P / V1 . Io = 200 W / (500 V x 2. 04 A) = 200 W / 1020 V A p.f. = 0.196 (which is the same as the above) therefore, p.f. = cos = 0.196 and, = cos-1 0.196 = 78.70 (approx.), which is the angle between V1 and Io
V1= 500 V =78.70 Iw=0.4AIo=2.04A 900 E1 E2 Im = 2.0 A

Io

The final phasor diagram. 132

2) A 450 V / 150 V step down transformer takes a no load current of 2 A and has a power loss, PFe, of 135 W. Calculate, a) the iron loss current, b) the magnetizing current, and c) the no-load power factor. The solution: The transformer possesses input voltage, V1, of 450 V and output voltage, V2, of 150 V. a) The iron power loss = the iron loss current x input voltage PFe. = Iw . V1 and Iw = 135 W / 450 V = 0.3 A 135 W = Iw x 450 V, then, b) The magnetising current, Im = 22 - 0.32 = 1. 977 A Im = (Io)2 (Iw)2

c) the power factor (P.f.) = cos = Iw / Io P.f. = 0.3 A / 2 A = 0.15

133

uivalent circ for the [No- Load transform cuit d] mer: Equ e nt ting the fu unctions o the of The equivalen circuit, of the Figure 6 is represent com mponents a in the ci act ircuit, and t they are:

R1 V1 Im

X1 I0 Iw E1

I2 = z zero E2 V2

Xm

Rw

Figure 6: the equiv valent circu for the N Load t uit No transformer e ce, ch nts kage flux in the transf n former prim mary. The inductanc X1,whic represen the leak The resistance R1, repre e e, esents the transforme primary, [copper lo resistan er oss nce]. The core curre Iw, flow through the core re e ent, ws esistance, Rw, [iron lo resistance]. oss The magnetisi current Im, flows through the inductance Xm. e ing t, The current, I0, which is the phasor sum of Im and Iw. e r Also in the cir o, rcuit, it can be said th n hat: Rw a Xm are the equiv and e valent circuit to give th currents Iw and Im. he s V1 > E1, but th difference is very s he small [less than 0.5 % in real tra s ansformer] ]. V2 = E2 , as there is no secondary c current, I2 = zero {No Load transformer}. o The ratio: V1 / V2 is near equal to the ratio: E1 / E2, and so, e rly d V 1 / V2 = E 1 / E2 = N 1 / N 2 , e ormally much greater than the core current, Iw, r The magnetising current, Im, is no and when: d Im > Iw , then approxim >> n, mately, Im = I0 e ses in the transform e mer is approximately the iron losses in the n The total loss core e,[compare to the co ed opper losse when o [Open - Circuit], and then: es], on R1 << Rw, and X1 << Xm also, usually th inductive reactance of X1 >> R1 . , he e e

134

The Transfo e ormer (On Load) ,[closed secondary circuit] n ]:

Whe the tra en ansformer is in prac ctical state of working, the te e erminals o the of seco ondary coil are connected across a loa of ZL [o a resist ad or tance RL], as is shown in the Figure 7. Therefor there is a complete closed circuit o the e re, s of seco ondary.

Figure 7: the tran nsformer on load n The the vol en ltage (of emf E2) a across the seconda winding will cau e ary g use a seco ondary cur rrent, I2, to flow throu the load ZL, . Whe E2 ,now is the vo ugh ere w, oltage source in the s secondary circuit. The secondar current, I2, will, th e ry hen, induce a magne flux in the seco e etic n ondary circuit, and thi flux acts in opposit is s tion to the magnetic f flux caused by the pr d rimary curr rent, I1. The induced m e magnetic flux produce by the s es secondary current, I2, is, accord ding to Len nzs Law, and it has, in this situa ation, a dem magnetising effect. Acc cordingly, t the primar and sec ry condary in nduced em E1 and E2 are to be mfs d redu uced, sinc the sec ce condary cu urrent, I2, g gives rise to opposing the pr rimary mag gnetic flux in the core e. Now as the in w, nduced em E1 in the primary is reduced (slightly), t mf, e s this will inc crease the difference between E1 and th applied voltage, V1, [then V1 will be more e he grea than E1]. ater This difference between V1 and E1 will allow a current Ia, know as balan s e n w t, wn ncing current, to flo in the pr ow rimary side of the tra e ansformer. The curren Ia is prod nt duced to n neutralize t demagnetising ef the ffect of the secondar current, I2. So The the e ry en bala ancing cur rrent, Ia, is accounte as a s s ed secondary current re eferred int the to prim mary, which is in effec flows in t primary winding. h ct the y 135

The balancing current, Ia, then, must have a magneto-motive forces, [ampere turns], equal and opposite to that due to secondary current, I2, therefore: Ia . N1 = I2. N2 and then: Ia / I2 = N2 / N1

where Ia is always in opposite direction to the secondary current, I2. The balancing current, Ia, flows in the primary winding, and it is in the same time acts as the (no- load current), Io, does. The phasor sum of Ia and Io gives the current, I1, which is the total primary current taken from the voltage supply, V1, and it is the primary current I1 for (on load) transformer, as shown in the Figure 8. I1 Ia Io Horizontal direction

Figure 8: The phasor diagram of the components currents Ia, Io of I1 The primary current, I1, is, obviously, greater in magnitude in On Load than on No- Load transformer. Then, in the operation of (on load) transformer, the current I1 will tend to maintain the magnetic flux, , in the core. Then, increasing the magnitude of the primary current, I1, leads to increase the ampere- turns of the primary (N1. I1). Note: Ampere- turns is the magneto-motive force (m.m.f.) in the magnetic effect, which is in similarity (not equal) to that of electromotive force, e.m.f., in electricity. When the induced emf E1 (of the primary) is able to be approximately equal to the applied voltage, V1, then the magnetomotive force m.m.f. (N1.I1) of the primary will be equal to the opposing mmf. (N2.I2) of the secondary, where: N1.I1= N2. I2 and then I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1 The equality is not exact, where it is true only when the magnetising current, Im, is small in comparison with the primary current, I1. The magnetising current, Im, is kept small by using a core material which has a high permeability, (as is using the ferromagnetic material).

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It can be seen that any change in the secondary current,I2, will lead the primary current, I1, to vary approximately proportionally to the secondary current. This occurs since the secondary produces a magnetic flux, and then the variation (change) in this secondary current will affect (by a small amount) the flux, , of the core, so, then, the emf induced in the primary coil is changed. This balance of the primary and secondary ampere-turns is an important relationship wherever transformer action occurs. Input and out put power of the ideal transformer: Ideal transformer means that to ignore: - Winding resistance and flux leakage, - Magnetising current and core losses [Note: to ignore these factors is not possible for practical (true) operating of a transformer] To establish a relationship between the input and out put powers for the ideal transformer, we can use the equations: E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 and I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 By a mathematical arrangement to these equations, we can find that: then: (E1 I1) / (E2 I2) = (N1 .N2) / (N1 . N2) =1

(E1 . I1) = (E2 . I2) and approximately, it can be given by: V1 . I1 = V2 . I2 Thus for ideal transformer (On Load) has: primary volt-ampere = secondary volt- ampere [apparent VA power] Which is ignoring the losses. Primary power, Pin = V1 I1 cos 1, where 1 is the angle between V1 and I1, Secondary power, Pout = V2 I2 cos 2 , where 2 is the angle between V2 and I2 Note on the relationship: V 1 . I 1 = V2 . I 2

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V and I of the transformer are inversely proportional, which means that if V increases I decreasing and vise versa. For example, if V1 is greater than V2 then I1 is lower than I2. If V2 > V1 the transformer is said to be step up transformer [and then I2 < I1], If V2 < V1 the transformer is said to be step down transformer, [and then I2 > I1]. Solved problems: 1) A single phase transformer supplied from a 1100 V source has a step down voltage ratio of 5:1. If the secondary load resistor is of 10 resistance, calculate: a) the secondary voltage, b) the primary and secondary currents, c) the power consumed by the load. Solution: V1 = 1100 V, V1 / V2 = 5 /1 , RL = 10 a) V2 / V1 = 1 / 5, and then, V2 = V1 / 5 = 1100 V / 5 = 220 Volts b) I2 = V2 / RL = 220 V / 10 = 22 A as, V1 / V2 = 5 /1 = I2 / I1 then, I1 = I2 / 5 = 22 A / 5 = 4.4 A c) the power, Pw, consumed by the load resistance is (IL )2. R, hence, Pw = (22 A)2 x 10 = 4840 W = 4.84 k W. or we can apply the formula: pw = I2 V2 , the power consumed by the resistance R, pw = 22 A x 220 V = 4840 W = 4.842 kW, which is the same as the above. 2) A single phase transformer of 200 kVA power, 6600 V / 400 V, 50 Hz, with 80 turns on the secondary winding. Calculate: a) the primary and secondary currents, b) the number of primary turns, and c) the maximum value of the flux. a) Apply: [VA]primary = [V A]secondary Then the full- load primary current = primary Volt Ampere / primary Voltage = 200 000 VA / 6600 V = 30.3 A The full load secondary current = secondary Volt Ampere / secondary voltage = 200 000 VA / 400 A = 500 A

138

b) we have:

V1 / V2 = N1 / N2

Number of primary turns, N1 = V1 N2 / V2 = 80 x 6600 V / 400 V = 1320 turns C) using transformer equation for either the primary or the secondary winding to find the maximum magnetic flux: Erms = 4.44 f N max 6600 V = 4.44 x 50 Hz x 1320 turns x max thus, max = 0.0225 Wb

Phasor Diagram of the Transformer (On Load), closed circuit:

The phasor diagram of a transformer for the case with resistive load, RL. First to show that the primary current, I1, has to be stated in the practical (real) operation of the transformer. This means that it should be considered: a) the voltage drop across the winding resistance, and b) the magnetic leakage in the operation of the transformer. When these two conditions [a and b] are ignored, and only the resistive load is accounted, then: The primary applied voltage, V1, is equal and opposite in phase to the induced emf. E1 in the primary. The secondary terminal voltage, V2, is in the same direction with the induced emf E2 in the secondary, which is for resistive load [i.e. for only a resistance is in the load]. E1 , E2 and V2 are in the same direction [in phase], and they are at 900 with the core flux . VInductance V2 and nearly E2 2 VR I2

Figure a: The current I2 lags the voltage V2 by phase angle 2. The secondary current, I2, lags V2 [and E2] by a phase angle (say 2), as is shown in the Figure a. The power factor is cos 2, the power factor is applied because of the load impedance Z, which is inductive and resistive.

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If Z = R (pure resistive), then cos 2 is equal to 1, as the angle 2 is equal to zero, which is between the current and voltage of the resistance,[this is the same situation between I2 and E2 when load Z is pure resistive]. The balancing current Ia, (where: Ia / I2 = N2 / N1), is equal and opposite in direction to I2. The practical (real) primary current I1 is the resultant of the phasor addition of the current Ia and the no- load current Io, and the phasor diagram of these three currents are as in the Figure below:

Ia angle is between Ia and I1

I1 Io

Therefore, according to the phasors stated above, the phasor diagram for a transformer On Load is shown in Figure 6. V1 I1 Ia angle 900 Io I2 [I2 direction when Z is pure resistive]

2
I2 [I2 direction when Z is inductive and resistive, I2 is out of phase with V2 by 2]. E1

E2 and V2

[E2 > V2 , on - load]

Figure 6: The phasor diagram of transformer with resistive load. From the phasor diagram, it is shown that the primary current, I1, is not quite in phase with the applied voltage, V1. 140

In the power transformer the phase difference between I1 and V1 is very small, which is due to the relatively small values of magnetising current, Im. Solved Example: A single phase, 750 V / 250 V step down transformer receives a (no load) current of 1.0 Ampere at a power factor of 0.2 lagging. The secondary is connected to a resistive load taking 24 Ampere. Draw a phasor diagram and hence find a) The current received by the primary, Ia, b) the power factor at which the transformer operates, c) the power taken from the supply. Note: neglect the impedance of the transformer windings. The solution: V1 = 750 V I1 = 8.26 Ia = 8 A angle angle 90 0 I2 = 24 A E2 = 250 V E1 = 750 V The phasor diagram. a) Ia / I2 = V2 / V1 hence, Ia = (V2 / V1 ) x I2 = (250 V / 750 V) x 24 A = 8 A Io = 1.0 A

b) The primary current, I1, can be determined by the phasor addition of Ia and Io: I1 = [(Ia)2 + (Io )2 - 2 Ia . Io cos(1800 - )]1/2 = [82 + 12 - 2 x 8 x 1 x (- cos ) ]1/2 I1 = [82 + 12 + 2 x 8 x 1 x 0.2 ]1/2 = 8.26 A approximately [note: Ia approximately equal to I1 ]. or finding I1 from Ia and the components of Io as:

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components of Io are the magnetising current Im and the core loss current Iw so then: Iw = Io cos = Io x power factor = 1 A x 0.2 = 0.2 A and Im = [(Io)2 - (Iw)2 ] 1/2 = [12 0.22 ] 1/2 = [1 0.04] 1/2 = 0.98 A Then the vertical currents are the sum of (Ia + Iw ) and the horizontal current is Im: I1 is the phasor sum of these currents, as shown in the Figure below. Ia Iw Io Im I1

I1 = [(Ia + Iw)2 + (Im)2 ] 1/2 = [ (8 A + 0.2 A)2 + (0.98 A)2 ] 1/2 = 8.26 A, which is the same result as the above. To find the power factor (= cos ,) by: cos = (Ia + Iw) / I1 = 8.2 A / 8.26 A = 0.993 which shows that the phase angle is nearly equal to zero. This angle is between the input voltage, V1, and primary current, I1, which is very small, approaching zero, and this shows that the loss occurs is great. c) the power taken from the primary = V1 . I1 cos = 750 V x 8.26 A x 0.993 = 6150.0 W

Losses in real transformers:

The main sources of losses in the real transformer are: Winding (coil) losses, PCu, and core losses, (iron losses), PFe. 1- Winding losses, PCu: it is referred to copper losses as the coils are usually made of copper wire, or with aluminum. This loss is the power dissipated, as a heat, in the primary winding and secondary winding. These powers are: (I1)2. R1 and (I2)2.R2 in the primary and secondary coils respectively. Copper loss, PCu. is a variable power loss which is varies with the load current, I, and it is proportional to the square of the current, (I)2.

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Therefore, minimizing this loss is by transmitting the electric power at higher voltage (for lower current) and, also, by reducing the resistance, R, by using a good quality conductors. 2- Core, iron, losses, PFe: it is referred to the iron losses of the core, (the name iron used because the core was earlier made from steel, but later the ferromagnetic materials are used. The core losses are: Eddy current losses, Pe, and Hysteresis losses, Ph,. where, PFe = Pe + Ph These losses are not concerned with the load current, i.e. they do not change with the load current.

Transformer Efficiency (:)

The efficiency of an electrical machine is the ratio of the useful output electrical power, (of the machine), to its total input electrical power. Then, the efficiency, , of the transformer is: output power = input power The efficiency is usually expressed by the percentage as: output power = input power For Real (On Load) transformer the losses should be included, and then: Input power = output power + losses Pout + PCu + PFe Pin = Pin = V1 I1 cos 1, where 1 is the angle between V1 and I1, Pout = V2 I2 cos 2 , where 2 is the angle between V2 and I2 The output power is a real power (in Watts), and the power factor is cos 2 The efficiency can, also, be given by: Pout = Pout + PCu + (Pe + Ph) x 100%

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Solved problems: 1) A 6600 V / 550 V single phase transformer has an iron loss of 350 Watt, [W], and a full- load copper loss of 415 W. If the full load secondary current is 45A, at a power factor of 0.6 lagging. Calculate the full load efficiency of the transformer. Comment on the result. Solution: V1 = 6600 V, V2 = 550 V, iron loss 350 V, full load copper loss = 415 W, full load secondary current = 45 A, and p.f. = cos = 0.6 The power output of the transformer = V2 I2 cos = 550 V x 45 A x 0.6 = 14 850 W = 14.85 kW The total power loss in the transformer at full load is given by: copper loss + iron loss = 415 W + 350 W = 765 W then the efficiency: output power = Out put power + losses = 14850 W + 765 W 14850 W = 0.951

and in the percentage is = 0.951 x 100% = 95.1 % comment: it is a high efficiency, which shows that the transformer machine is designed in good manner. 2) A transformer rated at 12 k VA, 250 V/ 100 V. The core los is 500 W and the power input is 600 W at full rated current. Evaluate: a) the resistance, R1, regarding the 250 V winding at the primary. b) The efficiency of the transformer for each of the following loads: i- full load at unity power factor, ii- full load at 0.8 power factor leading, and iii- one half full load at unity power factor. a) The full rated current, I1, in the 250 V winding = Volt Ampere / primary Voltage I1 = 12000 VA / 250 V = 48 A The copper loss = (I1)2 . R1 600 W = [48 A]2 x R1 , then R1 = 0.26 b - i) The efficiency = V A cos = V A cos + PCu + PFe 12000 VA x1 +( 500 + 600) W 12 000 VA x 1 [unit p,f,]

144

= 0.916= 91.6% High eff. And a good transformer. ii) The efficiency = 12 000 VA x 0.8 [p.f.] = 0.897 = 89.7% 12000 VA x 0.8 + [500 + 600] W Comment: lower eff. than the above working transformer. iii) For the (half full load), the current, from the supply 250 V, is now halved. Then, the current is equal to 48 A / 2 = 24 A, also, the rated V A is halved, and = 12000 VA / 2 = 6000 VA then the copper loss = I2 . R = (24 A) 2 x 0.26 = 149.76 W 6000 VA x 1 [unity p.f.] the efficiency = 6000 VA x 1 + (500 + 149.76) W Comment: it is a high efficiency, but it is lower than that of (full load) working. Now, it is required to find the maximum efficiency of a transformer. Condition for Maximum Efficiency: The volt- ampere is a power, and it is called by [volt ampere] to distinguish it from the power loss of [I2. R, in Watts]. It is known that for the input or output of the transformer, the voltage and current are not usually in phase, but there is a phase difference (the phase angle, ) between them, and then the cosine of the phase angle is the measure of the power factor, [ p.f. = cos ]. Now, for the output power, there is a phase difference between the secondary voltage, E2, and current, I2, [where the load Z is the impedance, i.e. resistive and inductive] Therefore, the secondary output power of the transformer is given by: Output power, Pout, is equal to: E2 . I2 . cos 2 then, the efficiency can be expressed as: = Pout Pout + PCu + (Pe + Ph) where, PFe represents (Pe +Ph) ] = E2 . I2 . cos 2 E2 . I2 . cos 2 + PCu +PFe = 0.902 = 90.2%

145

and the efficiency can be written by: = V2 . I2 . cos 2 V2 . I2 . cos 2 + (I2)2.R2,equ + PFe [as Pcu = I2. R2, equ] Now, for the purpose of the maximum efficiency, we can apply the mathematical process. First is to divide by the current I2, then the efficiency becomes: V2 . cos 2 = V2. cos 2 + I2.R2, equ + (PFe / I2 ) The efficiency of the transformer is at its maximum when the value: [I2 .R2, equ + (PFe / I2 )] is a minimum, Then, by differentiating this value with respect to the current I2, and then, equated to zero, (for maximum value) yields: d [I2 .R2, equ + (PFe / I2 ) ] / d I2 = R2, equ (PFe / I22 ) = zero then: PFe = (I2 )2. R2,equ , where, (I2 )2. R2,equ is the copper losses, so, then, maximum efficiency, max, is when the copper losses is equal to the iron losses: PCu = PFe then, the total loss, Pt [= PCu + PFe], for maximum efficiency can be written as: hence, Pt = 2 PCu max = or = V2 . I2 . cos 2 V2 . I2 . cos 2 + 2 PFe or Pt = 2 PFe

V2 . I2 . cos 2 V2 . I2 . cos 2 + 2 PCu

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Solved problem: A step down transformer designed with 75 kVA, 2500 V/ 300 V, 50 Hz. By assuming the power factor of the load is unity,[cos = 1], the primary resistance, R1, is 0.5 and the secondary resistance, R2, is 8 m. If the full load efficiency is maximum, evaluate the efficiency on full load, and comment on the result. For the maximum efficiency: copper loss = core loss To calculate the copper loss, it should be found the primary and secondary currents. The full load primary current, I1 = Volt Ampere / primary Volt I1 = 75 000 VA / 2500 V = 30.0 A, and the copper loss is: PCu1 =( I1 )2. R1 = (30.0A)2 x 0.5 = 450 W For the secondary current: I2 = 75 000 VA / 300 V = 250 A Pcu2 =( I2)2 . R2 = (250 A)2 x 0.008 = 500 W The total copper loss = 450 W + 500 W = 950 W For maximum efficiency, the core loss should be equal to 950 W Thus the total loss [core loss and copper loss] = 2 x 950 W = 1900 W The max. efficiency: max = Pout Pout + PCu + PFe 75 000 VA x [p.f. = 1] = 75 000 VA + 1900 W = 0.975

so then: 0.975 x 100 % = 97.5 % comment: the eff. Is very high, so the transformer is well designed and perform a good work

147

Tra ansformer Equivale Circuit: r ent

en nsformer is assumed to be equ s d uivalent to an ideal t transformer, this Whe the tran mea that it is free fro losses [of iron an winding losses] and no mag ans om nd gnetic leak kage, also the iron c core is of great per rmeability w which doe not requ es uire a mag gnetizing c current. Figure 12 rep presents an ideal transformer. n

gure 12: an ideal trans n sformer Fig w, ransformer, [of Figure 13], is pr e ractically having addi itional Now the real (actual) tr circuits (or impedances) which sh ), hould be in ncluded be etween the supply vo e oltage and the prima winding also, be d ary g, etween the secondary winding and the lo y oad of the transforme er. uivalent cir rcuit means to illustr rate a diag gram show wing the fu unction, ac and ct Equ position of the circuit com e mponents. The erefore, the characte e eristic of the transf former equ uivalent ci ircuit is as the follo owing: The physical e e elements [c component of the re transfor ts] eal rmer (On Load) are e: The ances R1 and R2 : 1) T resista The resistanc e ces of the primary R1, and seconda y, d ary,R2, of the coils are f s repr resented in the series with primary and se n s econdary w windings res spectively. The e e es 2) T leakage inductive reactance X1 and X2: Lea akage representation Since it is not all of the c n: t cores mag gnetic flux links prim mary and secondary coils, be y ecause the are lea ere akages fro the co to om ore outs side air. Therefore, the leak kage path has high reluctan h nces and it is prop portional to the curren in the co o nt oils. The there has to be c en, contributed these lea d akages and they are represented as d indu uctive reac ctances, na amed, X1 a X2 of th windings, which are in series with and he s the primary an seconda circuits respective nd ary ely. 3) T magne The etising curre Im and reactance Xm: ent The magnetiz e zing current, Im, (whic produce the core magnet flux link the ch es es tic ks prim mary and s secondary coils), is a reactive current an its indu nd uctive reac ctance [i.e. magnetizing reactan nce] is repr resented by Xm. y

148

The , ore sistance Rw: 4) T core loss current, Iw, and co loss res The core loss [due to hy e ysteresis a eddy c and currents] is given by ( w)2 Rw ,ta (I akes a core loss curre Iw, and the core loss resist e ent, d tance Rw. o the core loss of Connection of the elem n ments [com mponents]: : 5) C 0 The magnetising current Im is lagging by 90 behind the power los current, Iw, in e t e ss , the core. The the transformer e en, equivalent circuit ha to conta an indu as ain uctive reac ctance Xm, in paralle with the core loss resistanc Rw, and both of these el e s ce, d com mponents a in parallel with the primary w are e winding. Also as it ha been m o, as mentioned before, th current Im and Iw are the two he ts e com mponents o the prima coil small current, I0 , of the ( load) transformer. of ary , (no ) Thu the fina equivalen circuit of the actua transform (On Load) is as that us, al nt f al mer shown in the F Figure 13. I1 Z1 R1 I1 V1 supply voltage Z1 Iw X1 Ia N1 N2 R2 I2 Z2 X2 I2 Z2 Im V2

Io

E1 E2

Rw

Xm

to o loa ad

Id deal transformer quivalent circuit of a tr ransformer On - Load r d Figure 13: The eq m eal n From the equivalent circuit of the re transformer, it can be seen that: For the primar side of th transfor ry he rmer: I1 R1 = the volt tage drop d to prim due mary resista ance, R1, I1 X1 = the volt tage drop d to prim due mary leakag reactance, X1, ge I1 Z1 = the vol ltage drop due to prim mary imped dance, Z1. e ent, he e g The total curre I1, is th phasor sum of the balancing current, Ia and the (no load current, Io. d)

149

The supply voltage, V1, is equal to the phasor sum of E1 and [I1 Z1 ] , where, in phasor representation it is: V1 = E1 + I1 Z1 and then V1 > E1 If we assume that the phase angle, [phase difference] is 1 between V1 and I1, then: cos 1 is the power factor of the primary side of the transformer. Also, for the secondary side [the load side] of the transformer, we can see that: I2 R2 = voltage drop due to secondary resistance, R2. I2 X2 = voltage drop due to secondary leakage reactance, X2, I2 Z2 = voltage drop due to secondary impedance, Z2. The e.m.f. E2 is equal to the phasor sum of (I2 Z2 ) and the secondary terminal voltage, V2, , where the phasor representation is: E2 = I2 Z2 + V2, and then, in phasor: V2 = E2 - I2 Z2, so, then, V 2 < E2 If we assume that the angle 2 is the phase difference between V2 and I2, then: cos 2 is the power factor of the load [secondary side of the transformer]. E1 and E2 are in phase with each other, and they are at 900 with the cores magnetic flux . Note: the (no- load) current, Io is representing only about 3 %, or so, of the full load primary current I1. Therefore, if the parallel circuit of Rw and Xm is omitted from Figure 13, the error is small and will not be appreciable

Voltage Regulation:
Voltage regulation is dealing with the ability of the transformer to keep the output voltage constant. In the transformer operation, it is important to keep the secondary voltage at a constant value to have a good performance on power transformation. Now, when the transformer is on (no load), the output voltage, V2 is equal to emf, E2. While, when the transformer is loaded then the output voltage changes to be lower than the (no load) value. Then, the assessment of how good is a power transformer in maintaining the secondary voltage to be kept nearly constant, over a range of variations of the load current, is referred to the term voltage regulation of the transformer.

150

Therefore, it can be understood that, the voltage regulation is concerned with the variation in the secondary voltage for the operation of (no- load) to that of (on load), [at constant input voltage]. Hence, [for the primary voltage, V1, is constant], and only dealing with the secondary side of the transformer, then: If there will be a change occurs in the values of the secondary voltage in its two functions, of (no load) operation and that of (on - load) operation, then the difference in the value of these voltage operations per unit value of the (no - load) voltage is said to be the voltage regulation of the transformer. Therefore, mathematically the regulation is given by: Voltage (no load) secondary voltage (full load) secondary voltage Regulation = (no load) secondary voltage [at constant V1] If no load secondary voltage is represented by, V2(n) and the full- load secondary voltage is represented by, V2(L), then the voltage regulation, Vreg , is: V2(n) -V2(L) Vreg = V2(n) and usually expressed as a percentage: % Vreg = V2(n) - V2(L) V2(n) x 100 %

[Note: Full load referred to that, the level at which the transformer is performing its work at maximum permitted value of the secondary current]. We can involve the primary voltage, V1, in the voltage regulation by: Secondary voltage on (no load) is equal to: V2(n) = V1 . N2 / N1 , (as V1 / V2 = N1 / N2), then: Vreg = or Vreg = V1 (N2 / N1) - V2(L) V1 (N2 / N1) V1 - V2(L) (N1 / N2) V1

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Regulations in the range of 1 to 3 % are, generally, accepted as in a well designed transformer. Solved Examples: 1) If the output (secondary) voltage is measured at a range of 9.990 volts at no load and 9.348 volts at the "full load." Calculating the percentage voltage regulation, and comment on the result. %Voltage regulation = V2(n) - V2(L) V2(n) 9.99 V 9.348 V = 9.99 V Comment: the voltage regulation is high, which is not accepted, where the transformer is not well designed 2) A transformer has a no load output voltage of 300 V and when carrying full load at 0.7 power factor lagging, the transformer regulation is 5%. Calculate the output terminal voltage at this full load, and comment on the result. Solution: %Voltage regulation = V2(n) - V2(L) V2(n) where, V2(n) - V2(L) is the amount of change in the terminal voltage then, the change in terminal voltage x 100% % Vreg = no load output voltage 5 = [the change in terminal voltage / 240V] x 100 The change in terminal voltage = 5 x 300 V / 100 = 15 V = V2(n) - V2(L) Thus, the full load output terminal voltage, V2(L) = 300 V 15 V = 285.0 V x 100 % x 100 % = 0.0642 x 100 % = 6.42 % x 100 %

152

mment: 5% voltage r % regulation is high, lea aving a rela atively big d difference Com betw ween no lo and full load of the seconda output, [15 V]. The the oad l ary en tran nsformer is not well pe erforming.

3) 0kVA, 330V / 240 V s V single phas transfor se rmer has no load vo oltages of 2 V 240 A 10 and 235 V res d spectively. Calculate the voltage regulatio Also, ex e on. xpress the value in percentage. tage regula ation = Volt V2(n) -V2(L) V2(n) e ge The percentag voltage regulation is: 0.02083 x 100 % = 2. 08 % Com mment: low voltage re w egulation, a the pe and erforming of the transf former is g good. (240 V 23 V) / 240 = 0.0208 35 0V 83 =(

Tra ansforme Matchi er ing [ or Im mpedanc transf ce formation n]:

The relationsh betwee the mag e hip en gnitude of t second the dary load a the effe and ective prim mary imped dance is a v very impor rtant one in transform theory. n mer Whe a load is connec en cted to the secondary the prim y, mary curren I1, incre nt, eases dance fall This s and the prim d mary imped ls. shows that both I1 and the input the dary load. impedance will then depend upon t second gure 7 show the arra ws angement. Fig e ce y s by tionship: The impedanc seen at the primary terminals is given b the relat [Impedance]P = V1/ I1 = ZP I1 V1 ZP E1 E2 V2 ZL I2

N1

N2

arrangemen for the tr nt ransformer matching r Figure 7: a

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The maximum power transfer theorem state that: the power transferred from a signal source into a load will be maximum when the load impedance is equal to the impedance of the source. For simplifying the conditions by assuming that: a) the transformer is free of the losses, which is an ideal one, also, b) assume that the secondary load is purely resistive, and is given by RL and the impedance seen at the primary is a purely and given by RP (= V1 / I1). Where RL is connected to the secondary terminals and RP is the resistance seen at the primary terminals, as Figure 9 indicates. A transformer may be used to match a load impedance to a signal source impedance to ensure maximum power transfer. Now, for the ideal transformer, we have: V2 / V1 = N2 / N1 and I 1 / I 2 = N2 / N1

so then, by multiplying the arrangement of these equations, we have: V2 / V1. ( I1 / I2) = (N2 / N1)2 and hence, or, V2 / I2 = [N2 / N1]2 (V1 / I1) V1 / I1 = [ N1 / N2]2 . (V2 / I2) (a)

we, have, have: V2 / I2 = the load resistance, RL , and V1 / I1 = the resistance seen at the primary terminals, RP Therefore, equation (a) becomes: RP = [N1 / N2]2 . Rs [as Rs is the same as RL]

for Z impedance relationship: ZP = [N1 / N2]2 . Zs The turns ratio [N1 / N2] is going to be greater than unity [if N1 > N2] for step down transformer [V1 > V2], and less than unity [if N1 < N2] for step up transformer. Hence, by choice of the turns ratio (N1 / N2) we can match the load resistance, RL, to a source resistance for maximum power transformation. This is an important property of transformer since it can be used as a resistance transforming device, distinct from its more obvious properties of voltage and current transformation.

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Solved Examples: 1) A step down transformer has a turns ratio of 10:1. If the effective resistance, does the transformer offers a maximum power transformation at the primary terminals, is 100 k, calculate the load resistance connected to the secondary terminals. Solution: We have the ratio N1 / N2 = 10 and Rp = 100,000

Then, applying: RP = [N1 / N2]2 . Rs 1 x 105 = 102 x Rs Hence, Rs = 1 x 105 / 102 =1000 2) A common arrangement is used when an output transformer is connecting an amplifier to a loudspeaker. If the resistance of the loudspeaker [as the out put of the transformer] is 8 . What has to be the turn ratio of the transformer if the impedance seen at the primary terminals of the transformer is 100 The transformer matching is: RP = [N1 / N2]2 . Rs

where,

100 = [N1 / N2]2 x 8 then the ratio is: N1 / N2 = 3.5 3) A 3.9 k load resistance is to be matched to a source of an internal resistance of 23 , so that maximum power transfer to the load. Calculate the required transformer turns ratio. Solution: Applying: RP = [N1 / N2]2 . Rs then, 23 = [N1 / N2]2 x 3900 and, N1 / N2 = [23 / 3900]1/2 = 0.0768 the required transformer ratio. Where, N2 = 13 N1 approximately

155

Tra ansformer test for l r losses me easureme ent:

The are sim ere mple test measuremen for the copper los nts sses, PCu, and iron lo osses, PFe, These tes known a open circuit test a short c sts as: and circuit test. e urement is that: when performin the test the effic n ng ts, ciency The useful of the measu and the equiva d alent circui of the transformer c be foun it can nd. The tests ar performe by using a Wattme instrum ese re ed g eter ment. en est condary of the transfo f ormer is on No -Load n d): Ope circuit te (the sec The open circ e cuit, [o. c,] test is us ] sed to me easure the core pow losses, (iron wer loss ses), where the prima current is small, t e ary t then the co opper loss is very sm in mall this test and c be igno can ored. The primary v e voltage, cu urrent and the power consume are mea r ed asured by using the open circu Wattmet uit ter. The ar rrangemen is shown in Figure 8 nt 8. curr rent coil of f the wattmeter e the Wattmeter A I0 V1 Voltage coil of the wattmeter NP Ns Vo.c

e rrangement for the op circuit m t pen measurem ment Figure 8: The ar ry ctor e As, the primar current, I0, is a fac of few percentage (about 5 %) of the (full d) copper loss will be m s much less th one pe han ercent load primary current, IP, then the c of th full load value. T he d Then the re eading of t the wattme eter is poin nted only t the to core iron, loss measurement. e, s ort est dary is short circuited by a wire) d ): Sho circuit te (second The short circ e cuit, [s. c.], test is use to meas ed sure the co opper powe losses, ( 2 R). er (I In this method a small voltage, a short ci as ircuit volta age, Vsc, is applied t the s to mary of the transform e mer. This input volta age is incr reased in steps to le the et prim curr rents circul lating in bo winding to be of t order o the (full load) currents. oth gs the of The arrangem e ment of sho circuit te is show in Figure 9. ort est wn e

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e current and power con d nsumed ar measure by the W re ed Wattmeter. The voltage, c As t applied voltage is only a few percenta of rated voltage, [few perce the d s w age d entage of th normal v he value], so t then the co flux will be small. ore cu urrent coil of the wattmeter e Wattmeter Low v voltage Voltage coil of the wattmeter NP Ns Vs.c. A

ure ent short circuit measure ement Figu 9 :The arrangeme for the s en e sses are ve small, since the iron loss is approxim ery mately s The the core (iron) los prop portional to the squar of the flu o re ux. In this test the copper l e losses are the (full load) cop pper losse as high rated es rents are flo owing through both c coils. curr The the pow reading of the wa en, wer g attmeter fo short circ or cuited conn necting, (Psc), is P perf formed for the coppe losses an the leak er nd kage reacta ance, so th both can be hen calc culated.

Aut -Transf to former:

Auto transform is a ty o mer ype of transformers w which has only one w winding, as it is shown in figur 10. It is arranged to have pa of the w re art winding to be commo for on h ary e ry both the prima and the secondar sides. ng slidin contact N1 turns V1

in

rns N2 tur

V2 out

gure 10: A Auto trans sformer arr rangement. Fig

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This formation can be performed by any transformer when the separated primary and secondary winding are connected in series. In this transformer arrangement the output (secondary) is tapped off from a sliding contact, and it is a variable where it acts as a potentiometer, and it is usually called Variac. Variable auto - transformers are easy to be used for normal control of power for heating or motor speed control. While they cannot provide isolation from the supply. It is generally used for voltage ratio of 2:1.

Current transformer
A current transformer device is used in instrumentation for current measurement. It is used to measure alternating currents without connecting an ammeter into the circuit. It is especially useful to measure currents in circuits carrying high voltages, or where connection of a current meter is impractical. Sensing coil IS meter A NS one turn coil IP

NP

Figure 11: current transformer of a toroidal core The current transformer often consists of a ferromagnetic toroidal core. The primary winding, of NP , is excited by the primary current IP, and the secondary is the sensing coil which is effectively short circuited, or a sort of meter across it, [as the resistance of the meter is very small], and the cores magnetic flux is small]. If the transformer is not short circuited the core flux would increase enormously, [as there is no secondary ampere turns to balance the primary ampere - turns], which causes very high eddy current and hysteresis losses and then a large temperature rise. Now, the current to be measured, [as that of the current in the primary], is carried by a wire which is wound round the toroid, as is shown in Figure 11. So, for the purpose of measurements, the primary winding has to be with small number of turns, and then it will have only one turn [NP = 1], and the secondary winding is with Ns.

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Then, the relationship between the currents and number of turns is that: IP / Is = Ns / NP Then, Is = IP. NP / Ns = IP [1 / NS ] Which means that the current flows through the secondary winding,[of Ns] is of the value (1/ Ns) times than that the current in primary circuit, which we want to measure. Then, if IP is very high where there is no possible to use an ammeter to measure it, therefore, the measurement can be done indirectly by the meter in the secondary circuit, which measures the reasonably small secondary current IS. This allows the meter to be scaled for different values of both the primary and secondary currents. Then the primary current will always be: IP = Is. Ns / NP With NP = 1, then for every scale value on the meter, of Is, the value of IP is the multiplication of the meter scale by Ns: IP = NS IS [ where, NP = 1] The current transformer instrument is able to work up to at least 300 k Hz, when a suitable core is used.

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ved ems, Single - phase T e Transforme er Solv Proble Briefly expla the electromagne inductio in materials, and r ain etic on relate that to the 1- B tran nsformer sy ystem. Dra a diagr aw ram showing the wa aves of ma agnetic flux and x indu uced emf, E E. Ans swer: Whe an alter en rnating cur rrent is pas ssing in a c of wire A, a magn coil netic flux ris in ses the coil and th hen this m magnetic flu can affe magnetically a co ux ect onducting coil B plac near by the first c A. ced y coil Coil B is, then induced by the mag l n, gnetic flux and an ind duced elec ctromotive force, emf [voltage] will appear at the ter f, rminals of t coil B. the In a transform mer, the pr rimary coil possesses a curren supplied by the ap nt d pplied volta age, wher a magn re netic flux is created in the c d core of transformer. The mag gnetic flux then affec the se cts econdary c and ind coil duced an emf , E, i the in seco ondary coi which is the output voltage a the terminals of the secondar for il, at e ry, no load trans sformer. The diagram is e s:

x. diagram shows the re elation betw ween induc emf, E and the magnetic flux ced Ad An circuit singl - phase transform of a co size 20 mm x 20 mm le mer ore 0 0 2- A open c square cross- section, A and total magmetic flux path is 150 cm w a max A, with ximum gnetic flux density, Bmax, of 0. Tesla. W .5 When the induced e e.m.f., E, i the in mag prim mary windin is 500 V at frequency, f, 200 kHz, dete ng 0 ermine the number of turns f on p primary, N1 and secondary, N2, if the turns ratio is, N1 / N2 is 1: s :4. [No the ma ote: agnetic flux = magnetic flux dens x area of core cro section x sity oss n] Ans swer: The r.m.s. of t induced e.m.f., E, is: e the d , Erms = 4.44 f N max and Bmax = max / A s

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Then, (Erms)1 = 500 V = 4.44 x 20 000 Hz x 0.5 T x (20 x 10-3 meter)2 N1 thus, N1 = 28 turns, also, while N2 = 4 N1 = 4 x 28 = 112 turns Assume that the frequency, f, is reduced to be as the main frequency which is 50 Hz, find the number of turns of the primary and secondary. [just apply the formula with substituting f = 50 Hz] 3 - i) Show an expression for the e.m.f. induced in the windings of a singlephase transformer. ii- An open- circuit single phase transformer on a 200 / 400 V at 50 Hz supply, has input current of 2 A and core [iron] loss current of 0.4 A. Calculate: a) the value of the input iron loss power, b) the value of magnetizing current, Im, and c) the no load power factor and phase angle. Draw a phasor diagram for the system, showing the values on the components.
V1=200V =780 Iw=0.4AIo=2A 900 Im=1.96A E1=200V E2=400V

The phasor diagram i) The fundamental expression of the electromotive force, emf,, e, induced in the windings is applied by Faradays Law: e = N d / dt and the root mean square (rms) value of the emf , e, induced in the winding is: erms = 4.44 N f max , where f is the frequency of the magnetic flux

161

ii) a) The input power core loss, PFe = input voltage, V1, x core loss current, Iw, PFe = 200 V x 0.4 A Thus PFe = 80 W [note: p.f. = cos = cos zero = 1] b) The magnetising current, Im = [ (input current on No Load) 2 - (core loss current)2 ] 1/2 Then, Im = [( Io )2 ( Iw )2 ] 1/2 = [22 - 0.42 ] 1/2 = [4 - 0.16] 1/2 = 1.96 A [Im is approximately equal to I0] The power factor, p.f., cos , can be calculated by two methods: A) p.f. = Iw / Io = 0.4 A / 2 A = 0.2 B) the input power = Input voltage, V1, x input current, Io x cos then, p.f. = cos = input power / (V1 x Io) = 80 W / (200 V x 2 A) = 0.2 for the phase angle, : cos = 0.2 , then, = cos -1 0.2 = 780 4 i) Explain in brief the main purpose of using the transformer, and what do we mean by: ideal transformer, and where we can use it. ii) An ideal transformer receives 250 V from a supply source, determine a) the secondary terminals voltage, V2, when the primary turns, N1, are 150 and secondary turns. N2, are 600, b) the power dissipated in a load resistor R of 200 connected across the secondary of the transformer, and then find the primary current. i) The main purpose of using a transformer is to step up or step down the voltage at the secondary terminals of the transformer when transferring the electrical power through the transformer device. Ideal transformer is a transformer free of power lose [winding and core lose] and no magnetic leakage with a high permeability. As there is no true ideal transformer, then there is no any real practical application to such a device, but it can be mentioned to simplifying the beginning study on a transformer. ii) a) Transformer ratio: V2 / V1 = N2 / N1 = 600 / 150 = 4 then, V2 = 4 V1 = 4 x 250 V = 1000 V b) the power dissipated, PCu, in the resistor is:

162

s Pc = (I2)2 . R = (V2)2 / R , and as we have not the value of I2 ,then using: cu PC = (V2)2 / R = (1000 V)2 / 200 = 5000 W = 5 kW Cu This amount o power wi be into th primary as well [w s of ill he y where Pin = Pout], th hen, P = I1 . V1 , and I1 = P / V1 = 5 kW / 2 V = 20 A 250 0 5) Il llustrate the equivalent circuit diag e t gram of a re single p eal phase transf former on load. Show briefly th function o the physical element [componen of the tr w he of t nts] ransformer. Equ uivalent cir rcuit means to illustr rate a diag gram show wing the fu unction, ac and ct position of the circuit elements [com e mponents]. Thu the fina equivale circuit o the actu single - phase tr us, al ent of ual ransformer On r Loa is as tha shown in the figure below: ad at I1 Z1 R1 I1 V1 supply age volta Rw Xm Z1 Iw X1 Io Im E1 E2 to o loa ad Z2 V2 Ia N1 N2 R2 I2 Z2 X2 I2

Id deal transformer he ent of ansformer ( (On Load d). Figure: Th equivale circuit o a single - phase tra e ristics of the real trans e sformer eq quivalent circuit is as t followin the ng: The character The physical e e elements [c component of the re transfor ts] eal rmer On - Load are: A) T resista The ances R1 a and R2 : The resistances of the primary, R1, and sec e condary,R2, of the co winding are oil gs repr resented in the series with primary and se n s econdary w windings res spectively. The nces X1 an X2: nd B) T inductive reactan Lea akage repr resentation Since n all of the magne n: not etic flux lin nks primary and y seco ondary coi as there are leaks from the core to out ils e s tside air, th the lea hen akage path has high reluctance and it is proportion to the cu h es nal urrent in th coils. he

163

Therefore, there has to be contributed leakage which can be represented as inductive reactances, named, X1 and X2 of the windings in series to primary and secondary circuits respectively. C) The magnetising current Im and reactance Xm: The magnetizing current, Im, (which produces the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary coils), is a reactive current and its inductive reactance [i.e. magnetizing reactance] is called Xm. D) The core loss current, Iw, and core loss resistance Rw: The core loss [due to hysteresis and eddy currents] given by (Iw)2 Rw ,takes a core loss current, Iw, and resistance Rw. of the core loss E) Connection of the elements [components]: The magnetising current Im is lagging by 900 behind the power loss current, Iw, in the core. Then, the transformer equivalent circuit has to contain an inductive reactance Xm, in parallel with a core, (iron), loss resistance, Rw, and both of these are in parallel with the primary winding. Also, as it has been mentioned before, the currents Im and Iw are the two components of the primary coil small current, I0 of the no load transformer.

6) ) A 5600 V / 650 V transformer has an iron loss of 400 Watt and a full- load
copper loss of 500 W. If the full load secondary current is 35 A, at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the full load efficiency of the transformer, and comment on the result. [full load means that the performing of the transformer is at a maximum value permitted for the secondary current.] Solution: V1 = 5600 V, V2 = 650 V, iron loss 400 V, full load copper loss = 500 W, full load secondary current = 35 A, and p.f. = cos = 0.8 The power output of the transformer = V2 I2 cos = 650 V x 35 A x 0.8 = 18220 W = 18.2 kW The total power loss in the transformer at full load is given by: copper loss + iron loss = 500 W + 400 W = 900 W

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then the efficiency: output power = Out put power + losses = 18200 W + 900 W 18200 W = 0.953

and in the percentage is = 0.953 x 100% = 95.3 % comment: the efficiency is high, and then the design and performance of the transformer are good. 7) A 450 / 150 V step down transformer takes a no load current of 2 A and has a power loss of 135 W. Calculate, a) the iron loss current, b) the magnetizing current, and c) the no-load power factor. The solution: The transformer possesses input voltage, V1, of 450 V and output voltage, V2, of 150 V. a) The iron power loss = the iron loss current x input voltage [note: cos = cos zero =1] P.l. = Iw . V1 135 W = Iw x 450 V and , then, Iw = 135 W / 450 V = 0.3 A b) The magnetising current, Im = (Io)2 (Iw)2 Im = 22 0.32 = 1. 977 A

c) the power factor (P.f.) = cos = Iw / Io P.f. = 0.3 A / 2 A = 0.15 8) A single phase, 750 / 250 V step down transformer receives a (no load) current, Io, of 1.0 Ampere at a power factor of 0.2 lagging. The secondary is connected to a resistive load taking 24 Ampere. Draw to scale a phasor diagram and hence find: a) The magnitude of current taken by the balancing primary, Ia, b) the power factor of the primary side of the transformer, and c) the power recieved from the supply. Note: neglect the impedance of the transformer windings. Solution: a) Ia / I2 = V2 / V1 hence, Ia = (V2 / V1 ) x I2 = (250 V / 750 V) x 24 A = 8 A

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b) The primary current, I1, can be determined by the phasor addition of Ia and Io: I1 = [(Ia)2 + (Io )2 - 2 Ia . Io cos(1800 - )] 1/2 = [82 + 12 + 2 x 8 x 1 x cos ] 1/2 I1 = [64 + 1 + 2 x 8 x 1 x 0.2 ] 1/2 = 8.26 A

V1 = 750 V I1 = 8.26 A Ia = 8 A angle angle 90 0 I2 = 24 A E2 = 250 V E1 = 750 V

The phasor diagram. or by finding I1 from Ia and the components of Io as: components of Io are the magnetising current Im and the core loss current Iw so then: Iw = Io cos = Io x power factor = 1 A x 0.2 = 0.2 A and Im = [(Io)2 - (Iw)2 ] 1/2 = [12 0.22 ] 1/2 = [1 0.04] 1/2 = 0.98 A Then the vertical currents are the sum of (Ia + Iw ) and the horizontal current is Im: I1 is the phasor sum of these currents, as shown in the Figure below. Io = 1.0 A

Ia Iw
I1 = [(Ia + Iw)2 + (Im)2 ] as the result above.
1/2

I1

Im

Io
1/2

= [ (8 + 0.2)2 + (0.98)2 ]

= 8.26 A, which is the same

166

To find the power factor = cos , by: cos = (Ia + Iw) / I1 = 8.2 A / 8.26 A = 0.992 which shows that the phase angle is nearly zero. This angle is between the input voltage, V1, and the primary current, I1, and it is very small, approaching zero, which means that the loss occurs is great. c) the power taken from the primary = V1 . I1 cos = 750 V x 8.26 A x 1 = 6195.0 W 9) A 4800 / 300 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer is having an approximate 12 volts of e.m.f. per turn and operates at a maximum flux density, Bmax, of 1.5 Tesla. Calculate: a) the number of primary and secondary turns, and b) the net crosssection area of the core. Solution: a) E = 12 V x N E1 = 12 V x N1 so then, E2 = 12 V x N2 and then, N1 = 4800 V / 12 V = 300 turns N2 = 300 V / 12 V = 25 turns

b) the r.m.s. [root mean square] of the e.m.f. induced, Erms is given by: and = B . A Erms = 4.44 f. N. max (Erms)1 = 4.44 f. N1 . Bmax .A 4800 V = 4.44 x 50 Hz x 300 x1.5 T. A, then A = 4800 V / [ 4.44 x 50 x 300 x 1.5] = 0.048 m2 = 480 cm2 the same result of the area, A, is found we using the formula for E2 10) A load resistance of 6.75 k is needed to be matched an internal resistance of 30 , of a supply source, so that a maximum power transfers to the load. find the required transformers secondary number of turns if the primary winding turns are 60.. Solution: Applying: RP = [N1 / N2]2 . RL then, 30 = [60 / N2]2 x 6750 and, 60 / N2 = [30 / 6750]1/2 = 1 / 15 Where, N2 = 15 x 60 = 900 turns.

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Ea arthin nd saf ng an fety

The fundament role is to be in a sa tal o afety measu ures and un nder correct conditions when t appl lying electri icity on inst tallations. Th is perfor his rmed by the use of the E e Earthing, [g ground conn nection], to apply on electrical netw work and in nstrumentati ion. Ther refore, earth hing is an im mportant fac when de ctor esigning any electrical installation. y en g usually use a cable and three pin plug to co d n onnect Whe applying the electricity, we u dom mestic electri applian ical nces to the m mains electri icity supply. One of the thre pin plug is the earth which is usually the yellow and green wir So, e ee h, e d re. then it must be that all app n, e pliances wit metal out casting t be connected to earth with th ter to h an e earth wire, which coul save the life. Ignori the eart connectio could ca ld ing th on ause a dam mage to the a appliances a electric shock or ev dangerou to the life and ven us e. refore, it is a important matter to u t understand m many forms of informa s ation on ele ectrical Ther earth hing for per rsonal and equipments s safety

Prin ncipleofEarthing:
Note The Bri e: itish Standa of the earthing is: Earthing conductor is a prot ard g r tective cond ductor conn necting the m main earthi terminal of an insta ing l allation to a earth ele an ectrode mus be sized ap st ppropriately especially if partially buried. y, y y Whe a fault w en within an ap ppliance connects a liv supply, [ ve [the mains], conductor to an r expo osed conductive metal casting of the applian f nce, then th whole ap he ppliance becomes live. . d e. the fault is represented by this line ct Contac point of trans sformer eart thing fuse sw witch neutral line d device ult earth fau

rn earth retur path earth h Figure 1: S Shows the principle of e earthing and fault. d

168

Now, during the performance of the electrically connecting to the earth, if the casting is touched, then this will complete a circuit back to the earthed supply conductor, where an electrical shock is received. This occurs by that when the metal casting is attached to the earth wire, a current will flow through the live wire and out through the earth wire. The current increases if the earth wire offers less resistance than the appliance. Therefore, the impedance of an earthed circuit must be low enough so that a great current flows through it. If the earth fault is high enough, then we should go to operate the protective device, as a fuse. The maximum impedance of the earth loop is 2.7 for 30 A fuse. Figure 1 shows the principle of earthing. Dangerofstrikesandearthing: Therecordeddatashowsthat:over300,000timesperyearistheLightningstrikesthe groundsintheU.K.Therefore,thesestrikesareaccountedasadangertothebuildings and peoplelivingin, where afirecouldbeoccurred because ofcurrentrisesfromthe lightningstrikes. The British Standard regulation shows that any structure of over than five meter tall should supply with a regulation of lightning conductor system installed to provide electricaldanger,andthen,toprotectthepeopleandthebuildingsandtheircontains frompotentialdamage.

The Function of Earthing:

The main purposes which are leading us to apply the earthing system are: -To insure that there is a sufficiently low impedance is provided to protect the circuit performance under fault conditions. -To limit the working systems of the generating and equipments to earth, which then to prevent systems voltages from fluctuation. -To insure that people are not under conditions to be exposed to an electrical faults. -To prevent electrical interference to computer and communication equipment.

Residual current circuit breaker, [RCCB]:

The RCCB system, Figure 2, is used to detect a fault in a circuit. Usually, when there is no fault, the phase and neutral currents are equal. While, when, there is a fault, some current goes to earth instead of back through the neutral line, and then the phase and neutral currents are not equal.

169

esidual curr rent circuit breaker (RC CCB), [whi ich, also ca alled an eart leakage circuit th A re brea aker ELCB] measures the curren flowing into and o of a cir ], s nts out rcuit. While it is e norm mally these currents sho ould be equ [the sam but in th case of a fault then R ual me], he RCCB will detect a di ifference in these curre ents and qu uickly discon nnect the su upply [shut down the c circuit].

F Figure 2: Illu ustrates a sy ystem conne ecting to Res sidual curre circuit Br ent reaker opera ation. As a compariso RCCB op on, perating is q quicker to re espond than the fuse, an also, it i easy n nd, is to re eset.

RCC Opera CB ation:

The phase [live and neutra wires wo e] al ound in oppo osite direction round th toroidal c he core of the detector coil, as is sho own in Figu 3. Then when the currents in live and n ure n, n neutral wire have the same value so the net magneto-m es e, t motive force in toroidal ring is zer and e l ro, then there is no magnetic f n, o flux in the r ring to link w the detector coil. with This means tha when ther is no fault, the magn s at re netising effe of the p fects phase and n neutral are e equal and op pposite, so t then there w be no flu though th detector coil. will ux he w, ere lt n wo nt, Now when the is a faul present on the load, then the tw currents are differen and there will be a resultant magnetizati of the ring. This means that with a fau the e ion ult mag gneto motive forces are unequal an there is a flux throu the dete e e nd ugh ector coil th can hat caus the break to open. se ker 170

transformer action a voltage will be induced in the detecto coil whic will give rise to n or ch By t a cu urrent in the trip coil and the circuit breaker wi open. d t ill

test b button rcuit breaker Cir

stor test resis

Figure 3: Shows the RC CCB operat tion on dete ecting the fau ult. The current dif fference to trip causes the breaker to open, w r where typic cally 30 mA with A tripp ping within 30 ms.

ath ctric Shoc ck Dea by Elec ntricular fi ibrillation: : Ven

Th coordina he ation of the action of the pumping chambers of the hear is disturbe and e g rt ed bloo circulatio stops. od on Cu urrent must pass throug the chest and affect t heart dir gh the rectly. App proximately 80 100 m require for armt mA ed toleg shock , but high currents if the k her shoc is only fo a few seconds. ck or It is found that, 70 80% o deaths at or below 25 V are due to this mechanism. of 50 e

rns Bur :

El lectricity pa assing throu the bod is likely to cause b ugh dy y burns due to [I2. R] he o eating. These can be very serio ous for hig voltages and can cause deat without other gh s th mec chanisms. 80 of electr shock de 0% ric eaths due to burns.

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Respiratory arrest:
Respiration is stopped by the shock and does not restart. Requires the current to pass through the head to one of the limbs so that it passes through the respiration centre at the base of the brain. This is not a common current path, so death due to this mechanism is rare.

Muscular contraction:
A current causes the hand to tighten onto a conductor that it grasps because of involuntary muscle contraction. A current of only about 15mA flowing up the forearm will prevent the hand form letting go. The chest may become tightly contracted by the current at 40 mA.

Numbers killed by electric shock:

In the UK: The People of ages [18 to 65] who are receiving a mains voltage electric shock per year are approximately 2.5 million. Those whom had a significant injury are 1.2 million, and those were admitted to hospitals are 200,000. - The total number of deaths are 28, (for a report on 2007). The number of deaths by work related electrocutions are 9, and that by home or leisure electrocutions are 19. In the USA: The deaths by electrocution per year are greater than 550.

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Po ower elect tronic cs dev vices

Pow electroni devices: a the elect wer ic are tronic devic [semico ces, onductor dev vices], that c be can direc used in the power p ctly n processing c circuits to convert or co ontrol electr power. ric Sem miconductor devices are the major p e power electr ronic device es. The Electronic devices use in power operations are thyrist ed s tors, triacs, diacs, transistors ferent types], diodes, et tc..: [diff

Thy yristor:
A th hyristor: is a solid-stat semicond te ductor devic with four layers of a ce r alternating n type nand p-type mat terial [which is: PNPN Figure 1 shows the diagram an symbol of the h N]. nd ristor. thyr A Anode P N P N Gate Diagram of a thyristor [f four layers]. A Anode G Gate Symbo of the thyr ol ristor Fi igure 1: thyr ristor and its symbol. ode Catho de Cathod

Thy yristor packa ages

Typical thy yristor constructi ion

thyr ristor circuit symbol t

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yristor has th termina anode, c hree als: cathode and gate. The a d anode is pos sitive with r respect Thy to th cathode, and the ga is the co he ate ontrol termin which is usually a nal, attached to p p-type mate erial near th cathode. he [Thy yristor in so sources is defined a Silicon C ome as: Controlled R Rectifier (SC CR)]. yers thyristor, it can be term as an op med peration of a pair of co oupled For the four lay of the t bipo junction transistors, (BJT) as is shown in F olar n s Figure 2 (with the symb bol).

Figure 2 Structure of the thyristor and com 2: mpared to a pair of BJT transistor, with T its symb bol. The purpose of the gate is to enable the device to be switc f s ched from a non-cond ducting (forw ward blocki ing) mode in a low re nto esistance, forward condu ucting state. Thu a small cu us urrent applie to the gat is able to switch a m ed te much larger c current (at a much high voltage) applied be her ) etween ano and cath ode hode. Once the thyrist is cond e tor ducting how wever, the gate current may be rem moved and the device will remain in a cond n ducting mod de. The operation o the thyrist of tor: As a multilayer p - n junct r tions [can be counted a three P -N junctions, diodes], th the as N , hen thyr ristor has sev veral [three] states: ] Reverse bia ased [block king mode]: when the applied vo : oltage is in the directi of n ion a) R bloc cked by the diode. hen b) F Forward bias [forward mode]: wh the app sed d plied voltage is in the d e direction cau the use diod to conduc While the thyristor is not able to be triggere into cond de ct. e o ed duction. c) F Forward con nducting mo [forwar triggered] is when t gate at a certain vo ode rd ]: the oltage, whic is positiv with res ch ve spect to the cathode. W this ap e With pplied volta a curren will age nt injec in the gat region an turn the d ct te nd device ON. So, the thyr ristor said to be has trig o ggered into conduction n. In t this stage, t thyristo remains on its cond the or duction unt this forw til ward curren will nt decr rease below a certain va known as holding current. alue g

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So, it is important to know that the main of the operation depends on the gate voltage. When a positive voltage, VG, is applied to the gate with respect to the cathode, so with this voltage value, VG, the thyristor will be switched in to ON State suddenly. That is, then, the thyristor is not conducted until a certain current, [by applied voltage, VG], is attained in the gate, where at values less than that current the thyristor is not operating. In brief, it can be said that: Thyristor acts as bistable switch, conducting when its gate receives a trigger current, and continue to conduct while it is forward biased, (that is, while the voltage across the device is not reversed). Once the thyristor conducts, it will continue to be in ON- State, and will not turn OFF even when the gate voltage, VG, has been removed [that is: the gate current may be removed while the thyristor remains in a conducting statae]. The condition to make the thyristor turned OFF, [after it was in ON - state], is that when the current flowing between anode and cathode must be reduced below a certain critical "holding current" value, (near to zero); alternatively the anode and cathode may be reverse biased. The main use of thyristors is in the switching of high power loads. They are the switching element in many domestic light dimmers and are also used as control elements in variable or regulated power supplies.

Thyristor Application:
The thyristor is commonly applied in AC circuits. Then, as usual, in any AC circuit the forward current will drop to zero during every cycle of the waveform. Where this mean that, there is always a turn Off function of the thyristor. Accordingly, it means that the gate is always need to be triggered at every cycle, that is to turn it back ON again. Now, there are two functions: the turning OFF function [as the current drops to zero], and, then, the gate needs to function to be triggered and turned ON again. The thyrisors applications are:

1) Basic Application:
The basic application is by using a simple circuit of an a.c. voltage supply, and employing a series connection of resistance, R, and a thyristor, as is shown in Figure 3. Now, in the a.c. circuit the supply voltage starts from zero value, [usually at zero time of the cycle], and then its values changed with respect to the time or the angle. This process is not the same for starting sequence for the thyristor.

175

It is according to its construction, the thyristor does not conduct at zero time [or at zero angle of the wave cycle for the supply voltage], but the thyristor conducts [fires] when its gate is energized by a suitable current from the supply. Then there is an angle difference between the starting of the supply voltage [i.e. at zero angle] and the start firing [turns ON] of the thyristor.

A.C. voltage supply VS R

thyristor

VL

a) The circuit of basic application. v and i VR [or VL] IR [or IL] IR and VR are zero VS trigger thyristor is Off b) Waveform characteristic of Voltage supply, and voltage and current of the resistor R, [the load]. Figure 3: Applying a thyristor: a) the circuit of basic application and b) the components waveforms characteristics. trigger 0 t, s

176

s on , strates the w waveforms o the supply the of y, This explanatio is shown in Figure 3, which illus load current a voltage. ds and Now while the thyristor tu ON, [a thyristor f w, urns at fired, or trig ggered, angl then from this le], m angl the curren in the circ will star and follow the sequence of the supply volta le nt cuit rt w age, V S, u until the end of the firs half of the cycle, whe the applie voltage a the curre d st e en ed and ent fall t zero, whe also, the thyristor i turned - O again. to ere, is OFF The load voltag VL, acros the resisto R, is follo ge, ss or owing the p process of th current, IR, he through the resi istance, as is shown in t Figure 3 s the 3.

2) A Applicatio by using an induc on g ctive load:

s the ircuit is add by a co of induc ded oil ctance, L, i series wi the in ith This is when t basic ci resis stance R. W When the ind ductance, L is added, the current in the circ will be out of L, t cuit phas with the l se loads volta [which is a differen case than that the me age, nt n ethod of the basic e appl lication, wh only a re hen esistor and thyristor are used]. The phasor su of the vo e um oltages V1 a VR are r and represented by Vt. The c circuit arran ngement is s shown in Figure 4a.

A.C. age volta supply VS Vt

thyristor R VR

Vl [induced emf in th 1st half of the cycle] he f

Figure 4 a: the cir e rcuit of addi an induc ing ctive load.

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In this method, the thyristor is behaving the same, as usual, which is not conducts [fires ON] until the gate is energised by a certain current in the circuit. While the inductor , L, storages a magnetic energy at the first half of the cycle. This magnetic storage will allow the coil to release the energy during the second half of the cycle [as the coil is induced emf in the first half of the cycle]. Now, at the beginning of the second half of the cycle, while the supply voltage, VS, at zero level, the current and voltage in the load of the circuit are not zero, because of a current which will be released by the collapse of magnetic field in the inductor, L. Then the zero of the voltage supply is not the same as the turns Off point of the circuit. Therefore, the current, IR , and the voltage, VR, across the resistance will continue for a certain time, [which is at a certain angle], in positive direction in the second half of the cycle, as is shown in Figure 4b. v and i Vt [= the phasor sum of VR and V1] VR IR VS trigger thyristor is Off trigger 0 t, s

2nd cycle, the same occurs as in the first cycle.

b) Waveforms characteristic of the voltage supply, and the components of the circuit. The time duration for continuous current to flow in the circuit, in the 2nd half of the cycle, depends on the power factor of the circuit, [values of R and L should be known].

The Triac
The triac is a three terminal a.c. semiconductor switch. The terminals are: terminal T1, terminal T2 and the gate G, as is shown in Figure 5. From the construction formation, the triac is similar to two complementary thyristors connected in reverse parallel [i.e. in opposite polarity], but using a common gate connection, [Figure 5].

Terminal T1 Gate

Terminal T2

Figure 5. Triac Circuit Symbol.

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Triac is triggered into conduction when a low energy signal is applied to its gate. Triac can conduct current in either direction of T1 or T2 when turned ON. So, then, either a positive or negative gate signal will trigger the triac into conduction. So, T1 and T2 are the current carrying terminals, and then the terms anode and cathode are not concerned with the triac. In this characteristic, triac is unlike the silicon controlled rectifier, SCR, thyristor. This gives the triac the ability to be triggered into conduction while having a voltage of either polarity across it. In fact it acts rather like a "full wave" thyristor. Either positive or negative gate pulses may be used. Triacs are mainly used in power control to give full wave control. This enables the voltage to be controlled between zero and full power. This device provides a wider range of control in AC circuits without the need for additional components, (like in bridge rectifiers or a second thyristor), needed to achieve full wave control with thyristors. For an a.c. control application, triac is applied to demestic lighting control. The triggering of the triac is accounted to be simpler than that required by thyristors in AC circuits, and can normally be achieved using a simple DIAC circuit.

The Diac
The diac is a simple device and consists of a PNP structure (like a transistor without a base) and acts basically as two diodes connected cathode to cathode [i.e. effectively back to back diodes]. anode cathodes Figure 6: the Diac symbol anode The diac in its construction, able to conduct in either direction when the applied voltage exceeds a threshold voltage. This device is a bi-directional trigger diode used mainly in firing the Triacs and Thyristors in AC control circuits. The diac circuit symbol (shown in Figure 6) is similar to that of a triac, but without the gate terminal.

Insulated gate bipolar transistor [IGBT]:

The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device. The terminals are: the emitter, collector and the gate. Figure 7 shows the symbol of the device. This electronic device is a combine of a field effect transistor [FET] input stage with a bipolar junction transistor power stage.

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collector gate emitter

Figure 7: symbol of IGBT device IGBT device primarily is used as an electronic switch and in newer devices is noted for combining high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power in many modern appliances, as: electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners. Other power semiconductor devices, as: Bipolar junction power transistor: which is a large version of bipolar junction transistors, [BJT], used in other electronics with base, emitter and collector connections. Power MOSFETs: they are a large version of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) with gate, drain and source connection. The IGFET is more commonly known as a metaloxidesemiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor Power Diode: the power diodes are large version of diodes used in other electronics with high current and voltage rating [power diode can handle several hundred amperes].

Protection of electronic devices:

Protection has to be provided for the semiconductor devices, as their ability is limited in operations for the levels over voltages, over currents or at high rates of change of current or voltage. Generally, there are some methods for the protections, as: For thyristor: a protection from over current may be provided by a fast acting fuse. non- linear device i i1 i2 i thyristor

Figure A: an arrangement for thyristors protection Over current results in heat rating and that may causes a deformation to the crystallization structure of the device and then failure in operation. The current, and heat rating temperature operation, (e.g. for silicon crystallization devices), are usually written on the device, to not over limited. A fuse, then, can be applied in the circuit to interrupt the over currents. 180

Over vo oltage prote ection can be provided b a non- li by inear device which is c e connected in n parallel with the th l hyristor, [as sown in the Figure A]. Then the non linear device acts as a e n r s bypass for over voltages. The devices use are such as SiC, ZnO or a diod ed O de.

Smart power dev vices:

Smart p power devic are those devices pr ces e rovided a sm control on equipm mart l ments and sy ystems for appl lications in power elect tronics in d daily life. Th construct of the s he tion smart power r devices is the resul of combin some log gates wit power de s lt ne gic th evices on a s single chip. Applica ations are su as: uch Lighting control, p power supply, motor co ontrol, dome estic applian nces, autom motive system ms, audio / visual equip pment, aero ospace, pow transmis wer ssion.

AC po ower contr rol

Examp of Sim ples mplified AC Power Con ntrol Circuit using a Tr device: riac a) A sim circuit used to con mple t ntrol the pow deliver to a load wer red d: Figure 8 shows a s simple pow control A circuit, uses a triac diac, vari wer A.C. , c, iable resisto R, or, capacito c, and a load. or,

Fi igure 8: A c circuit used to control th power delivered to a load the The Dia is used to trigger a Triac. The A mains waveform is phase shifte by the RC ac o T AC w ed R circuit, so that ther will be a reduction in the mains waveform appears acr re r n ross C. As this wave reach the break over volta of the diac, it condu and dis hes k age d ucts scharges C into the i gate of the triac, an then trigg nd gering the tr into con riac nduction. The tria then cond ac ducts for the remainder of the main half cycl of the wa e r ns le ave, and whe the en mains v voltage pass through zero it turn off. ses ns

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Some ti into the next (nega ime e ative) half cy of the ware, the vo ycle w oltage on th capacitor C, he r, reaches break over voltage in the other po s r olarity and the diac aga conducts providing an t ain s, g appropr riate trigger pulse to tur ON the t r rn triac. As the resistance, R, is a varia value, the amount of phase de of the w able t elay waveform across C a can be v varied, whic allows th time duri each hal cycle, at which the tr fires, to be ch he ing lf w riac o controll In this w the am led. way, mount of pow delivered to the loa can be va wer ad varied b) A tec chnique can be used for heater con n ntrol or a lig ghting dimm switch: mer Figure 9 shows a simple powe control a. circuit us triac, va er .c. ses, ariable resis stor, R, firin ng capacito Cf, interf or, ference capacitor, Ci, a an induc and ctor, L.

Ci

triac

Cf

Figure 9: A circu used for heater contr or lighting switch. uit rol A triac is used to c control a poi in the a.c cycle that the output current is t int c. t turned ON.

Fig gure 10: Th characteri he istic of tech hnique used for heater control or li c ighting dimm mer. 182

The variable resistor, R, and firing capacitor, Cf, control the firing angle of the triac by the time constant, [= R .C], of the R - C circuit. capacitor, Ci, and inductor, L, help to stop interference. Figure 10 shows the characteristic of technique used for heater control or lighting dimmer.

Alternative A.C power control:

There is a problem with the system of power control in the technique used for heater control or a lighting dimmer switch. The problem is that the switching ON of the current part way through the cycle distorts the sinusoidal waveform. This distortion adds a high harmonic content. The harmonic is sinusoids of multiples of the 50Hz fundamental power frequency: it is the 3rd harmonics [150 Hz], 5th harmonics [250 Hz] etc.. The alternative is burst control when we switch ON the power for a certain number of cycles and switch it OFF for other cycles.

Power to a load:
In both cases, [of heater control and lighting dimmer switch], there is a certain mass in the load, (the filament in the lamp or the heating element in the heater), therefore, the light or heat output will average out the electrical power in. In burst mode the average power, Pave, can easily be calculated as: Pave = [number of ON cycles / (number of ON + number of OFF cycles)] x full power.

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Solve the problems:

[with the aid of the subjects notes], 1) Explain the concept of power electronic devices. 2) Explain the construction, symbol and operation of the thyristor and triac semiconductor devices. 3) In a simple a.c. circuit employs a resistor and thyristor in series. Explain, using a circuit diagram, the operation , and draw a characteristic showing the waveforms of the voltage supply, the current passes and the voltage across the resistance. 4) An a.c. circuit employing an inductor L in series with a resistance R, where the circuit included a thyrister in series with R L. Discus, with the aid of showing a diagram, the operation and the characteristic of the components waveforms. 5) Show briefly, what does smart power device mean and its function. 6) Explain an application of a.c. power control.

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Power electronics
Power Electronics: The field of Power Electronics concerns with the processing of transmission electrical power by using electronic semiconductor devices, where the main components are the switching converters. Power input Switching converter power output

In general, a switching converter contains power input control, input ports and a power output port. So, power electronics uses semiconductor devises [solid state electronics] in order to conversion and control the flow of electric power, that is when a change in voltage, current or frequency are in need in electrical circuits.

Rectification and Power Supplies: Controlled rectification:

A rectifier circuit uses only diodes cannot vary the d.c. output voltage. While if electronic devices such as thyristor is used, then its firing angle of the conduction can be controlled, where accordingly controlling the d.c. output voltage. Similar circuits can be used to convert d.c. to d.c. [called converters]. Rectification and inversion systems are often converters, as they convert between a.c. and d.c. power.

Switch mode power supplies [S.M.P.S.]:

The Switch mode power supplies system operation: is a process of using electronic device switches, such as transistors and thyristors, to control the performance of the electrical power transformation. The results are: efficient, low power loss and cheaper than the linear power supply. Therefore, the majority of power supply systems are of the switching mode power supplies, where the circuitry and a block diagram are as that shown in Figure 1 and Figure 1d respectively. This shows that the power supply can be d.c to d.c as it is essentially a d.c. chopper with a filtered and smoothed output.

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L2

a.c

RECTI -FIER

DFW

C2

Lo oad

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure1 The circ uit is the switching Mode powe Supplies 1: M er s.

The rip pple shown in part (a) of Figu 1 indic ( ure cates to th the phy hat ysical size of the e capacit tor C nee to be large, wh ed here also the size of ripple depends on the magnit tude of the a.c. comp ponents at the supply end. y

Figu 1d: Sch ure hematic blo diagra of Switc Mode P ower Supp ock am ch ply s tage will be a transfo ormer and a bridge rectifier. r If an a.c. input is required, the first st This stage can be shown in Figure 2. e n The a.c supply i first rect c. is tified, Figu 2, and then filtere by the input capa ure ed acitor to produc a rough d.c. input. ce

Figure 2: an A.C. supply is rectified by using a transformer and four diode bridge. . y t Now: The sw witch mod power supplies [S de s S.M.P.S.] can also be configure to opera from c e ed ate any suitable D.C. input. In this mode t supply is called a D.C. to D . t the y D.C. converter.

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DC to DC Converter-Switched Mode Power Supplies

Some useful definitions: DC to DC converter [or chopper]: a D.C to D.D. converter is used to obtain a variety of constants DC voltage output, V0 , from a constant voltage DC source, Vin. D.C chopper operation: it is applied for the process of converting the unregulated D.C input voltage to a constant controlled D.C output voltage, with desired voltage level. The control process is usually performed by using electronic devices such as transistors and thyristors. It is, then, possible to control a great range of power in loads. Switch Mode conversion: it is an electronic switch mode of D.C. to D.C. converter to convert a D.C voltage level to another D.C. level, by a process of temporarily storing the input energy, [in one stage of the process], and then release the storage energy to the output at a different voltage polarity. The storage energy is either: in a magnetic field storage components, [as in a inductor or transformer], or: in electrical field storage component [as a capacitor]. Background explanations: For a D.C to D.C. converter [chopper], Figure 3 can be a representation for the process. Vi vo Constant voltage DC source on off on off on Vi Vo, av t constant input voltage Figure 3 variable output voltage t

Note on the application: choppers are used in many industrial applications where a constant DC source is available. Typical applications include D.C. motor control for electric traction, switching power supplies, and battery- operated equipment. Now, the average value of the o/p voltage, Vo,av, of the chopped circuit, is varied by changing the proportion of the On - OFF portions of time by using a power switching electronic device, such as a Transistor or Thyristor operating at high frequency switching mode. This is because these devices can be turned off easily by controlling the base current [of the transistor], or gate current [of the thyristor]. .

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The operation can be achieved with a combination of the solid state device and an inductor and / or capacitor. A smoothing capacitor is needed to smooth the output voltage. An inductor is needed in order to maintain a constant current, and as there will be a relatively large voltage induced in the inductor winding, therefore, a free wheeling diode is needed to limit the induced voltage, [as will be seen later]. When the chopper circuit is in operation, [D.C to DC circuit], then the switch device operates such as that it is turned ON [switch closed] for a period of time ton and turned OFF [switch open ] for a period of time ( toff ). This process is repeated periodically (in each cycle) with a fixed period time T, at a chopping switching frequency, f, where f = I / T. [and T = ton + toff]. The resulting output voltage waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of duration ton, as shown in Figure 3. Also, Figure 3 shows that the instantaneous output voltage across the load is either equal to zero [when switch is off] or equal to the input voltage, Vin, [when the switch is on]. Which means that the average output coltage, Vo, av is controlled between 0 and Vin. The average DC output voltage, Vo, av , over one cycle is given by: Vo, av = Vin (ton / T) The ratio of the pulse width t0n to the period T of the waveform, (ton / T), is called the chopper duty ratio (or duty cycle), which is termed by the symbol , Then, and then, = ton / T Vo, av = E It is now, going to have the operation of: Applying the D.C to D.C. converter switch mode power supplies: There are two main fundamental types of D.C. chopper circuits [which are the chopper circuit configurations]. They are: step down and step up converters. Applying power electronics, [i.e. by using electronic devices in electrical power circuit systems], will lead to great performance of high efficient and low loosing.

188

e wn rter or [bu ck conver rter]: in this circuit c configuration, the 1) The step dow conver choppe produce an outpu voltage, Vo, which is less or equal to t er es ut , h r the input voltage, v Vin . In this mode, sw witches suc as tran ch nsistor and diode are used. A d Applying sw witching mode is for high e efficient pr rocess and low energ waste as a heat. d gy 2) The step up converter or [boost converter] this converter gen e ]: nerates an output voltage Vo, that i greater or equal to the input voltage Vi. e, is o o 1) Step down (buck) D.C to D.C conve D C. erter: The bu [step d uck down] con nverter: thi s mode is used to reduce the voltage of D.C. s e supply, Vin, whe the ou ere utput volta age, Vo, is less tha the inp voltage. This s an put mportant re equirement in some computers or other e lectronic circuits. t c c reduction is an im ut pply may b a source of batter be ries, solar panel, rec ctifier of [Note: the inpu d.c. sup d.c gene erator]. Buck c converter m makes a useful task to conver relatively high D.C voltage to lower u rt y C D.C. vo oltage, suc as that converting a battery voltage of 24 V in a laptop down to a ch g f few vol which i needed by the proc lts, is cessor.
pow semicon wer nductor swit tch

L iL iD IC C DFW Load V0 Io

is

Vin VD

Figur 4: Stepre -down (Buc or Forw ck ward) conve erter circuit t [DFw: in the circu is the fr wheelin diode]. uit ree ng The ste down [buck] is a Switch mode pow supply which us two ele ep wer y, ses ectronic switche transis es: stor and diode, als other components [such as induct so c tor and capacit tor]. The electronic switches ar used to control the inductor. re e By usi ing the electronic switches, [ s [transistor and diode], in buc convert ck ter, the efficien is rema nt arkably hig and a much lower heat dissipated t gh than using linear g regulat tion [i.e. wi ithout elect tronic devi ces].

189

The circuit of step down d.c. to d.c. converter is shown in figure 4. The circuit is constructed as: a D.C. input voltage supply, Vin, power semiconductor switch, [such as transistor, MOSFET], an inductor, L, freewheeling diode, DFW, and an output circuit of parallel C and R combination. Assuming ideal conditions of operation, which are: the components are lossless. The switch and diode have zero voltage drop when switch ON, and zero current flows when switches OFF. The inductor has zero series resistance (i.e. pure inductance, non - resistive). The output voltage, V0, is maintain constant because it can be taken that there is a large magnitude of capacitor, C, across the output. Then, there will be a negligible ripple in the output voltage, Vo. The input voltage, Vin, is also assumed constant.

The operation process:

In this operation the input voltage is chopped by the transistor. The main points in the process are: - The inductor L stores a magnetic field [or say a magnetic energy], in switching - ON duration of time. - The inductor releases [collapses] this magnetic field at switching - OFF time. In this process the diode conducts [freewheeling]. - At the overall process, through one complete cycle, the average voltage across the inductor is zero, [as it storages magnetic field and then collapses, through one complete switching ON and OFF periods of time ]. - Relationship between input voltage and out put voltage is applied in relation to the inductor one complete period of switching time. Now, when transistors switch is turned ON [Switching - ON mode] for the time period [ton], figure 4 shows that the freewheeling diode voltage, VD, is equal to the input voltage, Vin. The input voltage, Vin, is higher than the capacitor voltage by the voltage across the inductor L. The voltage across the inductor, VL, is, as usual, given by: VL = - L di / dt Where di / dt is the rate of the current rise in the inductor. So, then, the inductor voltage [L di / dt] is equal to [Vin Vo ], (this means that the difference between Vin, and vo, is impressed across the inductance L). Therefore, for Switching ON time, [ton]: VL, ON = L di / dt = Vin Vo [a] The current change is io, and for the switching - ON time, ton, the current through the inductor will have a maximum value, Imax.

190

Hence, when integrating equation (a), for the period of Switching - ON time, [ton], and by assuming that the initial inductor current is Imin, then: imax ton imin L di = 0 (Vi Vo) dt , and then, IL,max - Imin = (Vin vo). ton / L . (1) [where in this operation, Vin = VD]. When the electronic device is in Switched - OFF mode for the time period [toff], the source current, Is, is collapsed to zero and inductor current, IL, falls. The capacitor current, Ic, rises and falls to balance the difference between constant load current and inductor current. The magnetic field stored in the inductor L is started to release [or can be said: to collapse], producing a reverse voltage that forward biased the diode and a current is flowing where the freewheeling diode DFW conducts. [Note that: the temporarily storage of magnetic field in the induced inductor occurs during the switched ON time, and at switching OFF interval, the inductor emf will then, act as a voltage source to pass a current through the freewheeling circuit, and this current will collapse as the storage magnetic field is vanished]. Now, as the magnetic field is in a process of collapsing, it produces a reverse voltage. Then, the inductor voltage, VL = ( vo) [it is impressed across the inductor, L]. Then: for the Switching - OFF time [toff] the inductance voltage is: VL, OFF = - Vo = L di /dt, Accordingly, by integrating this equation, for the period of switching -OFF time, toff, and by initial current is Imin ,yields: I max t 0ff Imin L di = 0 (- Vo)dt , then, Imax Imin = -Vo. toff / L .. (2) where toff is measured from the instant when the switching device is switched OFF. In the steady state condition, Imin has the same value after periodic time T [= ton +toff]. During this period of time, T, the inductor voltage has an average value of zero, that is: the inductor is supplied by a voltage at duration time of ton, where the inductor stores magnetic field, and then at toff the inductor releases its magnetic field and collapses its current [by freewheeling], therefore from equations (1) and (2), (where average 191

inductor voltage is zero, for one complete time T), and the current passed is the same as the current released by the inductor, then: [ (Vin - V0) / L] [ton] + [( -V0) / L] [toff] = zero (which is for one complete cycle). where: I / L [Vin] ton - 1/ L [V0] ton = - 1 / L [- V0] toff and, then : Vin . ton = V0 [ton + toff] therefore: V0 = Vin [ton / (ton + toff )] ,

This result shows that, for the step down converter: the output voltage, V0, is lower than the input voltage, Vin, by the amount: ton / (ton + toff ) , [V0 < Vin ]. so, for a given input voltage, Vin, the output voltage, V0, is determined by switching device condition duty cycle, [duty cycle is: [ton / (ton + toff) ]. This result can, also, be shown by integrating the average inductor voltage during one complete duration of time T, [where the average voltage of the inductor is zero], as: T T VL av = (1/ T) 0 VL dt = (1 / T) 0 L di / dt} = zero Where, VL = VL, on + VL, off Hence the average inductor voltage is zero. Accordingly, the integration is: ton 0 dt + VL, off t off 0 dt ] = zero

1 / T [VL, on

then, [Vin V0] ton + [- V0] toff = zero where, Vin. ton = V0 [ton + toff ]

therefore, V0 = Vin [ton / (ton +toff)] which is the same result as before. The step down converter circuit current and voltage waveforms, for switching ON and switching OFF modes, are shown in diagram of figure 5.

192

VD
diodes voltage VS [constant]

Vave t VL
inductors voltage

ILIL,(max)
inductors current

Iave IL, (min.) t

ID
diodes current ID freewheeling ID = zero ID FW

t tOFF tON

tON

Figure 5: Waveforms characteristics for buck circuit components. 2- Step up [Boost or Fly- back] Converter: The step up (boost) converter is another class of switch mode power supply, [D.C. to D.C. converter]. It is, also, like the step down converter, the circuit of step up converter has two electronic switches, transistor and diode, and an inductor as a magnetic storage component. The step up converter is used to have a D.C. output voltage greater than the D.C. input voltage. The input D.C. supplies could be sources of batteries, solar panels, rectifiers or d.c. generators.

193

ng converter, we can inc w crease the voltage of a system instead of using e m o By usin boost c stackin of cells f a batter powered system, [of a high voltage]. ng for ry d v Stack of cells is not possible from t the point of lack of space and losses, also for o d a relative expens ely sive. Boos convert st ter can go easily over thes difficulties, by g se increas the outp voltage and reduc the num se put e ce mber of cells. The circuit of st tep up, DC to DC converter is shown in figure 6. The circuit is C constru ucted by: a D.C. input voltage supply, Vin, a powe semicon er nductor switch, an inducto L, diode D, and an output c or, e, a circuit of pa arallel C an R comb nd bination. It is, also, i assumed that ide conditio of the c eal ons components, as that of step do own conver rter. iS L iL iD Vin powe er switch h [transis stor] o o C Load d V0 IC Io

Figure 6: step up (Boost) converter circuit e p c c

Fly-bac convert ck ters store magnetic energy in the indu c uctor, term med chok ke, and transfe that ene er ergy, [as electrical], to the load storage capacito Such that the e e or. output voltage ma agnitudes in excess of the inpu voltage are attende ut a ed. The bo oost conve erter trans sforms a d input voltage to the outpu voltage, that is dc v ut greater in magnit r tude but ha the sam polarity as the inpu as me ut. When the transis stor switched is turne ON, [fo time duration ton], t ed or v the input voltage, Vin, supplies across the in nductor L a and the cu urrent, IL, flows thro ugh the in nductor. Thus a magnetic field energ is stored in the ind gy d ductor. [Note: for the duration of switched O the switch is at zero voltag drop, an then s ON, z ge nd the VL equal Vin i no curr i.e. rent passin through the rest of the circui t]. ng f When t device is switche OFF, [fo time dur the e ed or ration, toff] the diode iis conducting and acts as a short ci s ircuit, [idea condition as is shown in Figure 7. al n], Then, ( (for OFF ti ime), the magnetic e m energy stor in the inductor L tends to collapse red i c [i.e. en nergy relea ased form the inducto The po t or]. olarity of th inductor is change such he r ed that it t transfers it voltage to the load and output capacito Where, now, the voltage ts t d or. , across the inductor is adde to the in ed nput voltag Vin, and they bot are in series to ge, th charge the outpu capacitor. This me e ut eans that th energy stored in t inducto [at the the or, osts the le evel of the input volt tage to yie an outp voltage higher th eld put e han the on], boo input voltage, Vin, where [V0 >Vin]. 194

esult can be shown mathematic e m cally as well: This re L iL VL VL Vin C Load V0 IC Io

Figure 7: Step u convert circuit is switched off e up ter s d The ele ectronic sw witch, as be known is period een n, dically switc ched ON a OFF. Then, in and T the ste eady state, the output voltage, V o, is maintained con t nstant by th capacito C. he or Now, w when it is s switched ON, then Vi n applies across L, [a the so O a and ource curre rises ent linearly then: y], VL = Vin = VL, on = L dis / dt . [1] the time for the switching ON is, ton. and als the sou so, urce curren is, rises linearly with time fro Imin to Im . nt, s w om max As well as the d diode, D, is at reve rse biased prevents capacito C to dis d, s or scharge through the switc Accordingly the c h ch. capacitor discharges only into th load res he sistor R to main ntain the output volta Vo cons age stant. When t switch is OFF, VL is less th an Vin , wh the here: Vin = Vo + VL VL = Vin Vo = VL, off = L dis / dt ..[2], th time for the switch he r hing OFF is toff. s t, at rgy g d ad So that if Vo > Vi, , then it means tha the ener is being delivered to the loa from the sto ored energy of the ind y ductor as w as from the supp voltage Vin. well m ply Therefo ore, this s shows that current ra (dis /dt should be negativ and is reduces t ate t) b ve r linearly from Imax. to Imin. y The result is that it is alwa the ave t, ays erage volta across the induc age s ctor is zero over a o comple cycle o period tim T, (this is as the inductor stores the e ete of me s s energy in the first t nd half of the cycle a then tr and ransfers it back in the 2 half of the cycle e o e). Hence: VL, on . ton + VL, off . to = zero off Then s substitute the values of VL in eq quations 1 and 2, we can find th hat: Vin ton + (Vin Vo) toff = 0

195

then, Vin [ton + toff ] = Vo . toff Therefore, Vo = Vin [(ton + toff) / toff] , Vo = Vin [ 1 + (ton / (toff)] Hence: Vo is greater then Vin, by the amount [1 + (ton / (toff)] [Vo > Vin] Usually, the term, (tON / T), is called the duty switch ratio, D, then: [tON + tOFF] / tOFF = T / (T - tON ) = 1 / [(T tON ) / T] = 1 / [1 (tON / T )] = 1 / (1- D) Hence, [tON + tOFF] / tOFF = 1 / (1 - D), then, Vo = Vin [1 / (1 - D)] , which shows, also, Vo > Vin , as D is less than one. The waveform characteristics of the step up converter are shown in Figure 8.

and then,

VL
inductors voltage

VL1 = Vin

VL2 = Vin Vout IL [= I source]

inductors current

IL, (max.) IL, (ave) IL, (min.) t

tONtOFFtOFF

Figure 8: the Waveforms characteristics for the circuits components of the step-up converter.

196

solved example: A d.c. source of 60 V supplies a boost converter circuit which employs a thyristor. A resistive load of 5 is connected to the convertor output. The average current rating of the diode in the circuit is 60 A, then find: a) the maximum average power received by the resistive load, b) the duty ratio, D, of the converter, and c) the average current rating of the thyristor in the circuit. Assuming ideal condition of the converter circuit. a ) Referring to the converter circuit components: At steady state, the average current in the capacitor is zero over a period time T, then, the output current, Io/p , is equal to the diodes current, I diode : I 0/p = I diode = 60 A and then, the maximum power = Io/p2 . R = [60 A]2 x 5 = 18000 W= 18 kW which is the maximum average power delivered to the output load. b) to find out the duty ratio, D, we have to find the average output voltage: the average output voltage, Vo/p = Io/p . R = 60 A x 5 = 300 V so, we have: Vo/p / Vin = 1 / [1- D] then: 300 V / 60 V= 1 / [1 - D] therefore, 1 / [1 - D] = 5 , then, D = 0.8 where, D = tON / T = 0.8, which means that 80 % of the converter circuit performance is when the time is ON. c) from the construction of the boost converter circuit, we can understand that the average source current, (or input current), Iin (ave),is delivered to both the diode and the thyristor, then we should find the average value of the source current: we can start from: input power = output power ,[for the ideal condition of the converter circuit performance] then: Vin I in (ave) = maximum output power so, Iin (ave) = maximum average power / input voltage Iin (ave) = 18000 W / 60 V = 300 A where, Iin (ave) = Idiode + Ithy. and then: I thy. = Iin (ave) -Idiode = 300 A 60 A = 240 A

197

3) (ste down (step up), [ bu bo ep n) p uck oost, flyback] con nverter:

The fly yback is b based on a combin ed of the buck-boo or non isolated flyback ost n conver rter. Figure 9 shows the circuit c e t constructio on. transistor switch C. D.C supply (Vin) diode ctor, L induc

Vo

Figure e9:theba asiccircuit tof(buckboost)f flybackco nverter.

The fly yback (buc - boost) only deli vers store inductor energy d ck ) ed r during the switchOFF tim The bo me. oost, howe ever, also d delivers en nergy from the input. When the transi istor switch is ON, the diode is revers biased and the input is e se i connec cted acros the indu ss uctor, L, w which store magnet energy [as it is said for es tic s other p previous modes]. At turn n-off, the inductor vo oltage reve erses and the stored magnetiic energy is then passed (as elect d, trical), to th load an d capacito [C is parallel with t load], through he or, the t the forw ward biase diode. ed There is a polarity inversio where, the outpu voltage, V0, gene on, , ut , erated is negative n with respect to th input voltage, Vin. he The re elationship between the input v voltage an output voltage wiith respect to the nd t time int n F], tervals [On and OFF is given by: V0 / Vin = ton / toff n This ca be writte as = V0 / Vin = D / [ 1 D] , an en and D is called, the switch duty ratio. d

e where D = tON / T

ore, value of the switch du ratio, D can be selected e uty D, s Therefo it can be shown that the v such th the ou utput volta age can eiither be equal, higher or lowe than th input er he hat voltage e. This giv the co ves onverter the flexibility to either step up or step down the supply e s s y. e.g. for r: 198

D = , then, Vo / Vin= 1 , and V0 = Vin D > , then, V0 >Vin D < , then, V0 < Vin

issues with switching mode power supplies:

Since both input and output currents are pulsating, [i.e. ON and OFF continuously], then, low ripple levels are very difficult to achieve by using the buck-boost mode. Therefore, a very large output filter circuit of inductor and capacitor are needed, typically up to 8 times that that of a buck regulator. Solve the problems: [refer to the notes].
1) Define the D.C chopper and explain the purpose of applying this chopper in operation in switch mode power supplies. 2) Comment on field of study of the subject power electronics. 3) Show why we use the step down (buck) converter, D.C chopper. Explain, with a circuit diagram, the operation of this mode to find a relationship between the D.C input and output voltages related to the switching On and OFF interval times. 4) Explain, with the circuit diagram, the buck boost flybalck mode of D.C to D.C converter operation, and show a relationship between the input and output voltages. Comment on levels of these voltages. 5) Comment on the issues switches mode power supplies for D.C. converter.

199

Inverters and D.C. transmission

Electrical power transmission: electrical power is always in demand to transmit from one region, [or station], to another, as that from great power generators station to industrials or other consumers. Power transmission by A.C. system and D.C. system: A.C. system for power transmission has advantages, that it is able to flow the power in bidirectional (opposite direction), also, to transform the voltage, [i.e. for step up and step down], comparing with the D.C. system. While D.C. system of power transmission has advantages as that: -It does not has inductive reactance in its link, as the A.C. has. This means that D.C. system has only a real power, of the form I2 R, to be transmitted, and then it does not need to maintain the stability of the D.C. system to whatever the sufficient level of the reactive power. Therefore, the non- existence of the reactive power in the D.C. system, will result in higher real power to transfer in the line. This will give a higher utilization of generators than that of the A.C. system. - D.C. system has a lower link resistance, and then lower losses than the A.C. system. -Also, D.C. system does not concern with the frequency, [the frequency is zero]. Accordingly, this system is able to work between grid of A.C. systems functioning at different frequencies, [as that of 50 Hz and 60 Hz], with no need to a modulation. -The A.C. system acts onto charging and discharging each cycle on the capacitance been created by the cables. The D.C. system has no electrical cycles, and then it is not concerned with the effect of continues charging and discharging in the capacitance created by the cables. This leads to higher power transfer of the D.C. line system, comparing with that of A.C. system. The great matter is that the disadvantage of charging and discharging of A.C. system, when heavy currents cables are applied to work under water and submarines. -Economically, D.C. systems are less expensive to apply for power transmission for long distances, than that of A.C. system. then, The D.C. power transmission system, [or High voltage D.C. transmission - HVDC]: is an advanced system to be operated of region-to-region configurations where a large amount of energy is transmitted between two regions. HVDC, system is used between two A.C. regions, where the output of the A.C voltage of the first region is changed to be a D.C. voltage, and transfer the power as D.C., then, this D.C. is changed to A.C. to supply the second region.

200

The traditional high voltage D.C.,[HVDC], system is built with line commutated current source converters, based on thyristor valves. Where the control of this system requires fast communication channels between the stations. Now, the D.C transmission and links configurations will be explained later, after inverter processes are discussed. [Note: When electrical power flows into the D.C. valve group from the A.C. system then the valve group is considered a rectifier. If power flows from the D.C. valve group into the A.C. system, the valve group is an inverter. Each valve consists of many series connected thyristors in thyristor modules]. An example for a circuit which converts D.C. power into A.C. power is: when a battery voltage supply is used by a D.C. circuit and to convert this battery supply into higher voltage A.C. supply for the fluorescent lights. For the inverter operation: Inverter circuit should contain all components as Thyrisors.

Inverter system Operation:

Inverter operation is to change direct current to alternating current, [which is an opposite function to the rectifier]. A circuit used is provided a d.c. voltage supply, Vs, from a battery. The circuit contains two pairs of thyristors, anti-parallel diodes and a load, as is shown in Figure 1. D.C. Th 1 VS d.c Load Th 4 Th 2 Th 3 d.c, to a.c.

Figure 1: Inverter operation circuit, D.C. voltage inverted to alternating voltage [using pairs of GTO thyristor]. The thyristors usually used are of type Gate Turn Off [GTO], and they are working in pairs. They been made to conduct in pairs as: Th1 to Th2, and Th3 to Th4, as is illustrated in Figure 1. The diodes, [which are anti parallel connecting across each thyristor switch], are to be similar in function to the freewheeling diode. The freewheeling offers by the diodes is because of loads inductance, and then the diodes provide a path for inductive load current in the period of thyristor is switched off. The construction of the system, shown in Figure 1, may be called a Full Bridge single phase, voltage source inverter. 201

Now, the principle operation of the inverter is as the following: Thyristors Th1 and Th2 are connected to the load, and they are, usually, fired together [as, a pair], so that a current is flowing through the load in a direction, say, a positive direction. Then these thyristors are switched off. Now, thyristors Th3 and Th4 are fired, but causing the current in the load to flow in reverse direction to that caused by Th1 and Th2. Then Th3 and Th4 are switched off. In each case, the diodes allow freewheeling after the thyristors are switched off. So, the load alternating voltage is almost square [or rectangular], as can be seen by the waveform of Figure 2. +VS
.

- VS

Figure 2: the alternating output voltage waveform inverted by the pairs of GTO thyristors.

The alternating voltage waveform of Figure 2 which is likely to be a square waveform, can be smoothed to be more sine wave like, by using smoothing filter. The operation of some thyristor power circuits can be applied to control motors and other loads.

Motor control with power electronics: Induction Motor speed control

Variable frequency A.C. supply Motor Voltage Rectifier Rectifier Inverter [d.c. to a.c.]

Figure 3: Diagram of induction motor control. Thyristors can be used to perform a function of speed control of an induction motor. As the torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the stator voltage, then controlling by varying the voltage can maintain the torque of the motor for any particular speed. So that, the thyristor can be employed to make this necessary achievement of controlling the speed of the motor. Now, Figure 3 represents a schematic diagram of induction motor (or synchronous motor) speed control, where the rectifier and the inverter circuit are using thyristors circuit system. The frequency of the AC out of the inverter system is set by the firing frequency of the thyristors, so it can be controlled. Therefore, controlling this frequency will control the motor speed.

202

Regen nerative braking:

If the m motor is runn ning and the inverter fr e requency is reduced, th this wil reduce the motor hen, ll e speed. I this proce the inert of the m In ess tia motor will feed energy in the inve nto erter. This rev verse energy flow will allow powe to be retu y er urned to the AC supply known as y regener rative brakin It is an important en ng. i nergy conse ervation technique for e electric trac ction in electrical rail syste ems. Regene erative braki is also used in elect cars to charge the battery unde braking and ing u tric c b er a extend t vehicle range. the For the D.C. transf formation, it can be sho own that the most of th D.C., [or often called High e he d e tems in ope eration now a days are based on lin commu b ne utated conve erters, Voltage D.C.], syst where t thyristor valve is to be used in the system. the r . Employ ying these thyristors should be isolated from the high voltag present on the e f h ge transmi ission lines. This is bec . cause the th hyristor swi itch ON and OFF is on provided by the d nly low vol ltage contro circuits. ol ectronics to switch Accordingly, a system is app plied using light pulse from the control ele es e o ristor, [it is a 12 pulse c converter]. light triggered thyr

12 Pulse converter
igh performanc of the con ce nfiguration uses 12 val lves (often k known as a twelveSo, a hi quality p pulse sy ystem), of t thyristors. The schemat diagram is shown in Figure 4. T tic m n Nearly all High Vo oltage D. C. [HVDC] p power conv verters with thyristor va alves are assembled in a con nverter brid of twel pulse co dge lve onfiguration That is, the configu n. uration repr resents a pair of six- pulse bridges con f nnected in parallel on the A.C. side [transfo ormers side and in e] series o the D.C. side. on rmers Transfor +

Three pha ase A.C.

D.C.

Figure 4: Schematic di iagram of 12 pulse co onverter.

203

The most common twelve pulse configuration is that the AC is split into two separate three phase converter supplies before transformation. One of the sets of supplies is configured to have a star secondary, the other is a delta secondary. Consequently the ac voltages applied to each six pulse valve group, [which make up the twelve pulse valve group], have a phase difference of 30 degrees.

12 Pulse converter operation:

Now, this is a device for high voltage operation, so each thyristor is really a whole group of thyristors to give the current and voltage rating required known as a thyristor valve. The control of the thyristor firing would often be to achieve constant DC current or constant DC voltage. The control would also change the firing angle of the conduct, to prevent the DC link current from exceeding a safe value.

H.V.D.C. transmission and Link configurations:

An introduction: In D.C. power transmission, the losses are less than with A.C. power transmission. Interconnecting D.C. systems do not need identical frequency and phase, while it is the case for the A.C. Some other advantages of D.C. transmission, so then: Electrical power transmission was originally developed with direct current, but the power transmission using High Voltage D.C. [HVDC] lines is highly cost effective than with A.C. lines, but, again, A.C. requires more complicated interconnections for long connecting distances. Therefore, D. C. transmission is practical when long distances are to be covered or where cables are required. That is, HVDC is the only practical option when transporting electric energy through cables over long distances. Special application of HVDC is as a link between A.C. networks of different frequencies, or between A.C. networks that become unstable when tied together directly. [An example of using HVDC as a link between A.C. networks is shown in Figure 5 (also in figures 6 and 7)] Types of transmission Link configurations: there are mainly three different types of link configurations for H.V.D.C. transmission, and they are: 1) Mono- pole link and earth return, 2) Bi-polar link and 3) Homo-polar link. For each of these types there are essential elements: At one end of the link (as a station or region 1): There is a transformer that converts the A.C. transmission voltage to a suitable voltage for the rectifier. The rectifier converts the A.C. power to D.C. power which is sent via a cable or overhead line to the remote converter station. 204

At the o other end (a station 2): as There i an invert system that conver the D.C. voltage back to an A is ter t rts A.C. voltag and a ge transfor rmer there is to conve the outp voltage of the inv ert put verter to the correct value for e v onward A.C. transm d mission. S the link configurati So, ions are: 1) Mono-pola link: ar Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram. e 3-phase T Transformer r Rectifier I, d.c. HVDC C operati ion Return cu urrent via ground d Figu 5: Schem ure matic diagra of Mono polar link am ok In mono polar link one of the conductor terminals of the rectif [at a pot ok, e r o fier tential high above or below ground] i connected to a transm w is d mission line The other terminal is connected to earth e. ground [current ret turn via ground]. The e earthed term minal may be connected to the d corresponding conn nection at th inverting station by means of a second con he g nductor. er w her rations. This configuration is the lowe cost in co mparative with the oth configur 2) Bi- p polar D. C. l link: lar ssion system two cond m, ductors in op pposite pola arity are use [i.e. posi ed, itive In bipol transmis and neg gative condu uctors are used]. Also, each of these conducto is at a hi potentia with u ors igh al respect to the groun Figure 6 shows the schematic diagram of the system nd. e f m. Transformers Rectifiers + positiv ve HV D DC oper ration Ear rth Inverters Transform mers inv verter 3 - phase transformer r

A.C. netw work

A.C network

_ A.C. netw work negat tive A.C. network n Fi igure 6: Sch hematic diag gram of Bi- polar link. -

205

The mid point is ea d arthed, but this ground connection is not trans t n smitting pow wer. 3) Hom polar D.C. link: moIn hom mo-polar D.C transmis C. ssion link, t there are tw conduct wo tors transmi itting powe in the er same d direction, al lso, with th ground c he connections transmittin the retu current. This is s ng urn illustrat in Figur 7. ted re Transformers Rectifie ers HVD DC opera ation Ear rth inve erters transformer ers

I, d.c c.

A.C. netw work

A.C. ne etwork

igure 7: Sch hematic diag gram of Homo- polar link. Fi

Disadv vantages o the H.V of V,D.C. pow transm wer mission sys stem:
-It is fo ound that using H.V.D D.C. system for transm m mission requ uired reason nably a lot of spare parts. A a compar As rison with the A.C. sy t ystem, H.V.D.C. system is conside m ered to be as a less a standard dized. DC ransmission system wi ll require converter sta c ations at ea end of the link. ach t -H.V.D power tr nstruction o these stati of ions are exp pensive, also they have limited ov o, e verload capa acity. The con Therefo there sh ore, hould be a good reaso to build such stations, as tha long dist on d at: tance of power transmissio long un on, ndersea cab bles, [where there wi be great losses of cables e, ill t f capacita ances when using A.C. system]. n . -If H.V V.D.C. system is used for short dist m fo tances there will be a bigger losse and a hig e b es gher cost of D.C. conversion equipment comparing with the A.C. system n t, g A m. -Genera ally, in add dition to the above po oints, system of HVD required extra con ms DC d nversion equipm ments. Then, this leads to that HVD system is lower than A.C. syste by avai t DC n ems ilability, reliabili and con ity, ntrol.

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Cross channel England / France link:

construction: ThesecondgenerationlinkbetweenEnglandandFranceis:ratedat2000MVAand270kV The submarine cable is 45 km long, which is buried in the seabed to prevent damage from shipping. The link details: Eightcablesarelaidin1mdeeptrenches: The cables are laid as four independent pairs 1 km apart. The pairs have a positive and a negative conductor that are laid touching in the trench to avoid magnetic effects that would interfere with ship compasses. The cables have a lead and polythene sheath and are armored with 5 mm steel wires. These cables are manufactured in 4 km lengths. The connection in, to the converter station is 400 kV, where: Each thyristor valve is made from 125 modules connected in series with 600 modules for the complete station. The diameter of each thyristor is 56 mm and has 3.2 kV forward voltage rating (4kV reverse). -At full load, each thyristors valve has a power loss of less than 200 kW giving a total loss of less than 4.5 MW for each bi-pole. -The link can be controlled from either the English or French converter stations, or more usually from the UK or French grid control centers. The advantages are: Increased diversity of generating plant with plant in one country available to support the other national network. Peak demand is at different times in the two countries so power can be bought from the other country at peak periods to avoid investing in new power stations. Other countries link: Recently, the longest HVDC link system is in Brazil, to connect stations in different cities. It constructed to have two poles of _+ 600 kV, 3150 MW each. The D.C. link line used for connecting two cities stations is of length 2500 km.

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Solve the problems: [try and use the notes]. 1) Explain the inverter operation system, and show the fields of its application. 2) Explain the reason of employing the system of 12 pulse converter. 3) Briefly mention the reasons of applying D.C. transmission in electrical power systems. 4) Show the types of link configurations using D.C. transmission. Briefly explain the elements are employed in this transmission system. Also, with the aid of diagrams, explain briefly the differences between the link configurations. 5) Briefly, mention what are the conditions arises with the associated with the process of D.C. transmission.

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