PDHonline Course M146 (4 PDH)

Compressed Air Systems

Instructor: A. Bhatia, B.E.

2012

PDH Online | PDH Center

5272 Meadow Estates Drive Fairfax, VA 22030-6658 Phone & Fax: 703-988-0088 www.PDHonline.org www.PDHcenter.com

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PDH Course M146

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Compressed Air Systems

Course Content
Whether installing a new system or altering an existing plants the compressed air systems provide many opportunities to make long term dollar savings. The proper design and operation of air compressors systems is very critical. It is important to have a sound understanding of your exact requirements for compressed air how, when and where it will be used. The purpose of this course is to present the fundamentals and general information on compressed air systems. The course includes a glossary at the end.

SECTION -1

SYSTEMS OVERVIEW

The two broad categories of air compression equipment are dynamic and positive displacement machines. 1. Dynamic machines use axial and centrifugal impellers to impart velocity to the air, which is then converted to pressure. Centrifugal and axial compressors are dynamic machines often operating at high speeds. 2. Positive displacement machines use reciprocating piston, rotary screw, or vane types to produce air compression. Screw, reciprocating, lobe and vane compressors are positive-displacement machines There are many different types of compressors on the market, each using different technology to produce compressed air.

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These types are further characterized by: 1) Compression stages: Air compressors are available in single or multiple stages of compression. Multi staging is usually adopted when discharge pressure > 80 psig. Multi stage compressor offers energy efficiency as air is cooled between compression stages and moisture is removed through cooling. Advantages of multistage compression are: Air is cooled in external cooler on discharge from cylinder and before entering the next cylinder Better mechanical balance and uniform torque of multi-crank machines and smaller flywheel Increased volumetric efficiency as a result of lower pressure in IP cylinder clearances Reduction of power to drive Possibility of running at high speeds Provision of better lubrication due to smaller working temperature Smaller leakage loss and lighter cylinders

2) Type of Cooling: The air compressor can be air, water or oil cooled.

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Air-cooled compressors have either integrally mounted or separate oil or air coolers. These require adequate ventilation to perform reliably. Water-cooled compressors require an adequate pressure and quality of water. Remember that air compressors typically reject about 2,000 - 2,500 Btu/hr for every hp. Water-cooled units are more energy efficient. 3) Type of Drive: The prime mover can be electric motor, engine, steam or turbine driven. Electrical motor driven are the most common type found in industrial operations. Engine or turbine driven machines are sometime used for heavy-duty usages and also as mobile units in remote locations where electric supply is not available say in mining operations. 4) Lubrication (oil, oil-free): Air compressors are available as dry/oil-free compressors and lubricated compressors. The types of compressors are as follows: Non Lubricated (Oil Free) !" Rotary Screw & lobe !" Reciprocating !" Centrifugal In general oil free compressors are preferable for clean air application such as food industry, electronic manufacturing, controls & instrumentation, hospital service. Lubricated compressors for utility air service may be sometime permitted if a proper coalescing filtration system is included. 5) Packaged or custom-built Usually the compressors are packaged items unless some heavy-duty machines for mining industry or large energy projects may be custom built. Most reciprocating and dry screw air compressors are shipped as self-contained packaged items requiring minimum tie-in connections. The centrifugal air compressor package system is typically not shipped as a self contained packaged system. 6) Operating pressures Low (0 - 150 PSI) Medium (151 - 1000 PSI) Lubricated Rotary screw & lobe Reciprocating

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High (over 1000 PSI)

SECTION -2

COMPRESSED AIR RATINGS

You might have listened to various terminologies such as SCFM, ACFM, ICFM, and CFM...What Does it Mean? There is no universal standard for rating air compressors. Manufactures usually rate it at free air delivery at requisite pressure in (CFM, ACFM/ICFM) and users generally want it in SCFM. Lets see what this implies. The real issue is how much airflow a compressor will deliver at a given pressure. Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM) of Free Air The term CFM refers to the volume of air at the inlet to the unit; therefore this is often referred to as Inlet CFM (ICFM) or Actual CFM (ACFM). These terms are often used interchangeably but there is a difference. Actual Cubic Feet per Minute (ACFM) The term ACFM implies the volume of ambient air that is actually compressed in the first stage of the compressor. ACFM is measured at a set of scientific conditions selected by the equipment manufacturer. Some air compressor vendors often improperly use ACFM. For example, an air compressor vendor may state that a 200 HP air compressor is rated for 1000 ACFM at 100 PSIG. Taking this phrase literally, the natural assumption is that 1000 Actual Cubic Feet per Minute of compressed air is leaving the discharge of the compressor at 100 PSIG. This is incorrect. The compressor vendor should have stated that this 200 HP air compressor is rated for 1000 Inlet Cubic Feet per Minute (through the inlet air filter) when operating at a discharge pressure of 100 PSIG. Inlet Cubic Feet per Minute (ICFM) The term ICFM or Inlet Cubic Feet per Minute are the units used by compressor vendors to establish the conditions at the inlet flange of the compressor, whereas ACFM is measured at the compressor site Whats the difference??? The difference in most cases is the inlet filter. The inlet filter will cause a drop in air pressure as the air is sucked through it. The compressor vendors must account for this decrease in air pressure when estimating the compressor performance. Standard Cubic Feet per Minute (SCFM)

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SCFM, or Standard Cubic Feet per Minute, is measured at a fixed set of scientific conditions for air temperature, barometric pressure, humidity and elevation. Many standards are used, the most common being the Compressed Air & Gas Institute (CAGI) and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standards, which are 14.7 PSIA, 68F and 36% relative humidity. There are other definitions of SCFM. o The most commonly used definition in the United States is air at 14.696 Pounds per Square Inch (PSIA), 60F, 0% Relative Humidity (RH) o Europeans and ISO standard normally use 14.7 PSIA, 68F, and 0% relative humidity.

The standard conditions vary place to place. If your application is different from the standard conditions, for example if you live in Denver or Albuquerque at high altitude, you will need to de-rate the rating. SCFM and ACFM are two of the most common methods of rating compressor capacity. It is very important to understand the relationship between SCFM and ACFM. The relationship can be expressed as follows: ACFM = SCFM x {[PS (RHS x PVS)] / [Pb (RHa x PVa)]} x (Ta / TS) x (Pb / Pa), Where PS = Standard pressure (psia) Pb = Barometric pressure (psia) Pa = Actual inlet pressure (psia) RHs = Standard relative humidity (%) RHa = Actual inlet relative humidity (%) PVS = Saturated vapor pressure of water at Standard temperature (psia) PVa = Saturated vapor pressure of water at Actual inlet temperature (psia) TS = Standard temperature (R = F + 460) Ta = Actual inlet temperature (R = F + 460)

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When you express your "Demand" in SCFM, you are saying that you want this compressor to deliver this CFM even at your worst-case conditions. If you have a "Demand" of 500 SCFM and you pick a unit from the manufacturers literature that indicates a "Capacity" of 500; this refers to ACFM implying you will not get the amount of air that you require during times when your inlet conditions vary from the standard conditions. Corrections must be made to assure that the unit furnished will provide the proper amount of air for the process to function properly. The common engineering practices include: Specifying "Demand" in SCFM is generally limited to process applications. SCFM is normally not used when specifying "Plant Air" applications The air system piping is sized using actual pipe air velocities based on actual conditions (ACFM). Potential Pitfalls of Failure to Apply Proper Ratings Note this statement: The volumetric comparisons shall be made on an equal footing. The rated inlet conditions can have an appreciable effect on sizing a compressor. The potential pitfalls are: #"Lower than expected output at elevation #"Potential for seasonal shortfalls in hot and/or humid conditions #"Mismatch between plant load and compressor capacity #"Possibility of over sizing dryer and other equipment

SECTION -3

COMPRESSOR TYPES

Several distinct types of compressors are made for industrial use. The commonly used categories are reciprocating, rotary vane, screw and centrifugal compressors. Within each category there are variations as highlighted in figure above.

Reciprocating Air Compressors (Sizes at 100 PSIG --1/2 HP & 1 CFM to 1,250 HP &
6,300 CFM) Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement machines, which work through the action of a piston in a cylinder. These types are most widely used type in the industry and are

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suitable for applications that require low flow rates and/or high pressure. Important characteristics are highlighted below: Pressure can be developed on one or both sides of the piston. The reciprocating air compressor is single acting when the compressing is accomplished using only one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double acting. Single-stage compressors are generally used for pressures in the range of 70 psig to 100 psig. Two-stage compressors are generally used for higher pressures in the range of 100 psig to 250 psig. Capacity control is achieved by unloading individual cylinders. Typically, throttling the suction pressure to the cylinder or bypassing air either within or outside the compressor accomplishes this. Capacity control is achieved by varying speed in engine-driven units through fuel flow control. Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure/absolute intake pressure) may cause excessive discharge temperature or other design problems. Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non-lubricated configurations, may be packaged, and provide a wide range of pressure and capacity selections. Non-lubricated cylinder designs utilize PTFE style rider and wear rings on the pistons. Oil-less designs, utilizing sealed-for-life bearings, are frequently applied on applications that cannot tolerate air compressors lubricants in the process or product. If oil-lubricated reciprocating compressors are used, positive metering, block-type lubricators should be used to reduce excess accumulation of carbon deposits on valves and cylinders. For large volumes of compressed air, they are usually the most expensive to buy and install, and require greater maintenance, however, they may be lower cost at small capacities. Due to their size and the vibrations caused they require large foundations and may not be suitable where noise emissions are an issue. Nevertheless, they are the most energy efficient, both at full and part loads. For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating air compressors over 100 horsepower are built as multi-stage units in which two or more steps of compression are grouped in series. The air is normally cooled between the stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering the following stage.

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Two major types are single acting (using one cylinder) and double acting (dual cylinder) both of which are available as one or two stage compressors. Singlecylinder, single-stage and double-cylinder, two-stage configurations are the most common styles found in industrial applications.

Rotary Screw Compressors (Sizes 30 CFM to 3000 CFM)

Rotary air compressors are positive displacement compressors. The most common rotary air compressor is the single stage helical or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor. These compressors consist of two rotors whose rotation causes the axial progression causing the compression of air internally. Important characteristics are highlighted below: There are no valves. These units are basically oil cooled where the oil seals the internal clearances. The oil coolers in turn are either air or water-cooled. The screw compressors are available in both options of oil injected and oil free types. The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilizes specially designed air ends to compress air without oil in the compression chamber yielding true oil free air. Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme operating temperatures. Capacity control for these compressors is accomplished by variable speed and variable compressor displacement. For the latter control technique, a slide valve is positioned in the casing. As the compressor capacity is reduced, the slide valve opens, bypassing a portion of the compressed air back to the suction. Advantages of the rotary screw compressor include smooth, pulse-free air output in a compact size with high output volume over a long life. Oil free rotary screw air compressors are available in two configurations; dry and water injected. Carry the same benefits as oil injected screw compressors but compress in two stages and have no lubricant in contact with the air during its passage through the compressor.

Centrifugal Compressors (Sizes 400 CFM to 15,000 CFM)

The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor, which use high speed rotating impellors to accelerate air. These are suitable for high gas volume applications such as chemical process industries, steel plants, oil refineries and gas transmission systems. Important characteristics are listed below:

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Centrifugal compressors produce high-pressure discharge by converting angular momentum imparted by the rotating impeller (dynamic displacement). In order to do this efficiently, centrifugal compressors rotate at higher speeds than the other types of compressors.

These types of compressors are designed for higher capacity because flow through the compressor is continuous.

Capacity control is achieved by adjusting the inlet guide vanes. By closing the guide vanes, volumetric flows and capacity are reduced. Centrifugal air compressors have limited capacity control range and below 70% percent capacity, the excess air can be blown off to atmosphere.

Centrifugal compressors run at relatively high speeds and noise control is usually required.

The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil-lubricated running gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents.

To reach operating pressures, several impellor stages are required. They have low installation costs, but are expensive to buy because they are precision machines. They are fairly efficient down to about 60%of their design output.

Vane Compressors
A Vane compressor is a positive displacement machine having a rotor with metallic sliding vanes inside an eccentric housing. The vanes form pockets of air that are compressed as the rotor turns until an exhaust port is exposed. This working principle is also widely used in air motors. Important characteristics are highlighted below: The sliding vane compressor normally is sold as a package and is available in the range of 10 hp to 200 hp, with capacities of 40 cfm to 800 cfm and discharge pressures from 80 psig to 125 psig. The advantages are; these machines are compact, low first cost, need no special foundation and have part load capacity control system. The disadvantages are; these are less energy efficient than rotary screw type both at full load and part load. Summary:

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SECTION- 4

SYSTEMS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

There is a wide choice of different types of compressor designs available today. The type of compressor decided upon has direct implications on the lifetime energy costs. When designing a compressed air system there are a number of issues that need to be considered including: 1. Type of Compressor 2. Size of Compressor 3. Required Pressure 4. Air Quality 5. Variable or Steady Load

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Which type of compressor suits you the best?

The variables needed to determine which is best are: #"Hours run per month or year #"Is the compressed air demand steady during operations or does it vary greatly #"Is the environment clean or dirty? #"What are the pressure requirements on the compressed air system? Which system is a decision controlled by the type of work you expect it to do.

Comparative Analysis (Reciprocating, Rotary Screw and Centrifugal Compressors) Reciprocating compressors; single acting, two stage; air-cooled units fulfill most of the
applications. These compressors do well under widely ranging demands, as they are relatively efficient at light load and cost less to purchase. However, for maximum service life these compressors should be sized so that the maximum demand placed upon them does not exceed 75% to 80% of their full rated output for periods of more than a half hour. Exceeding this can lower the service life considerably and in extreme cases can lead to valve refurbishing or complete replacement in less than a year. In dirty conditions, reciprocating compressors are less affected than rotary screws. Dirty conditions shorten the service of all air compressors. Reciprocating compressors are best suited for low volume, high pressure applications.

Rotary screw air compressors are best suited for steady loads with long hours of
operation. Under 24 hours a day, 7 days a week service a rotary screw will last longer than a reciprocating compressor. However, it is not as energy efficient under light loads. In addition, at higher pressures (175 PSIG) as seen in the auto service industry, they generally do not produce as much volume (CFM) as comparable two-stage piston compressor. They are generally more expensive to purchase for the same rated CFM output but under steady load conditions can be price competitive since they are best at full load while the reciprocating compressors should not be loaded for more than 75% over long periods of time. As an example, a 10 Hp rotary screw may be able to produce a steady flow of air that might require a 15 Hp. reciprocating air compressor at its 75% or 80% load factor. Rotary Screw Compressors are the most widely applied industrial compressors in the 40 (30kW) to 500 hp (373 kW) range. The popularity of rotary is due to the relatively simple

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design, ease of installation, low routine maintenance requirements, ease of maintenance, long operating life and affordable cost.

Centrifugal compressors are better suited for a steady state operation where there is
minimum process swings during normal operation. Centrifugal machines are susceptible to surge at low mass flow rates. This instability is very severe in compressors producing high pressure ratios and it may result in high frequency vibration, damage to bearings, impellers, shaft seals, couplings, etc... At higher mass flow a rate, a stage is soon reached when mass cant be increased any further known as choking. Positive displacement screw or reciprocating machines are not subject to these dynamic performance characteristics. In summary some typical evaluation considerations are discussed below

1) Short listing based on Application In general reciprocating compressors are by far the best choice for small volumes in situations where operation is short-term or intermittent, and load is fluctuating. For example, a tyre shops where demand varies. Screw compressors are best where the demand for compressed air is relatively constant, as in a production line situation. Reciprocating compressors can be used alongside screw compressor systems to provide smaller amounts of air that may be required on weekends or nights. Centrifugal compressors are better suited for heavy demand areas requiring steady state operation and negligible process fluctuations. 2) Short listing based on sizes For flow rates below 2000 SCFM, the choice exists between reciprocating and screw compressors. Typically the reciprocating compressors are better in lower ranges below 750 SCFM and screw compressors are preferable between 750 to 2000 SCFM. For flow rates between 2000 4000 SCFM both a screw compressor system and a centrifugal compressor system should be evaluated. Above 4000 SCFM, a centrifugal compressor system is most cost effective

3) Operating costs at part load efficiency Efficiency at part load operation is very important aspect of analysis.

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The screw compressor offer infinite reduction from 100% to 0% that allows obtaining higher refrigeration capacity from the same machine and affords good part load efficiency.

The centrifugal machine accomplishes the capacity reduction in stages. Part load efficient of centrifugal machines is poor that significantly impact annual energy requirements.

The reciprocating compressors stepped capacity control is most efficient at minimum load than the twin-screw compressor.

4) Air density issues Changes in air density caused by temperature and humidity will greatly affect the output of an air compressor. In winter, the air is generally denser and dryer, therefore compressor capacity is increased. In the summer, air is expanded due to temperature and generally more humid, therefore capacity is reduced. Similar changes in compressor performance will be caused by elevation. With positive displacement reciprocating or screw compressors, the weight flow delivered at pressure is directly proportional to density changes. The average power changes will vary approximately 2-3% total. The centrifugal machines will experience increased mass flow and power requirements during colder ambient conditions. This power fluctuation can increase as much as 10-15% and the machine can subject to surge if the inlet throttle valve located upstream of the compressor failed to compensate the interstage pressures. 5) Reliability and maintenance The number of moving parts is highest in reciprocating compressor while centrifugal compressor has the least number of parts. Wear and tear of reciprocating compressor is frequent and requires considerable maintenance. Rotating equipment is subject to high vibration if operating near a critical speed. The screw compressor is not subject to high vibration/unbalance problems with rotors operating at half below the first critical speed. The centrifugal machines operate at high speed between first and second critical speed. The centrifugal machines are susceptible to unbalance & vibrations and shall require more items to be checked regularly. 6) Field Serviceability

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Field serviceability of screw compressor is relatively simple and is serviceable in the field as all parts are removable and replaceable. The above is true for centrifugal compressor but may pose significant problems if rotor is failed. Centrifugal rotors are one of a kind and are not standard equipment or a stock item that will fit in a similar unit in the field. Most reciprocating compressors are field serviceable but it is tedious due to large number of parts. 7) Stock availability of spares Most screw compressors manufacturers have a number of machines in stock, as well as the rotors, bearings seals etc. Centrifugal compressors do not stock rotors and require 10 to 12 week delays to fabricate the same. Reciprocating compressors are normally available from local stocks.

8) Startup Operation The anti-friction bearing in a dry screw compressor does not require pre-lubrication or post lubrication oil pumping equipment. The screw and reciprocating machines can start-up immediately. The centrifugal machines require between 10 to 20 minutes to preheat and circulate the oil before the machine can be started and fully loaded. Oil is needed to support the impeller shaft and prevent failure of hydrodynamic type bearings during start-up.

SECTION- 5

COMPRESSOR CONTROLS

Control for Reciprocating

&

Rotary Compressors

Each compressor type may incorporate any of the different control systems to match the compressor volume and pressure to the demand and the most popular are described here. All these controls monitor the system pressure and maintain the pressure between a minimum value and a maximum value. 1. Start/Stop Here when the preset system pressure is reached the compressor is turned off and it is restarted when the pressure decays down to a preset value. From energy

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efficiency point of view this is the best control. But this can not be used in large rating compressors because of the obvious difficulty involved in starting and stopping a large rated motor frequently. Also it is not suited in applications where large control range in pressure cannot be allowed. It is usually used with small compressors supplying infrequent capacity demands. 2. Load/Unload Control In Load-Unload control, the compressor motor runs continuously and the inlet valve opens and closes in degrees, throttling the inlet air flow into the compressor to match the demand within the plant. The desired system pressure is programmed into the compressor control panel and whenever the actual system pressure starts to rise above the desired set point, the inlet valve throttles, restricting the amount of air that is pumped into the facility. At minimum pressure (on-line or load point), the inlet valve opens and the compressor pumps air into the system until the system pressure reaches the maximum pressure (off-line or unload point), at which point the inlet valve closes. When the cylinder is unloaded the motor runs at a low load. An Automatic Delta-Star switcher installed on the motor of this type of compressor can improve the energy efficiency of the unit. Each compressor type performs this cylinder unloading differently. Reciprocating compressors are unloaded by holding the inlet valve open, preventing air induction and compression. Rotary compressors are partially unloaded by controlling the inlet air and bleeding the discharge pressure to atmosphere. Throttling is employed in rotary compressors by a valve in the air inlet that restricts the airflow in response to compressor output pressure. 3. Multistep Part Load Control (Reciprocating Compressor) This control uses multiple pressure switches, operating at evenly spaced increments within the pressure control range. An example will be a double acting reciprocating compressor with two control mechanisms. One is inlet valve depressor on each cylinder, which is used to unload cylinders thereby resulting in 0 or 50% or 100% capacity. The second control is by using clearance pockets in both cylinders. These pockets are designed to change the volume of cylinders by 50%. Thus this compressor can work with delivery capacities of 0,25,50,75 and 100 %. 4. Variable Displacement Control (Rotary Screw Compressor) The capacity is a function of the length of the rotors and their speed. Variable displacement control changes compressor output by varying the length of the rotors. Rotor length adjustment is accomplished by opening ports within the compression cylinder wall that allow intake air to bypass the compression cycle and to be recycled

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to the inlet. The ports literally shorten the length of the rotor and thus decrease the amount of capacity that the compressor can produce. These ports are continually exposed or covered by a mechanical valve in response to the system demand for air. Variable displacement has an effective capacity control range of between 60% and 100% of compressor load. Below 60% load, the compressor must utilize some other form of Capacity Control. The fallback control is normally modulation. 5. Variable Speed Drive Control . . . also known as variable frequency drive Since compressor output is a function of rotor length and rotor speed, the variable frequency drive equipped compressor matches supply to demand by varying the speed of the rotors. As system pressure rises toward a set point, the variable frequency drive reduces compressor speed by reducing the frequency of power it supplies to the motor. As system pressure reduces, signaling a need for more air, the drive increases compressor speed by increasing the frequency of the power to the motor. This Capacity Control system achieves highly efficient part loading between 20% to 100% of compressor capacity. Below 20% loading the inlet valve closes and the compressor simply shuts off.

Control for Centrifugal Compressors

Variable speed motors are the best control option for Centrifugal Compressors (also for reciprocating type) from energy efficiency point of view. Adjustable inlet guide vanes are the most frequently used control in the case of a centrifugal compressor. While not energy efficient, they make possible excellent part load performance and a wide control range. Adjustable diffuser vane mechanism is another control possible in such compressors.

Multiple Compressor System Controls

Many compressed air systems call for more than one compressor operating simultaneously. When operating a facility with multiple compressors, an efficient overall control design must focus upon the following four areas: 1. Shut off unneeded compressors 2. Delay bringing additional compressors on-line as long as possible

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3. Fully load as many compressors as is possible and part-load only that compressor that has the most efficient part-load performance 4. Reduce plant pressure to its absolute minimum Older control methods use sequencing and more modern methods use programmable logic controllers (PLCs) that can significantly reduce the overall energy requirements of the system by optimizing the performance. The simplest sequencing systems are pressure controlled only, sequentially loading and unloading different compressors. The pressure and time control systems incorporate one or more time delays in the start/stop cycling of the various compressors. Recycle timers are used to reduce the frequency of starting. Some set a minimum on or minimum off time. More complex systems use a combination of two pressure switches and timers to reduce the system pressure band. More modern approaches make use of master controller that will coordinate the operation of each compressor individual controller in their functional range. This master controller should be able to interpret the air demand within the system and select the best combination of compressors to fill the supply requirements. All compressors fitted with VFDs controlled by PLC system will be the ideal system for maximum energy savings in the case of multi-compressor installations.

SECTION- 6

COMPRESSOR SIZING

Two factors affect the determination of the total compressor capacity. 1) Determine the required compressor capacity (flow) in SCFM (or NM /Hr) 2) The maximum air pressure (psiG or Bar G) required
3

Estimating Capacity
When selecting an air compressor for a new or retrofit application, the following assessment tasks should be carried out: Determine the functional and operational requirements by assessing the user points (tools, instruments, machinery, blow-gun etc.) and load profiles including location, hours of operations, number/type of equipments/tools being used etc. In new installations, compressor plant is generally sized by adding all the likely individual loads allowing for simultaneous use, constant demand requirements and using

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diversity factors for intermittent air users. Ideally, the total capacity would be based on exact knowledge of the equipment or process requirements. In existing installations, it may be possible to monitor current demand and use this to size replacement plant. When estimating the total air capacity required, one must account for all losses. These must be added to the required SCFM in order to deliver the required capacity for your facility. To ensure energy efficiency, designers should avoid adding excessive or arbitrary future changes or standby margins to the output of the selected compressors. To include for contingency/safety margin (due to unpredictable demand, air losses, leakages, wear & tear etc.), the standard practice calls for 10 to 15% allowance. In addition dont forget to include 15% purge requirements if heatless-type desiccant dryers are used. (Refer section on air treatment for further details) Potential Pitfalls of Failure to correct sizing If the sizing is underestimated, the compressor plant will be too small and unable to maintain the required pressure in the system.

If the total air consumption is greatly over-estimated there may be excessive capital investment and reduced efficiency. Oversized air compressors are extremely inefficient.

Evaluating Pressures
When designing (and operating) a system it is important to correctly evaluate the amount of pressure required. Air must be delivered to the point of use at the desired pressure and in the right condition. Step # 1 Walk through your facility and make a list of the items (tools, instruments, machinery, blow-gun etc.) that use compressed air. Check from the data sheets/catalogues of the end user equipment, the effective pressure range. Generally most of the instrumentation applications are satisfied with a pressure of 100 PSIG. Some special plant/service air applications may require 150 PSIG or higher pressures. Step # 2 The second step is to take into consideration the pressure drop through the piping system, heat exchangers, dryer(s) and filter(s). Generally 1020 PSIG over the maximum pressure required at a point of use is satisfactory.

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Thus to assure the 100 psig header pressure, the compressor shall be rated to a minimum of 125 psig. Potential Pitfalls of incorrect pressures Too low a pressure will impair tool efficiencies and affect process time. Too high a pressure may damage equipment, will promote leaks and increase operating costs. For example an extra 200k Pa pressure would be responsible for approximately 8 to 16% of plants energy costs.

Verifying Capacity (Illustration)

Your compressor with 25 gallon receiver tank bears a tag claiming the unit delivers 6.5 HP and 10 CFM at 90 PSI. Verify if it is really so. Trigger a refill cycle by bleeding out air slowly with the relief valve. Observe on the tank gauge (not the downstream gauge) that the compressor "cuts in" at 85 psig and "cuts out" again at 102 psig. With a stopwatch measure the time duration between cut in and cutout. It cranks for 35 seconds to build up that pressure. Divide the tank volume in gallons by 7.48 (1 cu-ft = 7.48 gallons) to get the tank volume in cubic feet. Thus the tank volume is 25 gallons / 7.48 gal/cu-ft = 3.3 cubic feet. In units of atmospheres of pressure, since 1 atm = 14.7 PSI, these cut-in and cutout pressures are 5.8 atm and 6.9 atm, respectively. So the compressor adds 1.1 atm of pressure during the cycle. When a compressor pumps one "CFM" (cubic foot per minute), that means it sucked in one cubic foot of "free air" (air at atmospheric pressure). Thus in one cycle, the rate at which air is being pumped into my tank, is the pressure rise times the volume of the tank, or 3.3 cubic feet * 1.1 atm = 3.6 cubic feet per 35 seconds. To proportion the 35 seconds up to minutes, to get the pumped volume per minute, multiply by 60/35, or 3.6 * 60/35 = 6.2 CFM (at 85 PSI). The error range in our estimate is perhaps about 30 percent (the true value might perhaps be as much as 8 CFM or as little as 4 CFM). Certainly this is not performing at 6.5 HP like the sticker says, or the 10 CFM on the data plate. This is one simple technique using just a stopwatch to verify the capacity and could be applied to estimating leakages. The example above considers On-off type control of the compressor, but however the same technique can be applied to load-unload type by carefully listening to the compressor noise pattern.

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SECTION 7

SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS (Matching Loads)

Determine the required system configuration in terms of number and plant capacity by taking into account the total capacity and operational requirement, reliability and maintenance considerations It is very important to correctly size the system, as oversized air compressors are extremely inefficient. Select the size of the compressor that runs as closely as possible to full load. All constant speed air compressors are most efficient when operated at full load. The second step is to provide the correct number of compressors of suitable capacity to meet the maximum plant demand. This selection should also include a standby compressor for the maximum plant demand, thus allowing for maintenance on any one compressor without interrupting system service. As modern compressors have high reliability, standby plant requirements should be carefully considered and not guessed. It is good practice to include a standby compressor equal in size to the largest duty machine. However, it is possible to reduce capital costs by opting for smaller standby plant. This depends on the down-time that can be accommodated and/or any mobile units that could be hired. Typically, peak demand periods are of shorter duration than say, second, third or weekend shifts. Having one compressor sized for peak demand will mean it is operating inefficiently an average of 85% of the time. Installing multiple compressors to match this peak while incrementally matching other lower compressed air demand periods will pay for the additional procurement costs in energy savings. It is usually more efficient to run a smaller compressor at full load rather than a large one at low load.

Demand Patterns and Compressor Combinations

Demand patterns for compressed air can be relatively constant, stepped or widely fluctuating and will vary considerably from factory to factory. When designing the system it is important to understand not just how much air is required but when it is needed. The first task is to determine if any processes can be altered to flatten the load. If a simple change in the timing of an activity can occur it may be able to reduce peak demand thereby reducing costs. Load will also affect compressor selection. If the load is constant for all periods then clearly a single, correctly sized compressor will efficiently do the job.

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However, with stepped or fluctuating loads it is often more efficient to use a combination of compressors and controls (including variable output and variable speed technology) rather than one large compressor running at part load. This is because air compressors are most efficient when operating at or near full load. Figure below presents some examples of demand patterns and how they can be met efficiently with combinations of multiple compressors. In addition, demand peaks can be smoothed and peak loads reduced by using storage receivers. A storage receiver can typically store 5% to 10% of the compressor capacity avoiding excessive cycling and part-load operation. This improves energy efficiency and reduces wear on the compressor. During periods of sudden high demand, an extra receiver near the point of take-off may avoid the need to provide extra capacity.

Meeting Demand Patterns Efficiently with Combinations of Compressors

It is usually more efficient to run a smaller compressor at full load rather than a large one at low load. Importantly, do not install an oversized compressor to meet anticipated future demand. It is usually more economical and more efficient to install an additional, appropriately sized compressor when needed later. Choose suitably sized receivers to act as a buffer between output and demand.

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SECTION 8

AIR QUALITY

The "Quality" of air required has 3 main considerations: 1) Maximum (acceptable) Moisture Content or Pressure Dew Point 2) Maximum (acceptable) Oil Content 3) Maximum (acceptable) Particulate Concentration The quality of the compressed air produced by a system can range from plant air to high quality breathing air. Different end-uses require different levels of air quality Air Quality Breathing Air Applications
Hospital air systems, Refill diving tanks, Respirators for cleaning and/or grit blasting and spray painting

Process Air

Food and pharmaceutical process air, Electronics

Instrument Air

Laboratories, Paint spraying, Powder coating, Climate control

Plant Air

Air tools, general plant air

Dryness and contaminant level are the two key factors used to distinguish low from high quality air. The higher the quality, the more the air costs to produce. Higher quality air usually requires additional equipment, which not only increases initial capital investment, but also makes the overall system more expensive to operate in terms of energy consumption and maintenance costs. It is, therefore, important when designing the system to assess the level of air quality required. Internationally, guidelines are available that allow the quality of air to be specified, such as ISO Standard 8573, which defines different classes, as shown in Table below:
ISO 8573 Air Quality Classifications

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Class

Oil Carryover (mg/m )

3

Dust Carryover (mg/m ) 0.1 1 5 8 10 3

Moisture carryover (mg/m ) 0.003 0.12 0.88 6 7.8 9.4 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.01 0.1 1 5 25 -

When selecting a compressor consideration needs to be given to the level of air quality required. If lubricant-free air is required, this can be achieved with either lubricant-free compressors, or with lubricant-injected compressors that have additional separation and filtration equipment. Lubricant-free compressors usually cost more to install and have higher maintenance costs. Lubricant-injected compressors while cheaper to purchase have the additional capital, energy and maintenance costs of separation and filtration equipment. Careful consideration should be given to the specific end-use for the lubricant-free air, including the risk and cost associated with product contamination, before selecting a lubricant-free or lubricant-injected compressor. Table below lists some of the characteristics of the two compressor types. Characteristics of Lubricated and Non-lubricated Compressors Non Lubricated Compressor
May require fewer filters and oil changes Longer operational life

Lubricated Compressor Considerably lower capital costs

Oil provides a cooling effect Lower speeds and temperatures

Often preferred when manufacturing sensitive products such as food or pharmaceutical applications

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Non Lubricated Compressor High capital costs. Routine service costs usually high To reach high pressure need multistage compression.

Lubricated Compressor Filter maintenance and oil changes required quite often Due to pressure drop air treatment capital and running costs are higher

Instrument air service shall preferably use the non-lubricated compressors. ANSI/ISA 7.0.01, Quality Standards for Instrument Air, specifically states, Although not recommended, if lubricated compressors are used, lubricant removal is required to avoid damaging effects on air system components and end-use devices. In addition to understanding your air quality requirements and compressor types, efficient methods to reduce contaminants need to be investigated. Prior to the compression cycle an air compressor inhales water vapor, dirt, and atmospheric pollution. During the process the volume of air reduces, causing the level of contamination to increase. Additionally, further contaminants such as oil vapor or wear particles can be introduced by certain types of compressors during the compression process. This concentration of contaminants means that the compressed air can rarely be used without some form of treatment. A wide range of filtration and drying equipment is available to improve air quality. However, it needs to be remembered that careful selection, installation and maintenance of treatment equipment is required to reduce the energy costs of treating air. These costs can be quite high and include direct energy costs for running equipment, the extra generation cost needed to overcome additional pressure drops, or the cost of purging air. The section on compressed air treatment provides a comprehensive overview of the treatment equipment.
Lubricated Compressor

SECTION 9

COMPONENTS OF COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Most compressed air systems consist of following three major sub systems1) Compressors with drives and controls, inter-cooling, compressor cooling, waste heat recovery, and air inlet filtration

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2) Conditioning equipment consisting of after coolers, receivers, separators, traps, filters and air dryers 3) Air distribution subsystems, including main trunk lines, drops to specific usage, valving, additional filters and traps, air hoses, possible supplementary air conditioning equipment, connectors, and often pressure regulators and lubricators The important components of the system are: 1. Inlet Filter: Removes particles from the air entering the compressor. 2. Compressor: Compresses air to a small volume, increasing the pressure. 3. Motor: Drives the compressor. 4. Compressor Controller: Directs the compressors output. It may be microprocessor, electromechanical or pneumatically based. Advanced controllers include machine protection and information management. 5. Aftercooler: Compression leaves the air hot and wet. The aftercooler lowers the temperature of the air thus condensing and removing the water. 6. Separator: Removes liquids from the compressed air. These are generally installed in compressor after the aftercooler. 7. Receiver: Stores a large reserve of compressed air to maintain a smooth flow to the plant. 8. Air line Filter: Removes solids and liquids from the compressed air stream. The filters can be placed throughout the system. 9. Dryer: Helps to eliminate any remaining moisture in the compressed air by using either a refrigerated condenser or a desiccant. Refrigerated condensers cool the air to condense water vapors into a liquid that is then drained from the system. Desiccants are powders or gels that remove water by absorbing it. 10. Condensate Trap: Collects and discharges liquid that condenses out of the air stream. Integral part of after coolers, dryers and separators 11. Distribution Piping: Links the components. It distributes the air from a main header to branch lines and sub headers to drop points connected to individual tools. 12. Pressure regulator: Controls air pressure and flow at individual points of use.

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SECTION 10

COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT

Compressed air leaving the air compressor is usually of too low quality for the intended use. This is due to several factors. The air discharged from compressor is saturated with moisture The air discharged from the compressor has oil traces, if the compressor is lubricated type The other contaminants in the intake air are also compressed and carried along, the concentration of which depends on the outdoor air quality and the efficiency of intake filter.

Why do I have so much water in my compressed air system?

Water is a natural result of the act of compressing air. As the air taken in through the air filter is compressed, the water vapor (humidity) in the air is also compressed. The act of compression generates large amounts of heat which causes the water to remain in a vapor condition. As the air cools, either in a receiver, dryer or in the system piping, the vapor condenses into a liquid and falls out of the air stream.

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The table below provides information on the quantity of water in gallons passing through 1000 CFM compressor in 24 hours of operation at an operating pressure of 100 psig. Entering Air Temp 110F 100F 90F 80F 70F 60F 50F 40F 30F 20F 10F 0F -10F -20F 20 128.98 97.62 73.06 54.02 39.42 28.38 20.13 14.08 9.56 6.10 3.83 2.37 1.41 .82 40 257.99 195.28 146.13 108.04 78.84 56.76 40.26 28.16 19.12 12.2 7.66 4.74 2.79 1.63 60 386.97 292.94 219.19 162.03 118.26 85.14 60.41 42.21 28.68 18.30 11.56 7.14 4.20 2.47 80 515.98 390.58 292.25 216.05 155.21 113.52 80.55 56.29 38.24 24.40 15.34 9.56 5.61 3.29 100 644.97 488.22 360.37 270.07 194.64 141.90 100.68 70.37 47.79 30.50 19.02 11.88 7.01 4.10 Relative Humidity %

Its worth noting that for the same humidity, as the temperature reduces the moisture compression is low. Also for the same temperature as the humidity increases the moisture processing also increases. For energy efficiency lower the temperature and humidity better shall be the compressor performance. In lubricated compressors the oil vapor can condense with the water and form an emulsion. Unless removed, the contaminants will travel throughout the system and create downstream equipment operational problems, lead to corrosion, high pressure drop and can have serious damaging effect on instrumentation, processes, pneumatic tools and products. To dry and filter, or just filter, compressed air is an important decision. Experience indicates that a dryer best does control of condensate. Aftercooler is normally a standard attachment with compressor that greatly helps in reducing load on the dryer.

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The forthcoming sections investigate the various technologies available to treat compressed air and how to operate them efficiently to assist you to save energy and money.

SECTION 11

AFTERCOOLERS

For Every 20F (11C) increases in atmospheric temperature, the ability to hold moisture just about doubles! Or conversely, essentially for every 20F (11C) drop in compressed air temperature, the moisture holding capacity of air reduces by 50%. Aftercoolers are heat exchangers that cool air to within 5-20F of ambient air temperature immediately after it is discharged from the compressor. As air-cools, up to ~ 70% of the water vapor present condenses to a liquid that is removed from the system. Good aftercooling can extract 70-80% of the moisture in the air and dramatically reduce the moisture loading on the air dryers. Most modern air compressors have an aftercooler located immediately after the compressor as a standard fitting to perform the function of removing water, and some oil vapor. Air temperatures are typically as high as 260 F at the outlet of the air compressor. The aftercoolers can be either air-cooled or water-cooled. The water-cooling typically results in an outlet air temperature of approximately 80 to 110 F (~ approach of 10 to 15 F). The aircooled aftercooler will generally be less efficient, resulting in higher outlet air temperatures but are often more economic to operate than water-cooled units in smaller applications. Water-cooled aftercoolers are more efficient as the cooling medium water can be considerably cooler than the surrounding air. The cost of the water-cooled aftercooler equipment is low however; the cost of the cooling water can be very high. Don't forget that in many areas you not only pay for the water, you pay a sewage charge to carry the warm water away. For energy conservation reasons, it is wise to consider waste heat recovery possibilities (e.g., process water or boiler water preheating) as a part of overall energy efficiency program. In most cases the aftercooler is part of the compressor package. The aftercooler operation uses approximately 2% of the total package power. In undried systems, we normally will place an air-cooled aftercooler near (or as an integral part of) the compressor with a coalescing filter near this to eliminate the large amount of water condensed.

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SECTION 12

COMPRESSED AIR DRYERS

Atmospheric air entering a compressor has certain humidity or contains some water vapor. Most of this water will condense at compressor discharge as the air is cooled in aftercooler. The moisture in compressed air could be liquid water, aerosol (mist) and vapor (gas). The most noticeable and easily removable are water and aerosol, which can be removed by high efficiency filtration together with refrigeration dryers. Water vapor is more difficult to remove and requires the use of a dryer (desiccant type) together with high efficiency filtration. There are various drying options; the specific method used depends upon the desired compressed air quality requirements and entering ambient air conditions. The 5 different compressed air dryers are available, each having different characteristics and having different degree of dew point suppression. The general measurement of air dryness is dewpoint. Dewpoint is the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with moisture and the moisture begins to condense. Lowering the dew point effectively means the system can endure much lower temperatures before water droplets begin to condense. It should be noted that to stop corrosion (and rust, etc.) air dryness should be 2%RH (Relative Humidity) or better. A dryness of 2% RH is equivalent to 30C Pressure Dewpoint. Table below provides a comparison guideline for air dryness. It is also relatively easy to calculate how much more water (liters) can be removed from a compressed air pipe work by alterative dryers.

Pressure Dewpoint +10 +3 -20 -30 -40 -70

Relative Humidity 54% 34% 5% 2% (limit of corrosion) 0.7% 0.016%

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Selecting a Dryer
When selecting a dryer you need to determine the most cost-effective system suitable for your application as compressed air dryers vary in relation to their dewpoint, initial cost, and ongoing maintenance requirements. The factors to be considered include: Calculating the required dewpoint temperature, which needs to be below the lowest ambient temperature your compressed air system, will be exposed too. Take into account the location of air lines i.e. located in front of open doors or windows, throughout air conditioned or unheated areas, running underground or between buildings Determining which type of dryers will produce the required dew point Consider initial and operating costs. The lower the dewpoint, the more expensive the dryer is to purchase and operate After identifying the type of drying system, determine the actual conditions under which the dryer will be operating. This allows you to determine the correct size of the dryer. Max flow capacity (CFM, l/sec) Max acceptable pressure dew point (F, C) Minimum inlet air pressure (inches water gauge, kPa) Maximum and minimum inlet air temperature (F, C) Maximum ambient or cooling water temperature (F, C) Maximum allowable pressure drop (inches water gauge, kPa)

There are 5 main types of dryers suitable for compressed air systems and each will perform differently and will be suited to different applications. More detailed descriptions of each dryer type follow.

Refrigerant Dryers
These units run refrigeration systems that cool the air to just above freezing and separate the water while the air is cold. Refrigerant type dryers remove moisture from the compressed air by cooling the air to about 35-50F causing condensate to form, which is drained off by means of a separator and trap.

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The cooled outgoing dried air is made to pass through another air-to-air exchanger where it gets re-heated and pre-cools the incoming air. As the temperature of incoming air to the dryer is reduced the heat load on the refrigeration system also reduces. The refrigerant circuit is hermetically sealed and the heat rejection through the refrigerant dryer could be air or water-cooled. Refrigeration dryers use well-proven technologies that encounter few problems if properly installed and maintained. The types of problems that can affect the performance, and hence energy consumption includes: Internal contamination effects dewpoint: High compressor delivery temperatures High ambient temperatures Poor installation/ventilation Faulty drain traps allowing liquids downstream of the dryer Loss of refrigerant

The most used dryer is the refrigerated compressed air dryer. These units provide for pressure dew points between 35 to 50 F. Since most environments are warmer than this, the air will remain dry in the pipe. The selection of a compressed air dryer should be based upon the required pressure dew point and the estimated cost of operation. Where a pressure dew point of less than 35 F is required, a refrigerant type dryer cannot be used. The required pressure dew point for the application at each point of use will eliminate certain types of dryers. This method of drying is very popular as it produces dewpoints, which are adequate for most duties in an energy efficient and reliable manner. The estimated electrical load, excluding pressure drop through the dryer, is 0.54 kilowatts per 100 CFM. Simplicity and low operating costs Easily serviced by qualified refrigeration technician or firm Facilities with dual tower desiccant dryers that just need to keep dewpoint below ambient, can use refrigerated dryer most of the year and a PLC control can be used to monitor outside ambient temperature. Desiccant dryer would start when air dips below 45F and refrigerant dryer would start if air rises above 45F. Significant savings can be achieved from having the desiccant dryer down 6-8 months/year. Compressed Air Systems - Air Receivers
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Regenerative Desiccant Dryers

The regenerative dryer produces dryer air with pressure dewpoints typically at -40 F to -100 F. Desiccant Air Dryers contain two separate identical desiccant bed towers in which air is flowed alternately. Desiccant dryers work by feeding compressed air through one tower to be dried (duty tower), while the desiccant in the other (non-duty) is being regenerated. Regeneration is required to charge the desiccant material, once it reaches near saturation and is unable to hold any moisture further. Regeneration is accomplished by either heated or heatless dryers. In heatless or cold regenerative dryers, 10 - 15% of dried air is diverted from the air outlet of duty tower to regenerate the desiccant in non-duty tower. Heatless dryers can be costly to operate due to their high consumption of dry compressed air for wet tower purging---may be up to 15-17% of dry air volume. In heated type, purge air is heated to 300-400F and directed through the non-duty tower. Relatively little purge air (1-7%) is diverted from the dried air stream in these designs, offering significant operating cost savings in applications over 500 CFM. Maintenance items on (heated) regenerative dryers include heating element failures, switching valve repair or replacement, blower failures, pre and after filter elements and above all the tower desiccant bead replacement every 2-3 years if the required winter dew point of 40 F is to be attained. No Purge low energy use desiccant dryers have recently been introduced to the market, these dryers work on similar principles to standard desiccant dryers, however, regeneration is carried out by the use of heated ambient air being drawn over the non-duty section under vacuum. Efficient operation of a desiccant dryer can also be hampered by Poor cooling of inlet air Poor pre-filtration causing liquid phase water and oil carry over High peak loads causing desiccant bed fluidization (twin tower type only) Faulty changeover valves causing continuous purge Faulty controls causing poor or no regeneration of individual towers Desiccant contamination by oil
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Other Facts 1) Diameter and length of desiccant beds determines drying efficiency. Bed diameter controls air velocity through the bed. If the velocity is too high, the desiccant will float or fluidize, causing significant desiccant degradation. Bed length determines consistency of the dewpoint: the bed must be long enough to ensure sufficient contact time between the wet air and the dry desiccant to reach the proper outlet dew point. 2) Desiccant dryers are reliable, well-proven machines, however, it is important that they are correctly sized, controlled and maintained; otherwise they have the potential to be high-energy users, costing your business greatly. It is important not to oversize desiccant dryers, particularly the heatless models as the dryer has a fixed purge 3) Considerable energy is wasted, if the demand is considerably less than the dryer design flow. The dryers supplied with energy management control systems and equipped with dewpoint dependant switching makes desiccant dryers more efficient. The dewpoint switching alters the level of regeneration according to the load level. 4) Dryers of this type normally have a built-in regeneration cycle that is controlled by a timer, dewpoint control, or a combination of both. 5) Since most use part of the dried air to regenerate the dryer beds it also has an effect on compressor capacity needed. These dryers are more expensive to purchase and are less energy efficient that the refrigerated or deliquescent dryer. 6) These dryer are used in plants that absolutely cannot have any water in the compressed air. The chemical, oil, and metal processing industries use these dryers. 7) Most standard regenerative desiccant type dryers provide a pressure dew point of 40F. Excluding pressure drop through the dryer, estimated load is 1.8 kW per 100CFM to 2.7 kW per 100 CFM. 8) Contrary to the best-intended opinions of those who feel the only way to dry and condition compressed air is by applying desiccant dryers on a 24 hr., 12 month per year basis ---the application of a refrigerating air dryer during the summer months can be a viable and more economical option. 9) Switch over to the refrigerating dryer during summer where a pressure dew point of 36 to 39 F is acceptable. Apply existing desiccant dryer during winter when pneumatic valve freezing can be a problem. General notes applicable to Desiccant dryers:

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Typical purge volumes will be from 15-17% of flow diverted from the dry side into the wet side to dry out the desiccant. Operating cycle is usually defined as the amount of time it takes for a regeneration cycle to dry the desiccant in each tower. For example, if it takes 4 hours to dry the desiccant in a tower, the operating cycle is 8 hours. Some manufacturers of Desiccant dryers with a heat reactivated (regenerating) system will direct up to 4% of system compressed air from the dry tower for some period of time to cool the hot desiccant.

Deliquescent Dryers
Deliquescent air dryers rely on chemical action with salt bed, which absorbs the moisture. As moisture is absorbed some of the salt is dissolved in the water and during periodic draining is lost to the drain. The consumption of this salt is an operating expense. These dryers are not regenerative. Deliquescent dryers do not lose any air volume (unless fitted with an automatic draining system -generally a timed drain) and have virtually no energy loss. These dryers are very energy efficient, as the only extra energy consumption is required to overcome the pressure drop that occurs within the dryer. Also the dryer's exit dew point is dependent on the incoming air dew point (generally 20 to 30 F below the inlet air dewpoint). The other two types of dryer maintain a nearly constant dew point. Deliquescent dryer efficiency is hampered by the following factors: The deliquescent material needs to be regularly replaced incurring higher labor and material costs If the dissolved deliquescent material is not correctly drained it can cause pressure drop and blockage of the post filter In addition, the mixture of salt and water forms brine that is very corrosive. Even with stainless steel drain valves and piping, maintenance is high on the brine drain system. The condensate is corrosive and maintenance requirements are relatively high. They are recommended in special situations.
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Corrosion and Health and Safety issues also need to be considered when using this method

The deliquescent dryer has been supplanted in most applications by the refrigerated dryers. This type of dryer still has its uses such as getting low dew points for compressed air piping in temperatures below freezing when used with a refrigerated dryer.

Membrane Dryers
These dryers diffuse the moisture from the compressed air to the atmosphere and produces dry air with pressure dewpoints typically at +4 C to -40 C. The process is quite simple: compressed air passes through a bundle of hollow membrane fibers and the water permeates the membrane walls. The dried air continues down the tubes and into the downstream air system. Membrane dryers are mostly used when low dewpoints are required in localized areas of a system. The membranes are highly susceptible to oil and dirt, which causes the membranes to break down quickly. As the structure is microscopic, it cannot be cleaned and has to be replaced. In oil free environment the membrane dryer should last for many years. Membrane dryers cost as much to run as a heatless desiccant dryer without the advantage of a low-pressure dewpoint. Certain types of membrane can reduce the oxygen content of the compressed air and, therefore, should not be used in breathing air applications. The main drawback is the relatively large amount of costly and unrecoverable compressed air (called sweep air) lost through the membrane walls along with the water vapor. These dryers can prove very costly particularly when operated at light load.

Sorption Dryers
Sorption dryers can only be used with an oil-free compressor. Compressed air travels via a sealed segment of a drum, which contains the drying medium. A very small motor slowly rotates the drum, drying the air. The part of the drum is regenerated by hot air taken from a previous process, i.e. by the compressors waste heat. The cost to provide air by this method is typically around 3% more than delivering aftercooled air. It is possible to produce dryer air with pressure dewpoints typically at -15 C to -40C

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Limitations of sorption dryers are as follows: Units must be accurately matched to an individual compressor and cannot be shared by multiple compressors The dewpoint output is directly related to the temperature of the cooling medium used Sorption drum replacement is expensive

SECTION 13

COMPRESSED AIR FILTERS

Filtration is a key factor in the proper operation and performance of a compressed air system. Removal of liquid and particulate contaminants is the basic requirements of a filtration package, however requirements for vapor removal, ultra-fine filtration and catalyst filtration are encountered in specialized applications. Air filters can be located throughout the system and the number and type of filters will vary according to the quality of air required. The air inlet filter for air compressors is intended to protect the compressor, but often is inadequate to protect downstream equipment. The compressor itself may add contaminants, including wear particles, carbon deposits, and lubricant. These require filtration. Filters should be selected based on flow rates and pressure drop rather than pipe size. Excess pressure drop causes increased operating costs, short filter element life and overall reductions in system performance. Air filters can be divided into two categories: Pre-filters, which operate prior to compression and/or drying and After-filters, which are put in place after the air is dried.

Pre-Filters 1. Inlet Filters are provided to protect the compressor from incoming dirt. These filters use power to overcome pressure drop, however, this is taken into account in the compressor package performance figures. These filters will affect efficiency when they become dirty and can typically cause an increase in power consumption of 3%. Therefore, it is important to change the filters as recommended by the compressor service manual.

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2. General Purpose Filters are usually installed between the aftercooler and drying process. Filters remove the contaminants from compressed air (water, particulate and oil) and are, therefore, required by non-lubricated and lubricated compressors. A refrigerant type dryer may not essentially require a pre-filter, but a desiccant or deliquescent dryer requires a pre-filter to protect the drying medium, or desiccant, from being rendered ineffective from contamination. An after-filter also is required to catch desiccant from being carried downstream to sensitive equipment. It is good idea to consider pre-filtration for all types of dryers. The pre-filters help in reducing amount of liquid water thereby reducing load on dryer or increasing the efficiency of dryer. 3. High Efficiency Oil Removal Filters provide air quality (technically oil-free) similar to that supplied by an oil-free machine. It is able to remove almost all water and air aerosols. After-Filters 1. Particulate Removal Filter removes physical debris such as rust, scale and dust from the system and is available to 0.1 micron and below. The higher the degree of contaminant removal, the higher shall be the pressure drop and the energy costs of compression. These are most commonly used with a desiccant dryer to remove the desiccant fines that are collected and carried downstream as the air encounters the drying process. 2. Adsorption activated carbon filters are generally used to remove vapors, harmful chemicals, taste and odor from the compressed air systems. Most filter elements contain activated carbon granules having an extremely high surface area and dwell time. This medium is for the adsorption of vapors only. These are required if the air is required for breathing; mixing with food, pharmaceutical products or other such duties. While other filters will remove water, liquid oil, oil aerosols, and dirt, only carbon filters will eliminate oil vapors and oil (and other hydrocarbon) odors. Catalysts are required to convert harmful carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. 3. Coalescing filters capture small droplets of moisture or oil from the air stream and coalesce into larger liquid droplets. Coalescing to the 0.01 micron level is not uncommon. The coalesced liquid runs down by gravity to the bottom of the filter bowl and is drained, usually by an automatic drain. To prevent accumulations of removed liquids, every coalescing filter should be drained periodically by means of an automatic drain device.

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A coalescing filter is recommended before any dryer whose drying medium may be damaged by lubricant. Materials should be compatible with the type of lubricant being used. 4. Hopkalite Filters are required if the air is required for breathing and there is a risk of carbon monoxide being present in the system. These filters are used in conjunction with desiccant dryers, which with the use of the correct desiccant can reduce carbon dioxide levels and are required to keep the Hopkalite active. 5. Sterile Filters eliminate microorganisms from compressed air and are used in processes, which require the highest air quality. Sterilized filters are designed to be re-sterilized in place using steam. 6. Point of Use Filters are used to remove particles that have accumulated during distribution of compressed air. This contamination often occurs in piping, particularly in ageing large systems where rust and pipe scale can collect. Filters cause pressure drop and are often responsible for compressors operating at pressures well above that required for the process. This occurs if filters are clogged, undersized, the wrong filters are being used for the job, too many filters are being used or filters are poorly maintained. When designing new or reviewing older systems it is recommended that the following points be considered: Peak air demand Piping -size and the type of material it is made from Contamination levels in the pipe including any effects from treatment changes The required air quality at each usage points and the demand for each quality Compressor configuration Compressed air and ambient temperature at filtration points Air dryer configuration Isolation valves in the system

Pressure differential gauges show when filters need to be replaced and should be fitted to all filters. Maintenance of filters is very important and will lower compressed air costs. Studies have shown that the economic offset between cost of element replacement and cost of energy to overcome pressure drop as 35 kPa. It is, therefore, paramount that a high

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efficiency filter is used that will remove all contamination with the lowest possible pressure drop.

SECTION 14

6 LEVELS OF COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT/QUALITY

There are six generic quality filter levels for compressed air: 1. Filtered Centrifugal Separators 2. Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryer (RCAD) & Air Line Filter 3. Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryer (RCAD) & Oil Removal Filter 4. Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryer (RCAD), Oil Removal Filter & Oil Vapor Absorber 5. Air Line Filter, Oil Removal Filter, Low Dew Point Desiccant Dryer 6. Breathing Air System (Continuous or Portable)

Sno. 1

Elements Filtered Centrifugal Separator

Function Removes all solids to 3 microns and larger. Removes liquids: 99% of water droplets, 40% of oil aerosols.

Application Shop Air

Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryer, Air Line Filter

Removes moisture and produces a 35 F to 50 F-pressure dew point. Removes 70% of oil aerosols and all solid particles to 1 micron and larger.

Air Tools, Sand Blasting, Pneumatic Control Systems

Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryer, Oil Removal Filter

Removes moisture and produces a 35 F to 50 F-pressure dew point. Removes 99.999% of oil aerosols and all solid particles to .025 microns and larger.

Instrument Air, Paint Spraying, Powder Coating, Packing Machines

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Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryer, Oil Removal Filter & Oil Vapor Adsorber

Removes moisture and produces a 35 F to 50 F-pressure dew point. Removes 99.999+% of oil aerosols and all solid particles to .025 microns and larger. In addition, removes oil vapor, oily smell and taste.

Food Industry, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry, Laboratories Breweries, Dairy Industry

Air Line Filter, Oil Removal Filter, Low Dew Point Desiccant Dryer

Removes moisture and produces a -40 F to 150 F pressure dew point. Removes 99.99+% of oil aerosols and all solid particles to .025 microns.

Outdoor Pipelines, Pneumatic Transport of Hygroscopic Machines, Breathing Air

Breathing Air System (Continuous or Portable)

Removes common harmful compressed air contaminants and will produce Grade D breathing air.

Is Dry, Dry Enough?

All compressed air needs some form of treatment to achieve the desired air quality. Air purification techniques normally use simple air filtration, moisture separators and/or dryer/filtration combination depending on the end users air quality requirements. Moisture Removal 50% Treatment Air Cooled Aftercooler - able to reduce air temp to ~80F Water Cooled Aftercooler - able to reduce temp to ~60F Refrigerating Dryer - able to reduce air temp to ~38F Desiccant Dryer - able to reduce air temp to ~ 40F Page 40 of 89

75%

90%

99%

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Moisture Removal -40F

Treatment

For systems, processes, and compressed air using equipment that are sensitive to water another coalescing filter should be placed immediately adjacent to the compressed air user. In most applications, to effectively stop water it would be less expensive to install a central dryer than the large number of small filters at each points use.

Compressed Air Equipment for ISOs Class Requirements

Follow the chart below to assemble a complete energy-efficient Air System Solution ISO Standard Air Compressor and After Cooler 1. Non-Lubricated or, Lubricated compressors with proper oil aerosol (coalesces) and oil vapor removal (carbon adsorbers) equipment. 2. For more critical applications like process Class 1 instrumentation, food and pharmaceutical Industry, nonlubricated compressors are the equipment of choice. 3. The compressors may be air or water cooled, depending on the satisfactory availability of the cooling sources

Dryer

Filtration

Regenerative Blower Purge Dryers, -100 F (-72 C) pressure dewpoint.

Coalescer Pre-filter for dryer, Particulate after filter for dryer, Carbon adsorber for oil vapor removal with lubricated compressors and 0.001 micron final filter.

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ISO Standard

Air Compressor and After Cooler - air or water, location, and cost factors.

Dryer

Filtration

4. The Aftercooler may

be air or water cooled depending on the satisfactory availability of the cooling sources - Air or Water, location and cost factors. Regenerative Blower Purge Dryers, -60 F (-51 C) pressure dewpoint. Class 2 Coalescer Pre-filter for dryer, Particulate after filter for dryer, Carbon adsorber for oil vapour removal with lubricated compressors and 0.1 micron final filter. Regenerative Blower Purge Class 3 Dryers, -40 F (-40 C) pressure dewpoint. Coalescer Pre-filter for dryer, Particulate afterfilter for dryer

----- do-------

----- do-------

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ISO Standard

Air Compressor and After Cooler

Dryer

Filtration

----- do-------

Refrigerant Dryers - For Compressors with After

Pre-filter, removes oil and dirt, and keeps dryer heat exchangers clean to provide reliable performance.

Class 4,5,6

Coolers.

SECTION 15

AIR RECEIVERS

An air receiver is a storage vessel for compressed air that acts as a buffer reservoir so that short-term demand spikes can be met. It allows the compressor capacity to be temporarily exceeded. Often systems run a secondary compressor to cater for intermittent demand, compressor failure or short energy outages. The installation of air receivers may enable this compressor to be turned off. Receivers create more stable pressure conditions, work to dampen compressor pulsation, separate out particles and liquids, make the compressed air system easier to control and additionally act as a secondary cooling device and as condensate collector Installing a larger receiver tank to meet occasional peak demands can even allow a smaller compressor to be connected. In most systems, the receiver will be located before the dryer, as the accumulation in receiver gets cooled rejecting enough condensate. This reduces load on the dryer thus increasing efficiency of the dryer. Alternatively, you may use multiple receivers, one prior to the dryer and others closer to the points of intermittent/high demand.

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On most installations, the receiver is fed from the aftercooler. On installations where an aftercooler is not fitted, the receiver is where most condensed liquid is found. An adequately sized drain trap (preferably automatic) is essential to remove the collected condensate and any carry-over solids such as dust, scale, carbon etc. Typically, for carbon steel receivers, a 1/16 to 1/8 corrosion allowance is used for the bottom head of the receiver. A 1/16 corrosion allowance is usually used for the rest of the receiver.

Receiver sizing & Location

One-gallon receiver volume per SCFM of air? This is a rule of thumb, though popular and easy to remember, does not take system events into account. Receivers are sized to prevent frequent compressor start or a standby compressor start, accommodate large intermittent system air demand and meet sudden high rate of flow requirements of critical pressure users. It may be more cost-effective to increase receiver size than to add air compression capability to meet peak loads. The sizing of an air receiver is a function of usage and the allowable system pressure drop. Receiver size varies with type of compressor, application and operating characteristics. In the central compressor configuration, avoid placing any receiver capacity upstream of dryers or filters. Receiver capacity should always be installed downstream of air treatment to avoid surges across this equipment that might result in carry-over to the system. Locate receivers in the plant at high use locations. This will help resolve local pressure/velocity issues and help reduce the overall pumping set point. The receiver should, wherever possible, be placed in a cool location, further reducing the temperature of the compressed air and increasing the amount of water and oil condensation. The receiver inlet should be located in the lower portion of the vessel and the discharge in the upper portion to assist in the settling of moisture. In addition, the inlet and outlet should be oriented at a 90-degree angle to help prevent moisture carryover.

Common Receiver Sizes: Size in inches 16 x 38 Volume in cu. ft. 4 Volume in Gallons 30

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Size in inches 20 x 48 20 x 60 24 x 72 30 x 48 36 x 96 42 x 120 48 x 144 60 x 168 60 x 192

Volume in cu. ft. 8 11 19 35 57 96 152 275 314

Volume in Gallons 60 82 141 257 423 720 1,128 2,062 2,356

SECTION 16

COMPRESSED AIR PIPING SYSTEMS

The purpose of the compressed air piping system is to deliver compressed air to the points of usage. The compressed air needs to be delivered with enough volume, appropriate quality, and pressure to properly power the components that use the compressed air. The air system piping is sized using velocities based on flow volumes at actual conditions (ACFM) rather than at standard conditions. A poorly designed compressed air system can Increase energy costs Promote equipment failure Reduce production efficiencies and

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Increase maintenance requirements

It is generally considered true that any additional costs spent improving the compressed air piping system will pay by itself many times over the life of the system.

Compressor Discharge Piping

Discharge piping from a compressor without an integral aftercooler can have very high temperatures. The pipe that is installed here must be able to handle these temperatures. The high temperatures can also cause thermal expansion of the pipe, which can add stress to the pipe. Check the compressor manufacturer's recommendations on discharge piping. Install a liquid filled pressure gauge, a thermometer, and a thermo-well in the discharge airline before the aftercooler. Pipe must be carefully sized and arranged to minimize pressure drop. A good rule of thumb that is commonly used is to limit pressure drop to less than 1 PSIG per 100 linear feet. This applies to the rate of flow through any particular section of piping, and has little to do with total compressor capacity. Certain point of use applications may take compressed air at a rate of flow greater than the capacity of available compressors for a short duration. If the piping is sized per the capacity of the available compressor(s) rather than the rate of flow, it might represent a restriction that causes pressure to drop system-wide.

Piping and Fitting Pressure Drop

Pressure drop in a compressed air system is a critical factor. Pressure drop is caused by friction of the compressed air flowing against the inside of the pipe and through valves, tees, elbows and other components that make up a complete compressed air piping system. Pressure drop can be affected by pipe size, type of pipes used, the number and type of valves, couplings, and bends in the system. The cost of piping pressure loss can be calculated in real dollars. For every 2 pounds per square inch gauge (psig) loss in pressure, 1 percent more total kilowatts (kW) are required to overcome the loss. For example, a 10-psig-pressure drop in a 200-kW system operating 4,000 hours per year at 8 cents per kilowatt-hours (kWh), will cost an additional $3,200 in energy annually. When condensate traps are faulty, air quality suffers tremendously, potentially affecting product quality. Look for operational problems and leaks, and be aware of where the condensate is going. Consider upgrading electrically timed solenoid drains because they waste a considerable amount of energy. Demand-type drains are available to bleed condensate without wasting air. To avoid carryover of condensed moisture to tools, outlets should be taken from the top of

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the pipeline. Larger pipe sizes, shorter pipe and hose lengths, smooth wall pipe, long radius swept tees, and long radius elbows all help reduce pressure drop within a compressed air piping system. The connection points on air-consuming machinery and air tools are always a potential air leak point. Make sure connections are tight and hoses are in good working condition. Pressure loss can be costly if the piping is not designed properly. It is always better to oversize the compressed air piping system that pays by itself and allows for expansion of the system. Air receivers also are collection points for contaminants and are used to mechanically separate condensed liquids. If the condensate traps are not working properly, air receivers can fill with condensate and contaminants, not compressed air. Make sure the drains work correctly and replace if necessary.

Point of use components

Air must be delivered to the point of use at the desired pressure and in the right condition. Too low a pressure will impair tool efficiencies and affect process time. Too high a pressure may damage equipment, and will promote leaks and increase operating costs. Its a balancing act, but getting it just right delivers good savings for you. Rate of flow considerations at the point of use is much more important than in sizing distribution piping. When end users complain of low pressure the first thing blamed is the piping because the user is at the other end of the system or the piping system has been expanded haphazardly over the years (or whatever the excuse), the real problem is not necessarily the piping. The real source of problems described as low pressure usually resides in the choice of installed point of use components. While some loss in pressure is to be expected, a properly designed system should have a pressure drop below 10% of the compressors discharge pressure. Pipe drops, filters, regulators, lubricators, quick disconnects, and hose must all be sized for the rate of flow at the point of use. A common mistake is to buy a tool that uses 100 SCFM, apply a 10% utilization factor to it and size all of the in-line components for 10 SCFM. The components need to be sized for the 100 SCFM rate of flow, not some averaged demand level used to size compressors! The incorrect sizing of pipes can result in excessive pressure drop. Air should travel at a velocity of approximately 6-10m/s the higher the velocity the higher the pressure drop. Additional ways to minimize pressure drop are as follows:

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Properly design the distribution system; for example, minimize bends in the piping; reduce the distance the air travels

Operate and maintain air filtering and drying equipment to reduce the effects of moisture, such as pipe corrosion

Select aftercoolers, separators, dryers and filters that have the lowest possible pressure drop for the rated conditions

Specify pressure regulators, lubricators, hoses, and connections that have the best performance at the lowest pressure

When purchasing components work with suppliers to ensure that products most efficiently meet the desired specifications for the air pressure required taking into account all of the system characteristics.

Carefully consider the possibility of separate dedicated air systems where these vary significantly. For example, shop air; tank agitation air, and instrument air should generally not be combined on the same distribution circuit. It is always beneficial and efficient to seek ways to reduce pressure drop rather than increasing discharge pressure or adding additional compressor capacity.

Loop Pipe Systems

The layout of the system can also affect the compressed air system. Airline distribution systems may be either of the loop design or of the central header with branches design. A very efficient compressed air piping system design is a loop design. The loop design (ring main) allows airflow in two directions to a point of use. This can cut the overall pipe length to a point in half, minimizing flow velocities, that reduces pressure drop or increase air pressure. It also means that a large volume user of compressed air in a system may not starve users downstream since they can draw air from another direction. In many cases a balance line is also recommended which provides another source of air. Reducing the velocity of the airflow through the compressed air piping system is another benefit of the loop design. In cases where there is a large volume user an auxiliary receiver can be installed. This reduces the velocity, which reduces the friction against the pipe walls and reduces pressure drop. Receivers should be positioned close to the far ends or at points of infrequent heavy use of long distribution lines. Many peak demands for air are short-lived, and storage

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capacity near these points helps avoid excessive pressure drop and may allow a smaller compressor to be used.

SECTION 17

CONDENSATE CONTROL

Condensation control must be considered when installing a compressed air piping system. Reliable operation requires drain traps to be included for expelling condensate out of the

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system. Drip legs should be installed at all low points in the system. A drip leg is an extension of pipe below the airline, which is used to collect condensation in the pipe. The air mains should slope to drain legs located at strategic intervals. The recommended distance between drain points is approximately 100 ft. The main header pipe in the system should be sloped downward in the direction of the compressed air flow. A general rule of thumb is 1" per 10 feet of pipe. The reason for the slope is to direct the condensation to a low point in the compressed air piping system where it can be collected and removed. In order to remove the water, drain traps (preferably an automatic drain) need to be fitted to the drip legs. Drain traps eliminate the expense of bleeding expensive compressed air through petcocks or manually draining compressed air lines and equipment. A ball valve should precede all drain traps to facilitate routine maintenance without interruption. Make sure that the piping following the aftercooler slopes downward into the bottom connection of the air receiver. This helps with the condensate drainage, as well as if the water-cooled aftercooler develops a water leak internally. It would drain toward the receiver and not the compressor. To eliminate oil, condensate, or cooling water (if the water-cooled aftercooler leaks), a low point drain should be installed in the discharge pipe before the aftercooler. Be sure to connect the aftercooler outlet to the separator inlet when connecting the aftercooler and the moisture separator together. If they are not connected properly, it will result in either poor aftercooling or poor separation. Another important aspect is to take all branch connections from the top of the main airline. This prevents water running into it from the main pipe and connection and allows the condensation continue to the low points in the system. Branch lines should be equipped with manual isolation valves and be looped back to the main header where practical. Branch line pipes should also be drained.

SECTION 18

PIPING MATERIALS

Common piping materials used in a compressed air system include ABS plastic, copper, aluminum, stainless steel and carbon steel. Pipe and fitting connections are typically threaded. Piping systems that are 4" or larger utilize carbon or stainless steel with flanged pipe and fittings.

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Many airline distribution systems are fabricated from Schedule 40 ERW (electrical resistance welded) steel pipe, as this type of pipe is commonly available and is cost effective in comparison to other alternatives. Steel pipe used in airline distribution systems is generally supplied in twenty-foot lengths. There are several ways to connect these lengths. The cheapest way is to thread the ends of the pipe and screw them together with threaded couplings. It is recommended to install pipe unions in between to allow the piping to be readily disassembled for future maintenance or expansion. If unions arent installed at appropriate places, it will be virtually impossible to tighten a leaking joint. Threaded pipe unions are often not available in sizes above 2-1/2. Four bolt forged steel ANSI flanges are generally used from that point upward in size, though such flanges are manufactured beginning at 1/2. A gasket seals the interface between these flanges. Anytime steel pipe is threaded, the potential for leaks exist. It would be better to use welded, rather than threaded, connections and fittings. Plastic piping may be also used on compressed air systems; however caution must used since many plastic materials are not compatible with all compressor lubricants. PVC and ABS are the two plastic pipe materials commonly used in airline distribution systems of which ABS is a preferred choice. An advantage that ABS pipe has over PVC pipe is that when ABS fails, it ruptures but does not shatter. PVC pipe will shatter into small pieces; propelled by rapidly expanding gas, the shards can cause serious personal injury or death to people in the immediate area of the failure, as well as property damage. For this reason, ABS pipe is a much safer choice for use in airline distribution systems. For both ABS and PVC, the pressure rating goes down as the operating temperature increases. Consult pressure/ temperature charts. PVC pipe is generally seen in inch sizes, while ABS pipe is manufactured in metric sizes in an effort to prevent mixing of the two different types of pipe. Plastic pipe has a greater coefficient of expansion than does metal pipe; ensure to make appropriate allowances with adequately sized expansion loops. Both PVC and ABS pipe are easily and quickly assembled with adhesives engineered for the respective plastics. Therefore, since plastic pipe tends to be thread-free, it tends to be leakfree as well. The biggest advantage with plastic pipes is that it is quick and easy to work with. Ultraviolet light (sun light) may also reduce the useful service life of some plastic materials. Installation must follow the manufacturer's instructions.

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An advantage of plastic and stainless steel pipe over carbon steel pipe is that neither material will rust internally from moisture entrained in the compressed air. Particularly the compressed air system without dryer shall be aggressive to carbon steel piping and valves. The compressed air piping without dryer is saturated with moisture and therefore, it is aggressive to carbon steel piping and valves. Corrosion-resistant piping should be used with any compressed air piping system using oilfree compressors. A non-lubricated system will experience corrosion from the moisture in the warm air, contaminating products and control systems. A galvanized pipe should never be used in a hydraulic or pneumatic system because the zinc plating can flake off and become a contaminant.

SECTION 19

HOSE AND TUBINGS

Hose used in pneumatic systems:

Hose is often used to connect the compressor to the airline distribution system in order to isolate the vibration of the compressor from the distribution piping, which points out the reason for using hose in any fluid power system: when there is relative movement between two components, hose must be used. Obviously, a rigid fluid conductor will not allow any movement between two components. Hose is also used between drop points in the distribution system and air tools as well as between valves and actuators where some sort of pivot mount is used to mount the actuator. Hoses used to power pneumatic tools should be fitted with a velocity fuse. A velocity fuse is a valve that closes when excessive flow begins to pass through it. This prevents whipping by an air hose if the hose should become severed Hoses used for service air stations should be fitted with flow limiting check valves to avoid loss of service air pressure due to hose ruptures or other failures. Threaded pipe operated at high pressure will leak, sooner or later. It is strongly advised that all pipe connections shall be either welded or flanged. All the fittings such as junction elbows, tees, and crosses shall be with SAE Code 61 and 62 4-bolt flange interfaces, simplifying the construction of header systems.

Tubing used in pneumatic systems

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The tubing is used for low flow rate and the size of the tubing ranges from 1/8 through 1/2OD. A viable alternative to carbon steel pipe in airline distribution systems is copper tubing. Hard drawn copper tubing has many positive features: 1) Copper tubing doesnt cost much more per foot than steel pipe. The increased material cost of copper tubing is more than offset by the reduced time it takes to run in comparison to running threaded steel pipe. 2) Copper tubing is much lighter than steel pipe, making assembly easier. Most airline distribution systems are located overhead. Its much easier, and safer, to lift relatively light weight copper tubing into place for assembly. Supports and brackets dont need to be as hefty. 3) The sweat fittings (soldered) used to join lengths of copper tubing are inexpensive as well as quick and easy to install. No time is wasted performing a threading operation. Threading pipe is a messy, noisy, dirty job. It takes much less time to sweat solder a copper union than it takes to thread and screw together a threaded union or to weld a steel butt or socket weld union. 4) Copper tubing, being seamless (drawn over mandrel) doesnt have a slag puddle, as does the inside of welded pipe, so there is less initial internal contamination. 5) Copper tubing will not rust internally, as will carbon steel pipe. 6) Cutting into a run of copper tubing is quick and easy. If a tubing cutter is used, chips wont be generated, reducing the introduction of contamination to the system. Therefore, additions to the system are easily made. 7) Copper tubing will not shatter, as will PVC pipe. 8) Copper tubing is less expensive than ABS pipe and it is readily available. Plastic tubing is widely used downstream of the airline distribution system to connect components to each other. Nylon, polypropylene, and polyethylene are the three most common materials for this tubing. Plumbing a system with plastic tubing is quick and easy in comparison to using copper or stainless steel tubing. In comparison to some rubber hose, since plastic tubing is more rigid (yet still flexible), there is less OD expansion when its pressurized, providing better system response.

Adaptors Used in Fluid Power Systems:

Connecting conductors to components

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Adaptors are used to connect pipe, tubing, and hose to fluid power components. At a minimum, an adaptor has two ends: the port end and the conductor end. Pneumatic systems generally use pipe threads for port connections, though where the flow rate is high, necessitating large piping, ANSI flanges are commonly used.

SECTION 20 Drain Traps

MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS

There are a variety of drain traps available with large differences in efficiency. Manual traps are often left open and are known to be responsible for significant compressed air leakage. Reliable automatic condensate traps are available that ensure water is regularly drained away and provide good energy efficiency. The most common type of drain trap is the ball float, which opens only if water is present and closes immediately the water has cleared. If large quantities of water are likely to enter the trap, a balance pipe must be fitted allowing displaced air to be forced back into the main system. Alternatively, electronic condensate drain traps are also available in a range of sizes from very small units attached to the bottom of filters to larger units for air receivers. The advantages of this type of trap are no air loss during discharge, low maintenance and high reliability. In order to ensure drain traps perform efficiently, it is strongly recommended that simple wire type strainers be fitted prior to the drain trap to prevent particulate contamination of the trap. Occasional maintenance is also required. Oil or emulsion build-up needs to be removed regularly and if the build-up is heavy, drain trays, which have a blast action discharge, should

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be considered. Making wise drainage decisions can save up to 10%of the costs of compressed air. Condensate from lubricated compressed air systems must be disposed of in a responsible manner, in accordance with local regulations and by laws. Most local regulations require oil separation from this condensate before disposal into the municipal system. The costs associated with this disposal can be minimized by the use of adequate condensate management systems, commonly know as oil-water separators.

Regulator
Regulators control pressure and allow a compressed air system to supply air at different pressure while minimizing wastage. If an application requires air at a pressure lower than the main supply and it is not practicable to install a separate pressure system a regulator should be fitted. An example of this might be when using compressed air for control and instrumentation. By not over supplying air pressure and decreasing pressure at the point of use efficiency gains and dollar savings can be achieved. Regulators can also help to maintain pressure to the minimum acceptable level. The air consumption of most air-using devices, such as air tools, spray guns and air knives, increases in proportion to the operating pressure ratio.

SECTION-21

THE COST OF COMPRESSING AIR

A common means of comparing different air compressor types is expressed in brake horsepower (bhp) per 100 CFM with a compressor discharge pressure of 100 psig. The compressor capacity in CFM is the amount of air delivered from the compressor, but measured at prevailing ambient inlet conditions. The bhp per 100 CFM can range from about 18 for an efficient two-stage, water-cooled reciprocating compressor to 30 for a small single-stage, air-cooled reciprocating compressor. A single-stage oil-injected rotary screw compressor has a power consumption of about 22.2 bhp per 100 CFM. Using a drive motor with full load efficiency of 92 percent, and 1 bhp equaling 0.746 kW, the resulting electrical power consumption is 18 kW per 100 CFM. Note that this calculation procedure is based upon 100 psig at the discharge of the air compressor and not at the point of use. Pressure drops will occur through piping and components downstream of the air compressor, resulting in a lower pressure at the point of use. If it is necessary to raise the discharge pressure of the compressor to achieve a required

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pressure at point of use, it is necessary to make sure that the air compressor is capable of the higher discharge pressure. Note also that for each 2-PSI increase in compressor discharge pressure, the power consumption will increase by 1 percent. Compressing air to a higher pressure than required wastes energy and adds to plant energy cost In addition, compressors normally do not operate continuously at full capacity. While the average amount of air used may be less than the capacity of the air compressor, the reduction in power requirement is not directly proportional to the actual capacity. Rotary air compressors using inlet valve throttling do not provide a significant reduction in bhp as the capacity is reduced. The cost of treatment of the compressed air also must be taken into account. Regular monitoring and maintenance are essential to minimizing the cost of a compressed air system by avoiding pressures that are higher than needed for desired applications, minimizing pressure drops, and eliminating leaks. Condensate drain traps must be checked for proper operation so that condensate is not allowed to build up and be carried downstream.

Compressed Air System Energy Efficiency

It has been estimated that, the energy available to do useful work is less than 20% of the compressor input energy. Motor energy is converted to heat in the compression process.

If the air is compressed to 100 or 110 psig, by time it is cooled, dried and delivered to the point of use, the pressure may only be 85-95psi. Depending on the application, the air may be regulated down, or exhausted at greater than atmospheric pressure (10-14 psig exhaust for air tools).

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A typical air tool application may have an overall efficiency of only 12-15% efficiency and an application where the air is regulated down to 50psig prior to use would have an overall efficiency of only 7-9%. @ $0.06/kwh, a single stage rotary screw compressor costs about $10,000/year per 100cfm to operate! (Electricity only, based on 8,000-hrs/yr. runtime)

Life Cycle Cost Analysis of a Compressor

Operating costs are the largest component of the cost of ownership of a compressed air system. Nearly 2/3 of the cost of ownership is electrical power and the remaining 1/3 is composed of the purchase and maintenance costs. Before purchasing any equipment, consider compressor control systems with load/no-load features; be aware of compressor efficiencies, and size filters for the lowest pressure drop possible. A two pound pressure drop will increase electrical operating cost by 1%. Use zero purge types of dryers when possible. In deciding what compressor to purchase, there may be more important factors than cost. The graph below shows a 10-year life cycle cost for a screw compressor.

It has been estimated that for a typical compressed air system over a 10-year period, 75 percent of the total cost is for energy consumed, 15 percent for capital, and 10 percent for maintenance. When selecting a compressor, the following should be taken into consideration: #"What is the total cost of ownership? #"What type of controls will best suit my operation? Two stage compressors will likely save money in the long run.

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After equipment is installed, regular and thorough maintenance is the best way to keep operating costs down. Change air filters, oil filters, separators and system filters regularly. Change lubricants at the specified interval and keep coolers clean for maximum efficiency.

SECTION-22

AIR COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION

Proper installation of the air compressor is essential for safe and trouble-free operation. Air compressors are easy to install provided the equipment is installed in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations and with all applicable federal, state and local requirements. Some common installation recommendations: 1. Rotary and tank mounted reciprocating compressors require a floor capable of supporting the static weight of the compressor package. 2. Larger reciprocating compressors may require a concrete foundation or structural steel support designed to offset unbalanced forces that are present during normal operation. 3. Locate the compressor in an area where the added noise will not interfere or violate OSHA regulations. 4. All compressors produce heat during the compression process. This heat must be removed from the compressor room for proper operation of the compressor. Be sure to provide sufficient ventilation for all equipment that may be installed in the compressor room. All compressor manufacturers publish allowable operating temperatures. 5. Properly vent the exhaust from engine driven compressors. Be sure that the exhaust cannot be redrawn into the plant through HVAC systems or drawn into the air inlet of compressors. 6. Leave sufficient space around the compressor to permit routine maintenance. It is also suggested to provide space for the removal of major components during compressor overhauls. 7. Select piping systems that have low pressure drop and provide corrosion free operation. When selecting the main air headers, size for a maximum pressure drop of 1 to 2PSI (0.07 to 0.14 bar). It is good to oversize the header as the one size higher wont add much to the cost. This will provide additional air storage capacity and allow for future expansion.

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8. In the installation of compressed air piping, maximizing energy efficiency by minimizing pipe runs and associated pressure drops. A ring main distribution header has the advantage of allowing more than one path for air flow and reduces pressure drop. 9. Ample compressed air storage in air receivers is desirable close to the compressor to prevent frequent loading and unloading. Secondary storage, close to points of intermittent but substantial demand, prevents sudden pressure drops in the system and allows recovery time before the next demand cycle. 10. Provide means to drain moisture that may accumulate in piping. Headers should be pitched to enhance drainage and drip legs installed in all low points. 11. Connect all drain valve outlets to an approved drain. Be sure the drain is vented. Do not pipe drain valves into a common closed pipe or header. 12. Condensed moisture may contain compressor lubricants and other chemicals that must be disposed of in accordance with all federal, state and local regulations. 13. If equipment, piping or drains are exposed to freezing temperatures be sure to insulate and heat trace to prevent freezing.

SECTION-23

MAINTENANCE & SERVICING

Air compressors, like all mechanical equipment, require periodic maintenance to provide a long and reliable life. Proper maintenance can also increase operating efficiency, reduce long term operating costs and minimize downtime. Some of the key maintenance areas are: 1. Compressor Package: The compressor and intercooling surfaces need to be kept clean. Fans and water pumps should be inspected to ensure that they are operating at peak performance. Check system for compressor and motor lubricant leaks and cleanliness. 2. Inlet Filter Cartridges: Inspect and clean or replace inlet filters and inlet piping should be maintained at least as per manufactures specifications, taking into account the level of contaminants in the facilitys air. Small reciprocating compressors, typically 1.5 to 30 hp (1.1 to 22 kW), require the periodic replacement of inlet air filters, oil filters and oil.

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3. Drain Traps: Clean out debris and check operation periodically. 4. Compressor Lubricant Level: Inspect daily and top-off or replace as per manufacturer specifications. Change lubricant filter as per manufacturers specifications. 5. Air Lubrication Separator: Change as per manufacturer specifications, or when pressure drop exceeds acceptable level. 6. Lubrication Selection: The compressor lubricant and lubricant filter need to be charged as per manufacturers specification. Lubricants can become corrosive and degrade both the equipment and system efficiency. For lubricated-injected rotary compressors, the lubricant serves to lubricate bearings, gears and intermeshing rotor surfaces, acts as a seal and removes most of the heat of compression. Oil level must be checked daily as a minimum. Lubricant change-out depends on the type lubricant and can vary from 1000 hours to 8000 hours. 7. Check all belt drives: If the compressor is belt driven, check that the belts are correctly tensioned. If they are slack, energy loss will occur due to belt slippage. If they are too tight, the belts will be subject to excessive stress and the compressor and motor bearings will be placed under extra load. 8. Belt Condition: Check belts for wear and adjust tension as per manufacturers recommendation. 9. Operating Temperature: Verifying the operating temperature. 10. Air line Filters: Replace particulate and lubricant removal elements if pressure drop occurs or otherwise also periodically. 11. Compressor intake and discharge valves must also be replaced. The frequency of the valve replacement depends on the number of operating hours and temperature. Electric motors and engines will also require periodic maintenance. 12. Water Cooling System: For water cooled system check the quality of water especially pH and TDS, flow and temperature differential. Regularly clean and replace filters. 13. System Leaks: Check lines (joints), fittings, drains, relief valves, clamps, drain valves, hoses, disconnects, regulators, filters, lubricators, gauge connectors and end-use equipment for leaks. 14. Compressor Drive: Lubricate and clean electric motors. Poor maintenance will waste energy and may cause failure before its expected lifetime.

Important Checklist:

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1. Leak Control: Determine source of leaks and take corrective action immediately. A common method of leak detection involves spraying pipes with soapy water and looking for bubbles. Another method involves the use of ultrasonic detectors. 2. Establish a strategy for reporting/detecting leaks. If a leak is found, instant repairs or replacement of the part are necessary. A good time to check for leaks is after hours when the factory equipment is quiet. 3. Air Inlet Temperature: Source intake suction at cooler places. If possible duct outside air to reduce inlet temperature. 4. Pressure Drop: Carry out through cleaning of dryers and filters. Check all other elements where pressure drop is exceeding the desired limit. 5. Service: Service equipment to manufacturers specifications by an authorized representative. Develop maintenance plan specific to your plant conditions. Use only the genuine parts. 6. Energy Audit: Carry out periodic audits in-house or by external Energy Efficiency Company. Routine preventative maintenance is a useful tool to conduct necessary inspections and maintenance on a schedule that will minimize disruption to plant operations. Maintenance contracts have become a popular method for compressor users to plan and budget for equipment maintenance.

SECTION- 24

TROUBLE SHOOTING

It is best to take a service contract with the supplier/authorized representative. Follow the generic guidelines as tabulated below. Troubleshooting Compressed Air Systems Remedial Action Problem Probable Cause

Check lines, connections and valves for Low pressure at point of use Leaks in distribution piping leaks

Clean or replace filter elements Clogged filter elements

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Troubleshooting Compressed Air Systems Remedial Action Problem Probable Cause

Fouled dryer heat exchanger

Clean heat exchanger

Low pressure at compressor See below discharge Low pressure at compressor discharge For systems with modulating load controls, improper adjustment of air capacity system Check valves and repair or replace as Worn or broken valves required Follow manufacturer's recommendation for adjustment of air capacity system

Improper air pressure switch Follow manufacturer's setting recommendations for setting air pressure switch

Clean, repair, or replace the trap Water in lines Failed condensate traps

Failed or undersized compressed air dryer Liquid oil in air lines Faulty air/oil separation

Repair or replace dryer

Check air/oil separation system; change separator element

Compressor oil level too high

Follow manufacturer's recommendation for proper oil level

Dirt, rust or

In the absence of liquid

Install filters at point of use

scale in air lines water, normal aging of the

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Troubleshooting Compressed Air Systems Remedial Action Problem Probable Cause

air lines Excessive service to load/hour ratio System idling too much For multiple compressor system: consider sequencing controls to minimize compressor idle time

Adjust idle time according to manufacturer's recommendations Improper pressure switch setting Elevated compressor temperature Restricted water flow Check water flow, pressure, and quality; clean heat exchanger as needed Low oil level Check compressor oil level, add oil as required Restricted oil flow Remove restriction, replace parts as required Excessive ambient temperature Improper ventilation to compressor; check with manufacturer to determine maximum operating temperature Restricted air flow Readjust according to manufacturer's recommendations Clean cooler exterior and check inlet filter mats

SECTION- 25

SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

The compressed air system should be periodically inspected by trained technicians. Operators need to be aware of the following:

Air receivers:

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1. The maximum allowable working pressures of air receivers should never be exceeded except when being tested. Only hydrostatically tested and approved tanks shall be used as air receivers. 2. Air tanks and receivers should be equipped with inspection openings, and tanks over 36 inches in diameter should have a manhole. 3. The intake and exhaust pipes of small tanks, similar to those used in garages, should be made removable for interior inspections. 4. No tank or receiver should be altered or modified by unauthorized persons. 5. Air receivers should be fitted with a drain cock that is located at the bottom of the receiver. 6. Receivers should be drained frequently to prevent accumulation of liquid inside the unit. Receivers having automatic drain systems should also be checked. 7. Air tanks should be located so that the entire outside surfaces can be easily inspected. Air tanks should not be buried or placed where they cannot be seen for frequent inspection. 8. Each air receiver shall be equipped with at least one pressure gauge and an ASME safety valve of the proper design. 9. A safety (spring loaded) release valve shall be installed to prevent the receiver from exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure. 10. Only qualified personnel should be permitted to repair air tanks, and all work must be done according to established safety standards.

Air Distribution Lines:

1. Airlines should be made of high quality materials and must be suitable for maximum working pressures. 2. Only standard fittings should be used on airlines. 3. Operators should avoid bending or kinking air hoses. 4. Air hoses should not be placed where they will create tripping hazards. 5. Hoses should be checked to make sure they are properly connected to pipe outlets before use. 6. Air lines should be inspected frequently for defects, and any defective equipment repaired or replaced immediately.

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7. Compressed air lines should be identified as to maximum working pressures.

Pressure regulation Devices:

1. Only qualified personnel should be allowed to repair or adjust pressure regulating equipment. 2. Valves, gauges and other regulating devices should be installed on compressor equipment in such a way that cannot be made inoperative. 3. Air tank safety valves should be set no less than 15 PSI or 10 percent (whichever is greater) above the operating pressure of the compressor but never higher than the maximum allowable working pressure of the air receiver. 4. Air lines between the compressor and receiver should usually not be equipped with stop valves. Where stop valves are necessary and authorized, ASME safety valves should be installed between the stop valves and the compressor. 5. The Safety valves should be set to blow at pressures slightly above those necessary to pop the receiver safety valves. 6. Blow off valves should be located on the equipment and shielded so sudden blow offs will not cause personnel injuries or equipment damage. 7. Case iron seat or disk safety valves should be ASME approved and stamped for intended service application. 8. If the design of a safety or a relief valve is such that liquid can collect on the discharge side of the disk, the valve should be equipped with a drain at the lowest point where liquid can collect. 9. Safety valves exposed to freezing temperatures should be located so water cannot collect in the valves. Frozen valves must be thawed and drained before operating the compressor.

Air Compressor Operation:

1. Only authorized and trained personnel should operate air compressor equipment. 2. The air intake should be from a clean, outside, fresh air source. Screens or filters can be used to clean the air. 3. Air compressors should never be operated at speeds faster than the manufacturers recommendation. 4. Equipment should not become overheated.

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5. Moving parts, such as compressor flywheels, pulleys, and belts that could be hazardous should be effectively guarded.

Compressed Air Equipment Maintenance

1. Only authorized and trained personnel should service and maintain air compressor equipment. 2. Exposed, non current-carrying, metal parts of compressor should be effectively grounded. 3. High flash point lubricants should not be used on compressors because of its high operating temperatures that could cause a fine or explosion. 4. Equipment should not be over lubricated. 5. Gasoline or diesel fuel powered compressors shall not be used indoors without proper ventilation. 6. Equipment placed outside but near buildings should have the exhausts directed away from doors, windows and fresh air intakes. 7. Soapy water of lye solutions can be used to clean compressor parts of carbon deposits, but kerosene or other flammable substances should not be used. Frequent cleaning is necessary to keep compressors in good working condition. 8. The air systems should be completely purged after each cleaning. 9. During maintenance work, the switches of electrically operated compressors should be locked open and tagged to prevent accidental starting. 10. Portable electric compressors should be disconnected from the power supply before performing maintenance.

Safety checklist for machine shops (in addition to above)

The following precautions pertain to the use of compressed air in machine shops: 1. All pipes, hoses, and fittings must have a rating of the maximum pressure of the compressor. 2. Air supply shutoff valves should be located (as near as possible) at the point-ofoperation. 3. Air hoses should be kept free of grease and oil to reduce the possibility of deterioration.

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4. Hoses should not be strung across floors or aisles where they are liable to cause personnel to trip and fall. When possible, air supply hoses should be suspended overhead, or otherwise located to afford efficient access and protection against damage. 5. Hose ends must be secured to prevent whipping if an accidental cut or break occurs. 6. Pneumatic impact tools, such as riveting guns, should never be pointed at a person. 7. Before a pneumatic tool is disconnected (unless it has quick disconnect plugs), the air supply must be turned off at the control valve and the tool bled. 8. Compressed air must not be used under any circumstances to clean dirt and dust from clothing or off a persons skin. Shop air used for cleaning should be regulated to 15 psig unless equipped with diffuser nozzles to provide lesser pressure. 9. Personnel using compressed air for cleaning equipment must wear goggles or other eye shield protection. 10. Static electricity can be generated through the use of pneumatic tools. This type of equipment must be grounded or bonded if it is used where fuel, flammable vapors or explosive atmospheres are present.

Items requiring extra precaution

The only real dangers in any air system come from: 1. A poorly maintained compressor with a faulty relief valve 2. Devices operated at excessive pressures which may cause them to self-destruct, sending parts flying, and 3. Bad connections at fittings, which might allow a hose to come loose 4. A loose and flying air hose - especially one with a metal fitting attached to it - can really present a hazard even at moderate pressures, and the only way to stop it is to close the valve at the source. Don't try to grab it! You should have a master shutoff valve at your compressor's tank, just in case.

SECTION-26

HANDY RULES OF THUMB FOR ESTIMATING

1. Air compressors normally deliver 4 to 5 CFM per horsepower at 100 psig discharge pressure

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2. Power cost for 1 horsepower operating constantly for one year at 10 cents per kWh is about $750 per year 3. Every 7F rise in temperature of intake air will result in 1% rise in energy consumption. 4. It takes 7 to 8 hp of electricity to produce 1 hp worth of air force 5. Size air receivers for about 1 gallon of capacity for each CFM of compressor capacity 6. Compressor discharge temperatures are a key indicator of compression efficiency. Uncooled compressed air is hot, as much as 250 to 350 deg F! 7. Typical discharge temperature values before aftercooling are: Screw (175F), Single Stage Reciprocating (350F), Two Stage reciprocating (250F) 8. Most water-cooled after coolers will require about 3 GPM per 100 CFM of compressed air at Discharge Air Temperature at 100 psig and will produce about 20 gallons of condensate per day. 9. Locate filters and a dryer in the airline before any pressure-reducing valve (i.e., at the highest pressure) and after air is cooled to 100F or less (the lowest temperature). 10. Many tools require more CFM at 90 PSI than what is physically possible to get from the power available through a 120 VAC outlet. Beware, that the CFM figure given as the required air power on many tools (e.g., air chisels/hammers, sandblasters) is for an absurdly low duty cycle. You just can't run these constantly on anything but a monster compressor, but the manufacturer still wants you to believe you can, so you will buy the tool. 11. Depending on the size of the system, compressed air costs about 25 to 42 cents per thousand cubic feet of free air ingested by the compressor (including operating and maintenance costs). 12. A 50 horsepower compressor rejects approximately 126,000 BTU per hour for heat recovery. 13. The water vapor content at ~100 F of saturated compressed air is about two gallons per hour for each 100 CFM of compressor capacity. 14. Every ~20F temperature drop in saturated compressed air at constant pressure, 50% of the water vapor condenses to liquid or at 100 psig every ~20F increase in saturated air temperature doubles the amount of moisture in the air. 15. Every 2-psig change in pressure equals 1% change in horsepower. 16. Most air motors require 30 CFM at 90 psig per horsepower.

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17. For every 10 water gauge pressure lost at the inlet, the compressor performance is reduced by 2%. Intake filters should be regularly cleaned well before dirt causes significant pressure restrictions. 18. A device, which will satisfactorily perform its function with 50 psig of air pressure, uses approximately 75% more compressed air when it is operated with compressed air at 100 psig. 19. As a general rule, for every 100 kPa reduction in operating pressure results in about 8% energy and cost savings. 20. The number of leaks required to create 80 CFM at 100 PSIG: 3no. x 1/8" air leaks; 78 CFM or 1no. x 1/4" air leak; 100 CFM

SECTION-27

MYTHS & REALITIES OF COMPRESSED AIR

Compressed air is often the most expensive utility in a facility. It most definitely is not free, as many plant personnel believe. Compressed air is free as a power source it is nine times more expensive to use than electricity. More pressure is better raising pressure system-wide will require more power on-line. Pressure problems are best solved at the point of use where they exist, not with more power in the compressor room. Our system operates at 100 PSIG not likely since most compressed air systems have pressure variations of 10% before the air leaves the compressor room. Production needs 100 PSIG maybe one or two applications are thought to require 100 PSIG, but for the most part the true minimum requirement for the majority of the plant is much less. Reducing compressor operating pressure will save energy how far pressure is reduced will determine the savings, the further it is reduced the less stable and reliable the system will become. The first time production is interrupted operating pressure will be returned to previous levels and savings will disappear.

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Increasing compressor operating pressure increases operating costs while it is true that compressing a cubic foot of air to a higher pressure requires more energy, overall operating costs will increase only if the entire system is allowed to operate at the elevated pressure. Receiver sizing rule of thumb: 1 gallon per cubic foot of compressor rating receivers are sized to manage events in the system, this type of rule of thumb pays no attention to the needs of the system. Fixing air leaks is an easy energy saving measure reductions in on-line power are seldom seen until a majority of the system air leaks are repaired. Repairing some leaks in a compressed air system without a Demand Expander System or similar pressure control device, can actually cost more money by increasing the volume through the other leaks. Dryer is better some facilities install -40 F pressure dewpoint dryers in hopes of fixing their moisture carry over problems. Often the problems have little to do with dryer type. Installing this type of dryer can pose a whole new set of system problems to be dealt with like adding 15% more compressor power to accommodate the dryers purge requirements! A filter removes 99.9999% of 0.01-micron particles filter performance is tested per the DOP (dioctylphthalate) test that measures the amount of carry over downstream of a filter being tested. DOP is used because it consistently generates particles that range in size between 0.3 0.6 micron with little variance. A claim that a filter can remove smaller particles is based on the results of this test and variances in filtering media, not actual results with 0.01 micron particles. Many of the assumptions listed above are real barriers to operating compressed air systems efficiently. Education is the best first-step measure that can be taken in improving compressed air system operating efficiency.

SECTION-28

PLANNED PROGRAM FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Whether you are building new facilities from scratch, or modifying existing facilities, it is usually possible to design a large system so that it is modular, with isolation points allowing parts of the system to be operated independently of the rest. Energy saving areas/opportunities in compressed air system may be generally classified into two categories: 1. Compressed air generation 2. Distribution and utilization of compressed air

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Above two sections can be further divided into different small areas, which can be examined as part of a planned program aimed at cutting the cost of the compressed air. These areas are: Compressor selection: Compressor selection should be based on the pressure required and the average and maximum loads. Multistage compressors are more efficient especially when the gas is cooled between stages. While it may be possible to operate very efficient full load compressors, their performance capability may be negated if the systems demand is only sufficient to run them at a part load capacity. Thus it is very important to match the type and size of compressor to the load cycle of the system. Location of compressor: Locate compressor intake in cool, clean and dry place. Providing cooler air to the compressor at intake can provide good savings. If air is drawn from a cool, dry source, rather than from a hot compressor house, the system will operate more efficiently. Pressure reduction: Power consumed by a compressor depends on its operating pressure and rated capacity. If any process or equipment does not need high pressures, then operating compressors at elevated pressures is a waste of energy. It is important to ensure that the air pressure at the compressor is the minimum required to do the job. Controls: The control system, which governs the running of the compressor, should be matched to its duties and may need re-matching if these change. Generally all compressors are fitted with some form of control system, which varies the volume of air delivered to suit demand. Compressor operation: Where more than once compressor is feeding to a common header, compressors have to be operated in such a way that only one compressor should handle the load variation whereas the other compressor will operate more or less at full load. Generally small capacity compressor is allowed to modulate. Loading of compressor: If the load can be matched more closely with the compressor size, loading on the compressor motor shall be maximum and compressor efficiency will be higher and less energy shall be wasted on account of motor inefficiency. Avoid idle running of compressors when desired pressure is reached. Use energy efficient motor, variable speed drive, soft starter feature to minimize starting currents and surge currents. Effectiveness of inlet & aftercoolers: Fouled intercoolers will allow high temperature air to the second stage which will reduce the efficiency of the second stage and finally the overall efficiency. Fouled aftercoolers shall cause more water condensation in air receivers and distribution lines resulting in increase corrosion. Periodic cleaning of both the exchangers is necessary.

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Compressor maintenance: Follow the supplier instructions. Routine check of driving belts for tightness and other house keeping measures recommended in maintenance section need to be adopted. Compressor control assessment: Compressor capacity is expressed in terms of quantity of free air delivered at a particular pressure. Various parameters such as poor maintenance, fouled heat exchangers, altitude will lead to reduced free air delivery. Dryers: For energy conservation, consideration should be given to air driers with heat generation, which make use of some of the heat of compression in their operation. If chiller plant is used for refrigerant dryer, attempt has to be made in chilling the inlet air to the compressor, which will not only increase the compressor efficiency but also removes all moisture. Oil and dire can be removed in later stage. A careful assessment though is recommended. Receiver: At points of sudden high demand, an extra receiver near the point of take-off should be considered. Line moisture separators and traps: Hunt for air leaks: A hole of 1.6mm can cause 3.2 liters per second of compressed air leak amounting to 2128 kWh of energy per annum. For a hole equivalent of 6.4 mm diameter, 51.2 liters/second of air is lost, wasting 34,040 kWh of energy each year at a cost of $3,404. Check or install shut-off timers: Make sure that the compressor and any associated refrigerated air-drying equipment is switched off when you dont need it. Automatic time switching can do this for you. If a few pieces of equipment need air during off-hours, look at supplying these from a small compressor. It is very easy to save energy and operating costs on your compressed air system. Follow this checklist to make your air compressor system more energy efficient. #"Check for leaks and pressure losses throughout the system regularly (monthly) #"Ensure the entire system is monitored by good housekeeping practices #"Ensure condensation can be removed swiftly from the distribution network, or does not occur #"Reduce pressure settings to the minimum where possible #"Use high efficiency filters and dryers where required #"Reduce the compressor intake air temperature by ducting outside air into the compressor inlet

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#"Check that receivers are sized to store air for short heavy demands #"Check that the size of your compressor meets current demands only #"Select the size of the compressor so that it runs as closely as possible to full load. #"Choose suitably sized receivers to act as a buffer between output and demand. #"Importantly, do not install an oversized compressor to meet anticipated future demand. It is usually more economical and more efficient to install an additional, appropriately sized compressor when needed later. Equipment selection and system design play an important role in lowering the costs of producing compressed air. Ensuring that installed systems are running as efficiently as possible can allow you to make great gains. To learn more about the energy efficiency, refer to a separate course titled Energy audit and management of compressed air systems.

SECTION-29
Code Reference ANSI/ISA

INDUSTRY CODES AND STANDARDS

Code Title S7.0.01 Quality Standards for Instrument Air

API 617

Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services

API 618

Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services

API 619

Rotary-Type

Positive

Displacement

Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services

API 672

Packaged, Integrally Geared Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services

ASME

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,

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Section VIII, Div.1

ASME/ANSI B16.5

Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

ASME/ANSI B31.1

Power Piping

ASME/ANSI B31.3

Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping

SECTION-30

A BREIF ACADEMIC SESSION

The figure below shows the compressed cycle on p-v diagram.

Cycle for isothermal compression of air

1) p1 air drawn into the cylinder at pressure 2) p2 air discharged at pressure

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3) v2 the initial volume 4) CD line that the piston follows between C and D as it compresses the air 5) DE line that forms when the discharge valve D is open, (point E being the end of the piston stroke) and the pressure is constant 6) EB line that the piston follows between E and B as it begins its return stroke and point E discharge valve closes 7) BC line that forms when the intake valve opens allowing additional air Assuming clearance and leakages to be absent, total work done
p W = 1 v dp p 2

For Adiabatic compression Y = Y - 1 p Y 1 Y - 1 - 1 p V 1 1

W =

p 2

where

ratio of specific heats

For Isothremal W = p 1 v 1

compression log V1 V2

Work done is minimum when compression follows isothermal law and is maximum for adiabatic compression Compressor efficiency = Isothermal work done / Indicated work done Mechanical efficiency = Indicated hp / B.H.P of motor Adiabatic efficiency = Adiabatic hp / B.H.P of motor The figure above shows a theoretical cycle. In practice throttling of air at intake causes the suction to fall; throttling of air at outlet causes the discharge pressure to rise; clearance causes expansion on the outstroke thereby reducing the capacity of machine. It is important to note that a. Throttling the low-pressure suction increases the temperature range in successive stages

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b. Increasing the clearance at one stage causes more work to be done in the lower stage Note clearance ratio = clearance volume / swept volume = v2 / (v1 - v2) Thats it. The intent of course is to cover the practical considerations and the academic equation may not be of concern or of great importance to all the end users. Those interested in further reading can refer the book on mechanics and thermodynamics. For definitions of terms refer to next section glossary of terms

SECTION-30

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

A
Absolute Pressure: The sum of the gauge pressure and the atmospheric pressure (PSIA). (Example: 50 PSIG equals 50 plus atmospheric pressure, 14.7 at sea level, so 50 PSIG is the same as 64.7 PSIA at sea level Absolute Temperature: The temperature of a body referred to the absolute zero, at which point the volume of an ideal gas theoretically becomes zero. On the Fahrenheit scale this is minus 459.67F; on the Celsius scale it is minus 273.15C. Engineering values of minus 460F and minus 273C are used herein. ACFM: Actual Cubic Feet per Minute. Refers to a volume of air (one cubic foot) at ambient conditions, no matter what those conditions are. Changes in pressure, temperature, and relative humidity do not change these ratings. Therefore, ACFM is a measure of volume, regardless of weight. (See corrections for altitude chart) After-Coolers: Heat exchangers for cooling air or gas discharged from compressors. They provide the most effective means of removing moisture from compressed air and gases. Air-cooled compressors: These are machines cooled by atmospheric air circulated around the cylinders or casings.

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Altitude: The elevation above sea level. Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure of the atmosphere at any location that will decrease as the elevation above sea level increases. Sea level atmospheric pressure is 14.7 PSAI, or 29.92 inches of mercury absolute. At 2500 feet, the pressure is 13.41 PSIA, or 27.32 inches of mercury. Atmosphere: A pressure measurement obtained by dividing absolute pressure by atmospheric pressure. (Example: 114.7 PSIA/14.7 PSIA equals 7.8 atmospheres) Auto Drains: Auto Drains discharge water and oil from collection points within the air system.

B
Barometric Pressure: The absolute atmospheric pressure existing at the surface of the earth. It is the weight of a unit column of air above the point of measurement. It varies with altitude and, at any given location, with moisture content and weather. Base plate: A metallic structure on which a compressor or other machine is mounted. Boolean logic: The logic of binary systems, such as control systems in which all operations may be reduced to on/off, open closed, or some similar dichotomous basis. Booster Compressors: Machines designed for compressing air or other gases from an initial pressure, which is above atmospheric pressure, to a higher pressure. Brake Horsepower: The actual horsepower output to the drive motor.

C
Capacity: Capacity of a compressor is the actual volume rate of flow of gas compressed and delivered at conditions of total temperature, total pressure, and composition prevailing at the compressor inlet. Capacity (Actual): Quantity of gas actually compressed and delivered to the discharge system at rated speed of the machine and under rated pressure conditions. Actual capacity is usually expressed in

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cubic feet per minute (cfm) at first stage inlet gas conditions. Check Valve: A valve that permits flow in one direction only. Clearance: When referring to a reciprocating compressor cylinder is that volume contained in one end of the cylinder which is not swept by the movement of the piston. It includes space between piston and head at the end of the compression stroke, space under the valves, etc., and is expressed as a percentage of the piston displacement per stroke. Clearance may be different for the two ends of a double-acting cylinder. An average is generally used. Clearance pocket: An auxiliary volume that may be opened to the clearance space to increase the clearance, usually temporarily, to reduce the volumetric efficiency of the compressor Coalescing Filter: Removes small particles, dirt, and oil from the compressed air. Compressibility: The factor of a gas or a gas mixture that causes it to differ in volume from that of a perfect gas when each is under the same pressure and temperature conditions. Occasionally it is called deviation. It must be determined experimentally. Compression, adiabatic: This type of compression is affected when no heat is transferred to or from the gas during the compression process Compression, isothermal: isothermal compression is a compression in which the temperature of the gas remains constant. For perfect gases, it is represented by the equation PV is a constant, if the process is reversible, Compression Efficiency: The ratio of the theoretical work requirement (using a stated process) to the actual work required to be done on the gas for compression and delivery. Expressed as a percentage, compression efficiency accounts for leakage and fluid friction losses, and thermodynamic variations from the theoretical process. Compression Ratio: Ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the absolute intake pressure (CR). Compressors: Machines designed for compressing air or other gases from an initial intake pressure to a higher discharge pressure. Constant Speed Control: Unit runs continuously but matches air supply to demand by "loading" or "unloading" the compressor.

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Critical pressure: The limiting value of saturation pressure as the saturation temperature approaches the critical temperature. Critical temperature: The highest temperature at which well defined liquid and vapour states exist. It is sometimes defined as the highest temperature at which it is possible to liquefy a gas by pressure alone.

D
Density: The weight of a given volume of gas, usually expressed in lb/cu ft at specific temperature and pressure. Desiccant Air Dryers: A device that will remove moisture for dew-point requirements to -40 or a -100 degrees F. Dewpoint: The temperature at which the vapor in a space (at a given pressure) will start to condense (form dew). Dewpoint of a gas mixture is the temperature at which the highest boiling point constituent will start to condense. Diaphragm: A stationary element between the stages of a multistage centrifugal compressor, It may include guide vanes for directing the flowing medium to the impeller of the succeeding stage. In conjunction with an adjacent diaphragm, it forms the diffuser surrounding the impeller. Diaphragm routing: A method of removing heat from the flowing medium by circulation of a coolant in passages built into the diaphragm. Diffuser: A stationary passage surrounding an impeller, in which velocity pressure imparted to the flowing' medium by the impeller is converted into static pressure Discharge Pressure: The total gas pressure (static plus velocity) at the discharge flange of the compressor. Velocity pressure usually is considered only with dynamic compressors. Note: Pressure may be expressed as gauge or absolute pressures. psiG plus atmospheric pressure equals psiA. Note that psiG does not define a pressure unless the barometric pressure (atmospheric) is also stated. Discharge Temperature: The temperature existing at the discharge flange of the compressor. Note: In a multistage compressor, the various stages will have different discharge pressures and temperatures.

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Displacement: Displacement of a compressor is the volume swept out per unit of time; it is usually expressed in cubic feet per minute Double Acting Compressors: Machines in which compression takes place on both strokes per revolution in each compressing element. Double Stage Compressors: Machines in which compression from initial to final pressure is completed in two stages. Dry-Bulb Temperature: The ambient gas temperature. Dry Gas: Any gas or gas mixture that contains no water vapor and/or in which all of the constituents are substantially above their respective saturated vapor pressures at the existing temperature. (See Wet Gas) Note: In commercial compressor work, a gas may be considered dry (even though it contains water vapor) if its dewpoint is low at the inlet condition (say minus 50 to minus 60F). Dryer: An integral part of the compressed air system that removes the heat of the compressed air and also removes the moisture from the air due to the heat loss. Dynamic: Machines where air or gas is compressed by the dynamic action of rotating vanes or impellers imparting velocity and pressure to the air or other gases.

E
Efficiency: Any reference to efficiency of a dynamic type compressor must be accompanied by a qualifying statement which identifies the efficiency under consideration, as in the following definitions. Efficiency, compression: Ratio of calculated isentropic work requirement to actual thermodynamic work requirement within the cylinder, the Inner as determined from the cylinder indicator card. Efficiency, isothermal: Ratio of the work calculated on an isothermal basis to the actual work transferred to the gas during compression. Efficiency, mechanical: Ratio of thermodynamic work requirement in the cylinder (a shown by die indicator card) to actual brake horsepower requirement. Efficiency, polytropic: Ratio of the polytropic compression energy transferred to the gas no the actual energy transferred to the gas.

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Efficiency, volumetric: Ration of actual capacity to displacement, stated as a percentage. Enthalpy: The sum of the internal and external energies. (Measure of heat content) Entropy: A measure of the unavailability of energy in a substance.

F
Filters: Are devices for separating and removing dust and dirt from air before it enters a compressor. Flange connection: The flange connection (inlet or discharge) is a means of connecting the casing to the inlet or discharge piping by means of bolted rims (flanges). Free air: Free air is defined as air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. Because the altitude, barometer, and temperature may vary at different localities and at different times, it follows that this term does not mean air under identical or standard conditions.

G
Gas: While from a physical point of view a gas is one of the three basic phases of matter, and thus air is a gas, a special meaning is assigned in pneumatics practice. The term gas refers to any gas other than air. Gauge Pressure: The pressure on the gauge measured above atmospheric pressure (PSIG); that is, that measured on a given gauge, not affected by altitude or atmospheric pressure.

H
Head, adiabatic: The energy in four pounds required to compress adiabatically and to deliver one pound of a given gas from one pressure level to another. Head, polytropic: The energy in foot pounds required to compress polytropically and to transfer one pound of a given gas from one pressure level to another. Horsepower, brake: Brake horsepower is the horsepower input to the compressor shaft, or more generally to any driven machine shaft. Horsepower, theoretical, or ideal: The ideal, or theoretical horsepower of a compressor is defiled as the horsepower required to

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compress adiabatically the air or gas delivered by the compressor through he specified range of pressures. Humidity, specific: Specific humidity is the weight of water vapor in an air vapor mixture per pound of dry air Humidity, relative: The relative humidity of a gas (or air) vapor mixture is the ration of the partial pressure of the vapor to the vapor saturation pressure at the dry bulb temperature of the mixture.

I
Ideal Compression Ratio: In two-stage units, the square root of the total compression ratio is used to size stage compression ratio and balances the load between stages (ICR). Ideal Gas: Follows the perfect gas laws without deviation. Practically, there are no ideal gases, but it is the basis from which calculations are made and corrections applied. Impeller: The part of the totaling element of a dynamic compressor that impacts energy to the flowing medium by means of centrifugal force. It consists of a number of blades mounted so as to rotate with the shaft. Inlet Pressure: The total pressure (static plus velocity) at the inlet flange of the compressor. Velocity pressure is usually considered only with dynamic compressors. (See note under Discharge Pressure). Inlet Temperature: The temperature at the inlet flange of the compressor. Note: In a multistage compressor, the various stages may have different inlet temperatures. Inter-Coolers: These are heat exchangers for removing the heat of compression between stages of a compressor. They usually condense and remove a considerable amount of moisture as well. Intercooling: This is the removal of heat from the air or gas between stages or stage group. Intercooling range: The difference in air or gas temperatures between the inlet of the compressor and the outlet of the intercooler. Intercooling, perfect: Perfect intercooling exists when the temperature of the air leaving the intercoolers equals the temperature of the air at the compressor intake. Isentropic compression: An adiabatic compression with an increase in entropy; a reversible-adiabatic compression.

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L
Liquid piston: A liquid piston compressor is a rotary compressor in which a vane rotor revolves in an elliptical casing, with the rotor spaces sealed by a ring of liquid rotating with it inside the casing. Load factor: This factor is the ration of the average compressor load during a given period of time to the maximum rated load of the compressor. It applies also to air tools, where it is the product of the work factor times the time factor. Logic Controls: These are control devices the operation of which may be reduced to binary operation such as an on-off, 0-1, or open-closed. They are also referred to as digital controls.

M
Mechanical Efficiency: The ratio, expressed in percent, of the Thermodynamic Work Requirement in the cylinder to the actual shaft horsepower. Mechanical Ratio: Multi-Stage only. The ratio of the displacements of the low pressure and high pressure stages (MR). Moisture Separators: Devices for collecting and removing moisture precipitated from the air and gas during the process of cooling. Multi-casing Compressor: When a single motor or turbine drives two or more compressors, each with a separate casing,, the combined unit is called a multi-casing compressor. Multi-Stage Compressors or Compound Compressors: A machine in which compression from initial to final pressure is completed in two or more distinct steps or stages.

N
Normal Air: The term used for average atmospheric air at sea level in a temperate zone where it contains some moisture. It is defined in the ASME Test Code for Displacement Compressors as being at 14.696 psiA, 68F, 36% RH, and weighing 0.075 lb/cu ft. The K value is 1.395.

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O
Oil/Water Separator: A device that separates the remaining compressor oil from condensate.

P
Particulate Filter: Removes small particles and dirt from the compressed air. Perfect Intercooling: Is obtained when the gas is cooled to first stage inlet temperature following each stage of compression. Performance Curve: This curve is a plot of expected operating characteristics, e.g., discharge pressure vs. inlet capacity, shaft horsepower vs. inlet capacity. Piston Displacement: Net volume actually displaced by the compressor piston or rotor at rated machine speed, generally expressed in cubic feet per minute (usually CFM) For multi-stage compressors, the piston or rotor displacement of the first stage only is commonly stated as that of the entire machine. Polytropic Head: An expression used for dynamic compressors to denote the foot-pounds of work required per pound of gas. Positive Displacement: A machine where successive volumes of air or gas are confined within a closed space and pressure is increased as the volume of the closed space is decreased Pressure (PSI): Pounds-Per-Square-Inch- a rating of Air Pressure in the system. (PSIG) "Gauge" Gauge pressure shows amount of air pressure above ambient Pressure Discharge: Discharge pressure is the absolute total pressure at the discharge flange of a compressor Pressure, intake: Intake pressure is the absolute total pressure at the inlet flange of a compressor. Pressure rise: This is the difference between the discharge pressure and the intake pressure Pressure static:

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Static pressure is the pressure measured in a flowing stream (liquid or gas) in such a manner that no effect on the measurement is produced by the velocity of the stream.

R
Rotary Screw Compressors: Machines that use male and female helical rotors to smoothly compress air. Receivers: Receivers are tanks used for the storage of air discharged from compressors. They serve also to damp discharge line pulsations. Reciprocating Compressors: Machines that use a reciprocating motion (piston) to compress air. Refrigerated Air Dryer: A device that will remove moisture for dew-point requirements no lower than 33-degrees F. Rotor: The rotor is the rotating element of a machine and, in the case of a compressor, is composed of the impeller (or impellers) and shaft, and may include shaft sleeves and a thrust balancing device. Rotary Compressors: These are machines in which compression is effected by the positive action of rotating elements. (Capable of 100% Duty) Rotary Screw: Machines that use male and female helical rotors to smoothly compress air Rotary, Sliding Vane: Such compressors are machines in which axial vanes slide radially in an eccentrically mounted rotor. Rotary, two-impeller positive displacement: These are machines in which two mating lobed impellers revolve within a cylinder or casing and are prevented from making contact with each other by timing gears mounted outside the cylinder. Rotary, liquid-piston compressors: These are machines in which water or other liquids are used, usually in a single rotating element, to displace the air or gas handled.

S
Saturation: Occurs when the vapor is at the dewpoint or saturation temperature corresponding to its

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partial pressure. A gas is never saturated with a vapor. The space occupied jointly by the gas and vapor may be saturated, however. Saturation (degree of): The ratio of the weight of vapor existing in a given space to the weight that would be present if the space was saturated at the space temperature. Saturated Air-Vapor Mixture: Is one in which the space occupied by the mixture is saturated with water vapor at the mixture temperature. Saturated Vapor Pressure: The pressure existing at a given temperature in a closed vessel containing a liquid and the vapor from that liquid after equilibrium conditions has been reached; it is dependent only on temperature and must be determined experimentally. Saturation Pressure: Another term for Saturated Vapor Pressure. Saturation Temperature: The temperature corresponding to a given saturated vapor pressure for a given vapor. SCFM: Standard Cubic Feet per Minute. At "standard conditions" (see above) will one standard cubic foot of air actually occupy one cubic foot of volume. Another way to express one standard cubic foot of air is .075 of a pound of air. A standard cubic foot varies in volume as it deviates from standard conditions, but it always weighs .075 of a pound. Therefore, SCFM is a measure of weight, regardless of volume. (See corrections for altitude chart) Seals: Seals are devices used between rotating and stationary parts to separate, and minimize leakage between, areas of unequal pressures. Single-Acting Compressors: Machines in which compression takes place on one stroke per revolution in each compressing element. Single-Stage Compressors: Machines in which compression from initial to final pressure is complete in a single step or stage. Slip: The internal leakage within a rotary compressor. It represents gas at least partially compressed but not delivered. It is determined experimentally and expressed in CFM to be deducted from the displacement to obtain capacity.

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Slip RPM: The speed required of a rotary compressor to maintain a given discharge pressure, supplying leakage only (zero actual output). The factor must be established by experiment. Specific Gravity: The ratio of the density of a given gas to the density of dry air, both measured at the same specified conditions of temperature and pressure, usually 14.696 psiA and 60F. It should also take into account any compressibility deviations from a perfect gas. Specific Heat: (Heat Capacity) The rate of change in enthalpy with temperature. It is commonly measured at constant pressure or at constant volume. The values are different and are known as Cp and Cv respectively. Specific Humidity: (See Humidity) Specific Volume: The volume of a given weight of gas, usually expressed as cu ft/lb at specific conditions. Standard Air: Measured at 68 degrees F, 14.7 PSIA, and 36% relative humidity (.075lb/ft3 density). This agrees with the Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI). The gas industries use 60 degrees F, 14.7 PSIA, and dry as conditions for standard air (SCFM). Standard Pressure and Temperature (SPT): Generally is 14.696 psiA and 60F unless specifically stated otherwise. State: State of a system or part thereof is its condition at an instant of time as described or measured by its properties. Suction Pressure: Absolute static prevailing at the suction of the ejector. Super-Compressibility: A term used with various meanings, most frequently the same as compressibility, although this is not assured. A current ASME Power Test Code uses it as a ratio of gas densities rather than volumes. Therefore it is 1/Z in this case. Super-compressibility should never be used unless its meaning is clarified completely. Compressibility is much to be preferred and is used herein.

T
Temperature rise ratio: This is the ration of the computed isentropic temperature rise to the measured total temperature rise during compression. For a perfect gas, this is equal to the ration of the isentropic enthalpy rise to the actual enthalpy rise.

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Torque: Torque is a torsional moment or couple. It usually refers to the driving couple of a machine or motor. Turbine: A turbine is a prime mover in which a stream of fluid, such as water, steam or gas, provides the impulse to drive a bladed rotor. Two-Stage Compressors: These are machines in which air or gas is compressed from initial pressure to an intermediate pressure in one or more cylinders or casing.

V
Vacuum Pumps: Machines for compressing air or other gases from an initial pressure that is below atmospheric pressure to a final pressuring that is near atmospheric Vapor Filters: Are filters designed for the removal of vapors and odors, which still may be present, after the air has passed through the coalescing and/or particulate filters. The activated carbon element attracts residual vapors and binds them to the surface of the activated carbon grain molecules. Vapor Pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapor confined within a given space. The vapor may be the sole occupant of the space, or may be associated with other gases. Volumetric Efficiency: The ratio of the actual inlet capacity (ACFM) to the first stage displacement expressed as a percentage. Volumetric efficiency varies by clearance or blow-by, heating losses, valve losses, and specific gravity of gas being compressed.

W
Water-Cooled Compressors: These are machines cooled by water circulated through jackets surrounding the cylinders or casings. Wet-Bulb Temperature (WBT): WBT is used in psychrometric and is the temperature recorded by a thermometer whose bulb has been covered with a wetted wick and whirled on a sling psychrometer. Taken together with the dry-bulb temperature, it permits determination of the relative humidity of the atmosphere.

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Wet Gas: Any gas or gas mixture in which one or more of the constituents is at its saturated vapor pressure. The constituent at saturation pressure may or may not be water vapor. Work: Energy in transition and is defined in units of Force times Distance. Work cannot be done unless there is movement.

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