Chapter 1

Properties of Wood
Related to Drying

Commercial wood species 1 Lumber drying is one of the most time- and energy-
Hardwoods and softwoods 2 consuming steps in processing wood products. The
Structural features of wood 2 anatomical structure of wood limits how rapidly wa-
Sapwood and heartwood 4 ter can move through and out of wood. In addition,
Pith 4 the sensitivity of the structure to stresses set up in dry-
Annual growth rings 4 ing limits the drying rate; rapid drying causes defects
Wood rays 4 such as surface and internal checks, collapse, splits,
Grain and texture 5 and warp. Drying time and susceptibility to many dry-
Color 5 ing defects increase at a rate that is more than pro-
Variations in structure 5 portional to wood thickness. The variability of wood
Commercial lumber grades 6 properties further complicates drying. Each species has
Hardwood lumber grades 6 different properties, and even within species, variability
Softwood lumber grades 6 in drying rate and sensitivity to drying defects impose
Wood-moisture relations 7 limitations on the development of standard drying pro-
Free and bound water 8 cedures. The interactions of wood, water, heat, and
Fiber saturation point 8 stress during drying are complex. The purpose of this
Equilibrium moisture content 8 chapter is to describe some of the fundamental prop-
How wood dries 9 erties of wood that are relevant to lumber drying. We
Forces that move water 9 will discuss commercial wood species, wood structure,
Factors that influence drying rate 10 lumber grades, water movement in wood, how wood
Lumber thickness 10 dries, specific gravity and weight of wood, wood shrink-
Specific gravity and weight of wood 10 age, stress development during drying, and electrical
Shrinkage of wood 11 and thermal properties of wood.
Average shrinkage values 12
Shrinkage variability 12
Drying stresses 12
Commercial Wood Species
Electrical properties 13
More than 100 commercially important species of trees
Thermal properties 15
grow in the United States. A similar number of species
Specific heat 15
are imported into the United States, and the potential
Thermal conductivity 15
for additional imported species grows. The lumber pro-
Thermal expansion 16
duced from all of these species varies greatly in drying
Literature cited 16
characteristics. The most commonly used commercial
Sources of additional information 16
names for lumber and the corresponding species names
Tables 17
accepted by the Forest Service for the trees from which
Appendix-Equations for relating
the lumber is cut are given in table 1-1 for domestic
temperature, humidity, and
species and table 1-2 for tropical species. Table 1-1 was
moisture content 39
adapted from the standard nomenclature of domestic
Wet-bulb temperature and relative
hardwoods and softwoods developed by the Ameri-
humidity 39
can Society for Testing and Materials (1981). Tropi-
Relative humidity and equilibrium
cal species follow the nomenclature used by Chudnoff
moisture content 40
(1984). While the commonly used lumber names are
Psychrometric charts 41
generally satisfactory for the buying and selling of lum-
ber, they sometimes refer to lumber from a number of
Chapter 1 was revised by William T. Simpson, species that differ in green moisture content, shrinkage,
Supervisory Research Forest Products Technologist. or drying characteristics. In the tables and indexes of
physical properties and drying schedules given in this
and other chapters, the woods are arranged alphabet-
ically by the common species names accepted by the
Forest Service.

1
Hardwoods and Softwoods Structural Features of Wood
Trees can be divided into two classes, hardwoods and The structure of wood and the location and amount
softwoods. The hardwoods, such as birch, maple, and of water in wood influence its drying characteristics.
oak, have broad leaves. Some softwoods or conifers, Wood is composed of bark, sapwood, heartwood, and
such as the cedars, have scalelike leaves, while others, pith (fig. 1-1). Each wood cell has a cavity (lumen)
such as pine, Douglas-fir, and spruce, have needlelike and walls composed of several layers arranged in differ-
leaves. ent ways (fig. 1-2). The cell wall constituents are cel-
lulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Most of the tubelike
The terms hardwood and softwood are not directly as- cells are oriented parallel to the long axis of the tree
sociated with the hardness or softness of the wood. In and are termed fibers, tracheids, or vessels, depending
fact, such hardwood trees as cottonwood, basswood, on their particular anatomical characteristics and func-
and yellow-poplar have softer wood than such soft- tion. Another type of cell, the wood ray, lies on radial
woods as longleaf pine and Douglas-fir. lines from the center of the tree outward and perpen-
dicular to the length of the tree. Figures 1-3 and 1-4 il-
lustrate the arrangement of cells in softwoods and hard-
woods, which have a similar but not identical anatomy.

One particular type of anatomical element, the pit, is

important in water flow. A pit is a small, valve-like
opening that connects adjacent wood cells and thus is
an important pathway for the flow of water. Pits often
become encrusted with substances or otherwise clogged
so that water flow through them is very slow. Several
types of pits are shown in figure 1-5.

Pits in softwoods often become aspirated as drying pro-

gresses. In aspiration, the torus is displaced so that it
covers the pit aperture. In effect, the valves close dur-
ing drying so that water flow through them is inhibited.
The result is a decrease in drying rate.

Figure 1-1—Cross section of a white oak tree trunk. A,

Cambium layer (microscopic) is inside inner bark and
forms wood and bark cells. B, Inner bark is moist and
soft, and contains living tissue; the inner bark carries
prepared food from leaves to all growing parts of tree.
C, Outer bark containing corky layers is composed of
dry dead tissue; it gives general protection against ex-
ternal injuries. Inner and outer bark are separated by a
bark cambium. D, Sapwood, which contains both living
and dead tissues, is the light-colored wood beneath the
bark; it carries sap from roots to leaves. E, Heartwood
(inactive) is formed by a gradual change in the sap-
wood. F, Pith is the soft tissue about which the first
wood growth takes place in the newly formed twigs.
G, Wood rays connect the various layers from pith to
bark for storage and transfer of food. (MC88 9016)

Figure 1-2—Cross section of a wood cell showing the

several layers in the cell wall.
(ML88 5567)
Figure 1-3—Wood structure of a softwood with resin Figure 1-4—Wood structure of a hardwood.
ducts. (ML88 5568) (ML88 5570)
1. Cross-sectional face 7. Wood ray 1. Cross-sectional face 6. Latewood
2. Radial face 8. Fusiform ray 2. Radial face 7. Wood ray
3. Tangential face 9. Vertical resin duct 3. Tangential face 8. Vessel
4. Growth ring 10. Horizontal resin duct 4. Growth ring 9. Sieve plate
5. Earlywood 11. Bordered pit 5. Earlywood
6. Latewood 12. Simple pit

Figure 1-5—Pit cross sections. (a) Bordered pit (with

torus in softwoods); (b) simple pit; and (c) half-
bordered pit. (ML88 5569)

3
Sapwood and Heartwood
Sapwood and heartwood (fig. 1-1) affect the drying of
wood. The sapwood layer next to the bark contains
living cells that actively transport fluids necessary to
the life of the tree. As the tree grows and increases in
diameter by adding new layers of sapwood, the inner
layers die. This inner wood, called heartwood, becomes
infiltrated with gums, resins, and other material. Sap-
wood of softwood species is usually higher in moisture
content than heartwood; sapwood moisture content in
hardwood species is usually somewhat higher than or
about equal to that of heartwood. The infiltration of
gums and other material in heartwood make it more re-
sistant to moisture flow (less permeable) than sapwood,
and thus heartwood usually requires longer drying time.
The lower permeability of heartwood also makes it
more susceptible to certain drying defects (ch. 8), and
so it requires milder drying conditions. Heartwood is
usually darker than sapwood. However, because the
change in color may occur slowly over a period of sev-
era1 years, a band of heartwood may be indistinguish-
able from adjacent sapwood; nevertheless, the heart- Figure 1-6—Annual growth rings. Quartersawn board
wood will not dry easily because it is less permeable. (left) shows edge of annual rings on its broad face;
Heartwood is also usually more resistant to decay and flatsawn board (right) shows side of rings. (M 554)
.some stains than sapwood.

Pith The orientation of growth rings to the faces and edges

of boards depends on how lumber is cut from a log.
The pith of a tree (fig. 1-1F) is usually near the cen- Lumber can be cut from a log in the two ways shown in
ter of the tree and is laid down by the growing tip. It figure 1-6. Sawing tangent to the annual rings produces
is usually very small. Pith sometimes cracks during flatsawn lumber, also called plainsawn, flat-grained, or
drying. slash-grained lumber. Sawing perpendicular to the an-
nual rings produces quartersawn lumber, also called
Annual Growth Rings edge-grained or vertical-grained lumber. The angle
of cut to the annual rings often lies somewhere in be-
Diameter growth of a tree in temperate climates is rep- tween. In commercial practice, lumber with rings at
resented by rings that usually can be easily seen on the angles of 45° to 90° to the wide surface is called quar-
end of a log as concentric circles around the pith. The tersawn, and lumber with rings at angles of 0° to 45°
closer the rings are to the pith, the smaller their radii is called flatsawn. Hardwood lumber in which annual
of curvature. Each annual growth ring is composed of rings make angles of 30° to 60° to the wide face is
an inner part called earlywood (springwood), which sometimes called bastard sawn.
is formed early in the growing season, and an outer
part, called latewood (summerwood), which is formed Either flatsawn or quartersawn lumber is generally suit-
later. When lumber is cut from a log, the annual rings able for most purposes. However, each type of sawn
are cut across in one direction or another and form a lumber responds differently in drying. Flatsawn lumber
characteristic pattern on the broad face of the boards is less susceptible to collapse, shrinks and swells less in
(fig. 1-6). In tropical woods, where there may be more thickness, and dries faster than quartersawn. Quarter-
than one active growing period annually, growth rings sawn lumber shrinks and swells less in width, and has
cannot be considered annual rings. In the majority of less twist, cup, and surface checks than flatsawn. These
tropical species, however, there is no noticeable begin- drying defects are discussed in chapter 8.
ning or end of successive growth periods, so the typical
pattern of rings shown in figure 1-6 does not occur. Wood Rays

Wood rays appear as ribbonlike strands on the face of

quartersawn boards (fig. 1-6) and as short lines on the
face of flatsawn boards in species with large rays. Be-
cause rays are weak and dry faster than the surround- Beneficial color changes can be brought about by
ing wood cells, surface, end, and honeycomb checks steaming wood before drying. Walnut, for example,
usually occur in or next to them. Species such as oak is steamed in vats to darken the sapwood before drying
and beech, which have large rays, require special care so that it more nearly matches the color of the heart-
during the early stages of drying to avoid checks. wood. Sapwood of sweetgum can be steamed to pro-
duce a salmon color that at one time was desirable for
Grain and Texture some products. Red alder is also steamed to produce a
uniform honey-brown color of sapwood and heartwood.
The physical characteristics of various species that have
some bearing on drying are loosely termed grain and Several other types of stain are considered drying de-
texture. The terms fine grained and coarse grained re- fects, and they are discussed in chapter 8.
fer to ring pattern, either the prominence of the late-
wood band or the width of the rings. When used in Variations in Structure
connection with wood cells, grain refers only to the di-
rection of the cells or fibers. In straight-grained wood, Lumber commonly contains variations in wood struc-
the fibers run generally parallel to the length of the ture, such as spiral grain, knots, compression wood,
board, and in cross-grained or spiral-grained, they run tension wood, and juvenile wood.
at an angle. The terms end grain and side grain are
commonly used in discussing moisture loss and drying Cross grain in lumber may result either from the way
defects. A cross section of a log or board has an end- in which the log is sawed (diagonal grain) or from spi-
grain surface. Any other section (radial, tangential, or ral grain that occurred in the growing tree. When
intermediate) has a side-grain surface. spiral grain alternately runs in one direction and an-
other in successive groups of growth rings, interlocked
Texture usually refers to the diameter of individual grain results. Lumber containing diagonal, spiral, or
cells. Fine-textured wood has small cells and coarse- interlocked grain shrinks more in length than straight-
textured, large cells. If all the cells of a wood are ap- grained lumber. Such lumber may bow, crook, and
proximately the same size, the wood is usually called twist during drying.
uniform textured. Uniform-textured woods in gen-
eral are less likely to develop drying defects than Knots are sections of tree branches appearing in
nonuniform-textured woods. The word texture should boards. Because of shrinkage, some kinds of knots may
not be used in describing hardness of wood. drop out during drying; more often, however, they are
loosened or checked during drying and drop out of the
Color board during handling or machining. These are called
incased knots, and they result from the growth of trunk
As a tree grows, the white or straw-colored sapwood wood around dead branches. Intergrown knots, caused
gradually changes to heartwood, and the formation of by the intergrowth of trunk wood and living branches,
extractives changes the color of most species. Holly, are much less likely to drop out of dried lumber.
basswood, cottonwood, and magnolia, however, are
examples of hardwoods in which the wood undergoes Compression wood occurs in softwoods mainly on the
little or no change in color. Spruces and true firs are lower side of leaning trees but sometimes in other parts
examples of softwoods that do not change color greatly. of the tree trunk. Because this wood shrinks more
along the length of boards than normal wood, boards
The temperatures used in kiln drying sometimes darken that contain both compression and normal wood may
wood, especially in high-temperature drying. Changes bow, crook, and twist during drying. If this warping
in the color of heartwood during drying are usually of is restrained, the compression wood may fracture and
little concern, but those that occur in sapwood are of- form crossbreaks in the lumber.
ten significant. Chemical stains can occur when green
sapwood of some species is kiln dried. The sapwood of Tension wood occurs in hardwoods, mainly on the up-
hickory tends to turn pinkish when kiln dried (low ini- per side of leaning trees but sometimes in other parts
tial temperatures must be used to preserve its white- of the trunk. Lumber containing this wood will shrink
ness) and paper birch sapwood may turn brownish. more longitudinally than normal wood, causing warp
Hard maple sapwood is prone to darkening if dried at during drying.
temperatures that are too high. Whiteness of the sap-
wood is often a very desirable feature of these species, Juvenile wood occurs in a cylinder around the pith.
and darkening reduces their value. Once juvenile wood is formed, it does not mature-it
is in the tree and lumber forever. However, as growth
progresses, the new wood, as it is formed, gradually
acquires more mature wood characteristics. Juvenile

5
wood varies with species and occurs in the first 5 to Standard thicknesses for rough and surfaced-two-sides
20 years of growth. The structural and physical proper- (S2S) lumber are given in table 1-4.
ties of juvenile wood are considered inferior. From the
standpoint of drying, the main problem is that juvenile This brief summary of grades is not complete and is
wood shrinks more along the grain than mature wood, only intended to offer a general view of how hardwood
and warp is likely to occur during drying. Juvenile lumber is graded. The official grading rules of the Na-
wood is more prevalent in fast-grown plantation trees tional Hardwood Lumber Association should be con-
than in slower grown stands. Species that are grown in sulted for complete details. There are also grading rules
volume in plantations, such as southern pine, present for dimension stock and special finished products such
warp problems in drying. as flooring.

Commercial Lumber Grades Softwood Lumber Grades

When a log is sawed into lumber, the quality of the Softwood lumber grades can be divided into two cate-
boards varies. The objective of grading is to catego- gories based on use: for construction and for remanu-
rize each board by quality so that it meets the require- facture. Construction lumber is expected to function
ments of the intended end uses. The grade of a board as graded and sized after the primary processing steps
is usually based on the number, character, and location of sawing, drying, and planing. Lumber for remanufac-
of features that may lower its strength, utility, appear- ture is further modified in size and/or shape before use.
ance, or durability. Common visible features that affect There are many individual grading rules for different
grade are knots, checks, pitch pockets, shake, warp, and softwood species. The U.S. Department of Commerce
stain. Some of these features are a natural part of the has published the American Softwood Lumber Stan-
tree and some can be caused by poor drying and stor- dard PS-20-70, which is an optional standard, in an
age practices. attempt to reduce the differences in grading rules.

Construction lumber can be divided into three general

Hardwood Lumber Grades categories: stress-graded, non-stress-graded, and ap-
pearance lumber. Stress-graded and non-stress-graded
Most hardwood lumber is graded according to rules lumber are used where structural integrity is the prime
adopted by the National Hardwood Lumber Associa- concern; structural integrity is of secondary impor-
tion. The grade of a board is determined by the pro- tance in appearance lumber. Almost all softwood lum-
portion that can be cut into a certain number and size ber nominally 2 to 4 in thick is stress graded. This
of smaller pieces clear of defects on at least one side. is the lumber that is typically used as 2 by 4 studs,
The grade is based on the amount of usable cuttings in joists, rafters, and truss members. Grading is based
the board rather than on the number or size of grade- on the premise that lumber has lower strength than
determining features that characterize most softwood clear wood; characteristics used for grading are density
grades. (usually judged by ring count), decay, slope of grain,
knots, shake, checks and splits, wane, and pitch pock-
The highest cutting grade is termed Firsts and the next ets. These characteristics can be visually assessed.
grade Seconds. Firsts and Seconds are usually com-
bined into one grade, FAS. The third grade is termed Lumber intended for general building and utility pur-
Selects, followed by No. 1 Common, No. 2 Common, poses with little or no remanufacture is typically non-
Sound Wormy, No. 3A Common, and No. 3B Com- stress graded. Boards are one of the most common
mon. Standard grades are described in table 1-3, which non-stress-graded products. The common grades are
illustrates the grade-determining criteria of board separated into several different categories that vary
length and width, surface measure of clear cuttings, with species and grading associations. First-grade
percentage of board that must yield clear cuttings, and boards are usually graded primarily for serviceability,
maximum number and size of cuttings allowed. although appearance is also a consideration. Typical
uses are siding, cornice, shelving, and paneling. Second-
Hardwood lumber is usually manufactured to standard and lower-grade boards are permitted more and larger
sizes. Standard lengths are in 1-ft increments from 4 knots and are suitable for such products as subfloors,
to 16 ft. Hardwood lumber is usually manufactured to sheathing, and concrete forms.
random width, but there are minimum widths for each
grade as follows: Appearance lumber is often nonstress graded but forms
Firsts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 in a separate category because of the importance of ap-
Seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 in pearance. Secondary manufacture is usually restricted
Selects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 in
Nos. 1, 2, 3A, 3B Common . . . . . 3 in

6
to onsite fitting and cutting. Typical products are trim, weight. Moisture content on dry and wet basis is de-
siding, flooring, casing, and steps. Most appearance fined as follows:
grades are described by combinations of letters such as
B&BTR and C&BTR, although such terms as select On dry basis,
and clear are used for some species. The upper grades
allow a few minor imperfections such as small planer Moisture content (percent)
skips, checks, stain, and pin knots. The number and Weight of water in wood
size of imperfections increase as the grade drops. = × 100
Weight of totally dry wood

Lumber intended for further manufacture in plants as

opposed to onsite modifications is usually graded as On wet basis,
factory or shop lumber. It forms the basic raw mate-
rial for many secondary operations such as furniture Moisture content (percent)
and mill work. Factory Select and Select Shop are typ- Weight of water in wood
= × 100
ically the highest grades, followed by No. 1, No. 2, Weight of dry wood and water
and No. 3. Grade characteristics are influenced by the
width, length, and thickness of the piece and are based
on the amount of high-quality material that can be cut These two ways of expressing moisture content can be
from it. related by

There are several other grading systems for specialty

products such as ladders, pencils, tanks, laminating Moisture content (dry)
stock, and industrial clears. Moisture content (wet)
= × 100
100 – Moisture content (wet)
Moisture content is often specified in softwood lum-
ber grades. For many products, the moisture content
must be within certain limits and the grade stamp In this manual we will deal only with the dry basis. For
must include the moisture content at the time of sur- most species, the common and accurate method of de-
facing. Lumber surfaced green is usually required to be termining moisture content is the ovendrying method,
stamped S-GRN. Most softwood lumber is dried to be- or oven test. This method is inaccurate for species with
low 19 percent moisture content, and when surfaced at a high extractives content. In ovendrying (described in
this moisture content it is stamped S-DRY. Sometimes ch. 6), all the water is evaporated from a wood section
the maximum allowable moisture content is 15 percent, by heating. Knowing the wood weight before and after
and this is stamped as MC-15 or KD. ovendrying allows calculation of moisture content.

The amount of water in green or wet wood varies

Wood-Moisture Relations greatly, depending mainly on species. The moisture
All wood in growing trees contains a considerable quan- content of some species may be as low as 30 percent,
tity of water, commonly called sap. Although sap con- whereas that of others may be as high as 200 percent.
tains some materials in solution, from the drying stand- Large variations may occur not only between species
point sap can be considered plain water. Most of this but also within the same species and even in the same
water should be removed to obtain satisfactory service tree. In softwood species, sapwood usually contains
more water than heartwood. In species such as red-
for most uses of wood. All wood loses or gains moisture
wood, the butt logs of trees may contain more water
in an attempt to reach a state of balance or equilib-
than the top logs. Some species contain an abnormal
rium with the conditions of the surrounding air. This
state of balance depends on the relative humidity and type of heartwood, called wetwood or sometimes sinker
temperature of the surrounding air. Therefore, some stock, that is sometimes higher in green moisture con-
knowledge of wood-moisture relations is helpful in un- tent than normal wood of the species. In addition to
derstanding what happens to wood during drying, stor- the higher moisture content, wetwood is slower to dry
age, fabrication, and use. than normal wood and often more susceptible to such
drying defects as honeycomb and collapse.
The amount of moisture in wood is termed the mois-
Contrary to popular belief, the amount of water in
ture content. It can be expressed as a percentage of
either dry or wet weight. For most purposes, the mois- green wood does not vary greatly with the season of the
year in which the trees are cut. Moisture content values
ture content of lumber is based on dry weight, but the
moisture content of wood fuel is usually based on wet for green wood of various species is given in table 1-5.

7
Free and Bound Water

Water is held in wood as free water or bound water.

Free water is contained in the cell cavities (fig. 1-2);
bound water is held within the cell walls. Free wa-
ter is held within the cell cavities less tightly than
the bound water is held within the cell walls. Con-
sequently, slightly more energy is required to remove
bound water than free water. Free water does not af-
fect as many wood properties as bound water, but does
affect thermal conductivity and permeability. Bound
water affects many physical and mechanical properties,
and its removal causes changes that affect the use of
the wood.

Fiber Saturation Point Figure 1-7—Relation of the equilibrium moisture con-

tent of wood to the relative humidity of the surround-
The fiber saturation point is defined as the moisture ing atmosphere at three temperatures. (ML88 5572)
content at which the cell walls are saturated but no
free water remains in the cell cavities. Moisture con-
tent of the individual cell walls at the fiber saturation and previous moisture history have a slight effect on
point is usually about 30 percent, but may be lower for EMC. The relationship of EMC to relative humidity
some species. Care must be used in judging whether and temperature is shown in figure 1-7. If, for example,
a piece of wood is at the fiber saturation point. The wood is kept in air at 141 °F and 65 percent relative
term really refers to individual cells rather than boards humidity, it will eventually either gain or lose mois-
or other pieces of wood. The mechanisms of how wood ture until it reaches approximately 10 percent moisture
dries will be discussed later, but basically wood dries content.
from the outside to the inside. Thus, during drying, the
outside part of a board might be at 15 percent mois- Kiln drying usually requires control of EMC condi-
ture content while the inside might still be at 45 per- tions, that is, temperature and relative humidity, in
cent. The average moisture content of the entire board the kiln. Thus both temperature and relative humid-
might be 30 percent, but it is erroneous to consider the ity have to be measured. Two thermometers-dry bulb
board to be at the fiber saturation point. There will be and wet bulb--are used to obtain temperature and rel-
a continuous variation or gradient of moisture content ative humidity. The dry-bulb thermometer measures
from the outside to the inside of the board from 15 to temperature in the usual way, and the result is called
45 percent, and only some cells will be exactly at the the dry-bulb temperature. The sensor of the wet-bulb
fiber saturation point of 30 percent. thermometer is kept wet with a wick cover, from which
water evaporates at a rate determined by the relative
The fiber saturation point is important in the drying humidity and temperature of the air. The drier the air,
of wood for the following reasons: (1) more energy the faster the rate of evaporation. This evaporation has
is required to evaporate water from a cell wall than a cooling effect that increases as the rate of evapora-
from the cell cavity (approximately 5 percent more tion increases. Thus, the drier the air, the greater the
at 15 percent moisture content and 15 percent more cooling effect and the lower the temperature indicated
at 6 percent moisture content); (2) a wood cell will by the wet-bulb thermometer. The difference between
not shrink until it reaches the fiber saturation point; dry- and wet-bulb temperatures, called the wet-bulb
and (3) large changes in many physical and mechani- depression, is thus a measure of the relative humidity of
cal properties of wood begin to take place at the fiber the air.
saturation point.
The relationship between relative humidity, tempera-
Equilibrium Moisture Content ture, and EMC is shown in table 1-6 for temperatures
below 212 °F, and in table 1-7 for temperatures above
Wood loses or gains moisture until the amount it con- 212 °F. For example, assume that the dry-bulb tem-
tains is in balance with that in the surrounding atmos- perature in a kiln is 150 °F and the wet-bulb temper-
phere. The amount of moisture at this point of bal- ature 130 °F. The wet-bulb depression then is 20 °F.
ance is called the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). Wet-bulb depression temperatures are shown across the
The EMC depends mainly on the relative humidity and top of tables 1-6 and 1-7 and dry-bulb temperatures on
temperature of the surrounding air, although species the extreme left of the table. To find the EMC at the
assumed conditions, (1) locate 20 °F wet-bulb depres-

s
sion column and (2) follow this column downward until
it intersects the 150 °F dry-bulb temperature line. The
EMC value, 8 percent, is the underscored value. Note
that the relative humidity value (not underscored),
57 percent, is given directly above the EMC value.
Wet- and dry-bulb temperatures, EMC, and psychro-
metric relations are further discussed in the appendix
to this chapter.

How Wood Dries

Water in wood normally moves from higher to lower

zones of moisture content. This fact supports the com-
mon statement that “wood dries from the outside in,”
which means that the surface of the wood must be drier
than the interior if moisture is to be removed. Dry-
ing can be broken down into two phases: movement
of water from the interior to the surface of wood, and
removal of water from the surface. Moisture moves to
the surface more slowly in heartwood than in sapwood,
primarily because extractives plug the pits of heart-
wood. In drying, the surface fibers of heartwood of
most species reach moisture equilibrium with the sur-
rounding air soon after drying begins. This is the be-
ginning of the development of a typical moisture gradi-
ent (fig. 1-8), that is, the difference in moisture content
between the inner and outer portions of a board. The Figure 1-8—Typical moisture gradient in lumber during
surface fibers of sapwood also tend to reach moisture drying at times increasing from t1 to t3. (ML88 5571)
equilibrium with the surrounding air if the air circula-
tion is fast enough to evaporate water from the surface
as fast as it comes to the surface. If the air circulation Forces That Move Water
is too slow, a longer time is required for the surfaces of
sapwood to reach moisture equilibrium. This is one rea- When wood is drying, several forces may be acting si-
son why air circulation is so important in kiln drying. multaneously to move water (Siau 1984):
If it is too slow, drying is also slower than necessary
1. Capillary action causes free water to flow through
and mold might even develop on the surface of lumber.
the cell cavities and pits.
If it is too fast, electrical energy in running the fans
is wasted, and in certain species surface checking may 2. Differences in relative humidity cause water vapor
develop if wet-bulb depression and air velocity are not to move through the cell cavities by diffusion, which
coordinated. moves water from areas of high to areas of low rel-
ative humidity. Cell walls are the source of water
Water moves through wood as liquid or vapor through vapor; that is, water evaporates from the cell walls
several kinds of passageways. These are the cavities of into the cell cavities.
fibers and vessels, ray cells, pit chambers and their pit
3. Differences in moisture content cause bound water
membrane openings, resin ducts of certain softwoods,
to move through the cell walls by diffusion, which
other intercellular spaces, and transitory cell wall
moves water from area of high to areas of low mois-
passageways (Panshin and de Zeeuw 1980). Most water ture content. Generally, any water molecule that
lost by wood during drying moves through cell cavities
moves through wood by diffusion moves through
and pits. It moves in these passageways in all direc-
both cell walls and cell cavities. Water may evap-
tions, both along and with the grain. Lighter species
orate from a cell wall into a cell cavity, move across
in general dry faster than heavier species because their
the cell cavity, be readsorbed on the opposite cell
structure contains more openings per unit volume.
wall, move through the cell wall by diffusion, and so
on until it reaches the surface of the board.

9
When green wood starts to dry, evaporation of water Lumber Thickness
from the surface cells sets up capillary forces that exert
a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath Drying rate is also affected by thickness. Drying time
the surface, and a flow results. This is similar to the increases with thickness and at a rate that is more than
movement of water in a wick. Much free water in sap- proportional to thickness. For example, if thickness is
wood moves in this way. In comparison to diffusion, doubled, drying time is more than doubled. Theoreti-
capillary movement is fast. cally, if drying were controlled completely by diffusion,
drying time would increase by a factor of four if thick-
Longitudinal diffusion is about 10 to 15 times faster ness were doubled. But because of the other mecha-
than lateral (radial or tangential) diffusion. Radial dif- nisms involved in drying, drying time increases between
fusion, perpendicular to the growth rings, is somewhat three and four times. Thickness variation in lumber
faster than tangential diffusion, parallel to the rings. caused by poor sawing can lead to excessive moisture
This explains why flatsawn lumber dries faster than content variation after drying or excessive kiln time to
quartersawn lumber. Although longitudinal diffusion is equalize the variation. For example, the kiln-drying
10 to 15 times faster than lateral diffusion, it is of prac- time for l-in-thick red oak will vary by about 4 percent
tical importance only in short items. Common lumber for each 1/32-in variation in thickness.
is so much longer than it is thick that most of the wa-
ter removed during drying does so through the thick- Specific Gravity and Weight of Wood
ness direction, leaving from the wide face of a board.
In lumber where width and thickness are not greatly Specific gravity is a physical property of wood that is
different, such as in squares, significant drying occurs in a guide to ease of drying as well as an index of weight
both the thickness and width directions. (table 1-8). In general, the heavier the wood, the slower
the drying rate and the greater the likelihood of devel-
The rate ‘of diffusion depends to a large extent upon oping defects during drying. Specific gravity is defined
the permeability of the cell walls and their thickness. as the ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of an
Thus permeable species dry faster than impermeable equal volume of water. The specific gravity of wood is
ones, and the rate of diffusion decreases as the specific usually based on the volume of the wood at some speci-
gravity increases. fied moisture content and its weight when ovendry:

Because moisture moves more freely in sapwood than

heartwood, both by diffusion and by capillary flow, Specific gravity
sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under Ovendry weight of wood
the same drying conditions. The heartwood of many =
Weight of equal volume of water
species, however, is lower in moisture content than sap-
wood, and may reach final moisture content faster.
Thus, if the specific gravity of a piece of green wood
is 0.5, the ovendry weight of the wood substance in a
Factors That Influence Drying Rate cubic foot of the green wood is one-half the weight of
a cubic foot of water. The higher the specific gravity
The rate at which moisture moves in wood depends on of wood, the greater the amount of ovendry wood per
the relative humidity of the surrounding air, the steep- unit volume of green wood. Thus, at the same moisture
ness of the moisture gradient, and the temperature of content, high specific gravity species contain more wa-
the wood. The lower the relative humidity, the greater ter than low specific gravity species. The green weight
the capillary flow. Low relative humidity also stimu- of 1 ft3 of wood can be calculated from the following
lates diffusion by lowering the moisture content at the formula:
surface, thereby steepening the moisture gradient and
increasing diffusion rate. The higher the temperature of
the wood, the faster moisture will move from the wetter Green weight = Specific gravity
interior to the drier surface. If relative humidity is too × (Moisture content + 100)
low in the early stages of drying, excessive surface and
end checking may result. And if the temperature is too × 62.4/100 lb
high, collapse, honeycomb, or strength reduction may
occur (see ch. 8). For example, the green weight of 1 ft3 of a species of
specific gravity 0.4 at 75 percent moisture content is
43.7 lb. The ovendry weight (by substituting 0 for
moisture content in the formula) is 25 lb, and thus
18.7 lb of water are present. At a specific gravity of
0.6 at 75 percent moisture content, the green weight is

10
65.5 lb, the ovendry weight 37.4 lb, and the weight of Table 1-9 does not have a column for 75 percent mois-
water 28.1 lb. Thus, there are 9.4 lb more water at a ture content, so the correction factor in column 2 must
specific gravity of 0.6 than at 0.4. be used. The weight at 60 percent moisture content
in table 1-9 is 4,666 lb. Using the correction factor of
As the above formula indicates, weight of wood de- 29.1 lb per 1 percent moisture content, the weight of
pends on its specific gravity and moisture content. Cal- 1,000 fbm, actual, is
culated weights for lumber are given in table 1-9. The
values for weights per thousand board feet apply to a
thousand feet, surface measure, of boards exactly 1 in (75 – 60) × 29.1 + 4,666 = 5,103 lb
thick (actual board feet) and not to a thousand board
feet lumber scale. These weights were determined in
the way described by Panshin and de Zeeuw (1980) and And with the upward adjustment factor, the weight of
the nominal 4/4 lumber is
the resulting weight per cubic foot at the given mois-
ture content multiplied by 83.3, the number of cubic
5,103 × 1.156 = 5,899 lb
feet in a thousand board feet. Note that two correction
factors are given for calculating weights at moisture
contents not shown in table 1-9. These factors are sim-
ply added to table values to calculate weights between Shrinkage of wood
table values. The correction factor for below 30 per-
cent moisture content takes into account the volumet- Shrinkage of wood is the basic cause of many prob-
ric shrinkage that occurs below 30 percent moisture lems that occur in wood during drying and also in ser-
content. The correction factor above 30 percent mois- vice. When water begins to leave the cell walls at 25 to
ture content does not require a shrinkage correction 30 percent moisture content, the walls begin to shrink.
component. Even after drying, wood will shrink and swell in service
as relative humidity varies (table 1-6). Drying stresses
Since the weights in table 1-9 are based on actual board develop because wood shrinks by different amounts in
feet-a thousand lineal feet of lumber exactly 1 in thick the radial, tangential, and longitudinal directions and
and 12 in wide-they must be adjusted upward for because during drying, shrinkage starts in the outer
rough lumber greater than 1 in thick and downward fibers before it starts in the inner fibers. These stresses
for surfaced lumber less than 1 in thick. can cause cracks and warp to develop.

Example: What is the weight of 1,000 fbm of nominal When wood is dried to 15 percent moisture content,
1 by 8 ponderosa pine lumber at 6 percent moisture about one-half of the total possible shrinkage has oc-
content dressed to 25/32 in thick by 7-1/2 in wide? curred; when dried to 8 percent, nearly three-fourths
of the possible shrinkage has occurred. Figure 1-9 il-
The downward adjustment factor is calculated as lustrates how Douglas-fir shrinks with loss of moisture.
follows: While these curves are not straight, the relationship
between moisture content and shrinkage is generally
approximated a a straight-line relationship.

From table 1-9, the weight of 1,000 fbm, actual, of this

size ponderosa pine is 2,271 lb. With the downward
adjustment the weight is

2,271 × 0.732 = 1,662 lb

Example: What is the weight of 1,000 fbm of nominal

4/4 rough, random width, northern red oak lumber at
75 percent moisture content? Assume the target sawing
thickness is 37/32 in.
Moisture content (percent)
The upward adjustment factor is calculated as follows:
Figure 1-9—Typical relation of moisture content to
shrinkage of Douglas-fir. Although the curves are not
straight lines, they may be considered as such for prac-
tical shrinkage calculations. (ML88 5573)

11
Average Shrinkage Values

Table 1-10 gives average shrinkage values for various

species of wood. These values are given in percentages
of the green dimension.

Shrinkage (percent)
Green dimension – Dry dimension
= × 100
Green dimension

Wood shrinks about 1.5 to 2 times as much parallel to

the growth rings (tangential) as it does at a right angle
to the growth rings (radial). The shrinkage along the
grain (longitudinal) is small (0.2 percent or less for nor-
ma1 wood). Characteristic shrinkage patterns of boards Figure 1-10—Characteristic shrinkage and distortion of
are shown in figure 1-10. flats, squares, and rounds as affected by the direction of
annual growth rings. The dimensional changes shown
Table 1-10 gives shrinkage values at only 20, 6, and are somewhat exaggerated. (M 12494)
0 percent moisture content. Knowing the total shrink-
age of a species at 0 percent moisture content, the for the species, and individual observations of shrinkage
percent shrinkage at any moisture content below may differ from them.
30 percent can be calculated. Since shrinkage curves
are reasonably close to straight lines from 30 percent On the average, hardwoods shrink more than soft-
(approximate fiber saturation point) to 0 percent mois- woods. In general, species of high specific gravity
ture content, each 1 percent change in moisture contact shrink more than ones of low specific gravity, but there
below 30 percent is equal to 1/30 of the total shrinkage are exceptions. Basswood, a light species, has high
from 30 to 0 percent. shrinkage, while the heavier black locust has more mod-
erate shrinkage. The amount of shrinkage and the dif-
ference between radial and tangential shrinkage have a
direct influence on the development of drying defects.
Species that are high in extractive content–like tropi-
cal species such as true mahogany-have relatively low
where SM is percent shrinkage from green to moistwe shrinkage.
content M and S0 is total shrinkage to 0 percent mois-
ture content from table 1-10. Longitudinal shrinkage is variable. While it is usually
less than 0.2 percent from green to ovendry, reaction
Example: What is the tangential shrinkage of western wood and juvenile wood can shrink as much as 1 to
hemlock from green to 12 percent moisture content? 1.5 percent. As an increasing amount of young-growth
plantation trees with juvenile wood is harvested, the
From table 1-10, the shrinkage of western hemlock to variability of longitudinal shrinkage and its influence on
0 percent moisture content is 7.8 percent. From the warp become more of a problem.
above equation
Drying Stresses
The effect of drying stresses on the development of dry-
ing defects is discussed in chapter 8. Drying stresses
are the main cause of nonstain-related drying defects.
Shrinkage Variability Understanding these stresses provides a means for pre-
venting them. There are two causes of drying stresses:
Shrinkage differs not only with respect to the length, hydrostatic tension and differential shrinkage. Hydro-
width, and thickness of a board, but even in material static tension forces develop during the flow of capillary
cut from the same species and from the same tree. The water. As water evaporates from cell cavities near the
values listed in table 1-10 are only representative values surface, it exerts a pull on water deeper in the wood.
This tension pull is inward on the walls of cells whose
cavities are full of water, and the result can be an in-

12
Figure 1-11—End view of board showing development
of drying stresses early (a) and later (b) in drying.
(ML88 5574)
Thickness

ward collapse of the cell wall. The danger of collapse Figure 1-12—Moisture–stress relationship during six
is greatest early in drying when many cell cavities are stages of kiln drying 2-in red oak. (ML88 5575)
full of water, and if the temperature is high, collapse is
more likely to occur.
Differential shrinkage caused by differences in radial,
Differential shrinkage between the shell and core of tangential, and longitudinal shrinkage is a major cause
lumber also causes drying defects. Early in the dry- of warp. The distortions shown in figure 1-10 are due
ing process, the fibers in the shell (the outer portion to differential shrinkage. When juvenile or reaction
of the board) dry first and begin to shrink. However, wood is present on one side or face of a board and nor-
the core has not yet begun to dry and shrink, and con- mal wood is present on the opposite face, the difference
sequently the core prevents the shell from shrinking. in their longitudinal shrinkage will also cause warp.
Thus, the shell goes into tension and the core into com-
pression, as illustrated in figure 1-11. If the shell dries
Electrical Properties
too rapidly, it is stressed beyond the elastic limit and
dries in a permanently stretched (set) condition with-
Electrical properties of wood vary enough with mois-
out attaining full shrinkage. Sometimes surface checks
ture content that they can be used to measure mois-
occur during this early stage of drying, and they can be
ture content reasonably accurately and very quickly.
a serious defect for many uses. As drying progresses,
Those electrical properties of wood that indicate level
the core begins to dry and attempts to shrink. How-
of moisture content are resistance to the flow of electri-
ever, the shell is set in a permanently expanded condi-
cal current and dielectric properties. These properties
tion and prevents normal shrinkage of the core. This
are utilized in electric moisture meters to estimate the
causes the stresses to reverse-the core goes into ten-
moisture content of wood (James 1988).
sion and the shell into compression. The change in the
shell and core stresses and moisture content during
The direct current electrical resistance of wood varies
drying is shown in figure 1-12. These internal tension
greatly with moisture content, especially below the
stresses may be severe enough to cause internal cracks
fiber saturation point. It decreases greatly as mois-
(honeycomb) to occur.
ture content increases (table 1-11). Resistance also
varies with species, is greater across the grain than

13
Figure 1-13—Temperature corrections for reading of calibration temperatures near 70 °F, adequate correc-
resistance-type moisture meters, based on combined tions can be obtained simply by shifting the tempera-
data from several investigators. Find meter reading on ture scale so that the true calibration temperature coin-
vertical axis, follow horizontally to vertical line corre- cides with 70 °F on the percent scale. For example, for
spending to the temperature of the wood, and inter- meters calibrated at 80 °F, add 10 °F to each point on
polate corrected reading from family of curves. Exam- the temperature scale (shift the scale 10 °F toward the
ple: If meter indicated 18 percent on wood at 120 °F, left), and use the chart as before. After temperature
corrected reading would be 14 percent. This chart is correction, apply the appropriate species correction.
based on a calibration temperature of 70 °F. For other (ML88 5576)

Figure 1-14—Approximate temperature corrections Figure 1-15—Approximate temperature corrections for

for capacitive admittance meter; data taken using a readings of power-loss type moisture meters; data taken
“Sentry” hand meter with calibration setting of 20 using a Moisture Register model L. Locate the point
or greater. Solid lines are for the meter itself at room whose coordinates are the observed scale reading and
temperature; broken lines are for the meter at the same the specimen temperature, and trace back parallel to
temperature as the lumber. (ML88 5578) the curves to the calibration temperature of the meter
(usually 80°F). The vertical coordinate here is the cor-
rected scale reading, which is then converted to mois-
ture content using the usual species conversion tables.
Solid lines are for the meter itself at room temperature;
broken lines are for the meter at the same temperature
as the lumber. (ML88 5579)

14
along it, and is affected by temperature. Resistance Example: Estimate the energy in British thermal units
is not greatly affected by specific gravity. Commercial (Btu) required to raise the temperature of 50,000 fbm
resistance moisture meters are often calibrated for one of nominal 4/4 northern red oak at 75 percent moisture
species, but are supplied with a species correction table. content from 60 to 110 °F.
The meters are usually calibrated for 70 °F and also
require a temperature correction chart (fig. 1-13). Re- This is a continuation of the earlier example on weight
sistance meters use probes that must be driven into the of wood, where the weight of 1,000 fbm of 4/4 northern
wood for measurement. red oak at 75 percent was 5,103 lb. Thus 50,000 fbm
weigh 255,150 lb. The specific heat over the interval
Meters that use the dielectric properties of wood are between 60 and 110 °F can be approximated by using
classified as one of two types-capacitance and power- the average temperature as follows:
loss (James 1988). With these instruments, electrodes
are pressed against the wood, and high-frequency elec-
tric energy is applied. The electrodes do not penetrate 6 0 + 110
T = = 85°F
the wood. The amount of power absorbed depends on 2
the moisture content of the wood. Species correction
tables and temperature correction charts (figs. 1-14 and Thus, the specific heat is
l-15) are also necessary.

Thermal Properties
The energy required is the product of the weight, the
Thermal properties are relevant to wood drying because
specific heat, and the temperature rise as follows:
they are related to energy requirements and the time
required to heat wood to drying temperature. Specific
heat of a material is the ratio of the heat capacity of
the material to that of water. It is a measure of the en-
ergy required to raise the temperature of the material.
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the rate of heat
flow through a material. The coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion is a measure of the change of dimension caused
by temperature change.
Thermal Conductivity
Specific Heat The thermal conductivity of wood is affected by den-
sity, moisture content, extractive content, grain direc-
The specific heat of wood depends on the temperature tion, temperature, and structural irregularities such as
and moisture content of the wood, but is practically knots. It is nearly the same in the radial and tangen-
independent of density or species. Specific heat of dry tial directions but two to three times greater parallel to
wood can be approximately related to temperature T, the grain. It increases as the density, moisture content,
in degrees Fahrenheit, by the following formula: temperature, and extractive content increase. Thermal
conductivity below 40 percent moisture content can be
approximated by
Specific heat = 0.25 + 0.0006T

When wood contains water, the specific heat increases

because the specific heat of water is larger than that of
dry wood. If the specific heat of water is taken as one, and above 40 percent moisture content by
the specific heat of wood at moisture content m, where
m is percent moisture content divided by 100, is

0.25 + 0.0006T+ m
Specific heat =
1 +m where k is thermal conductivity in Btu·in/h·ft2. °F
and G is specific gravity based on volume at M percent
moisture content and ovendry weight.

15
Thermal Expansion Literature Cited
The thermal expansion of wood is so small that it is American Society for Testing and Materials. 1981.
overshadowed by shrinkage and swelling. It is far less Standard nomenclature of domestic hardwoods and
than dimensional changes associated with changes in softwoods. ASTM D 1165-80. Philadelphia, PA: Ameri-
moisture content, and conditions that would cause can Society for Testing and Materials: 388-398.
thermal expansion would also cause moisture-related
shrinkage. The coefficient of thermal expansion is de- Chudnoff, Martin. 1984. Tropical timbers of the world.
fined as the unit increase in dimension per degree in- Agric. Handb. 607. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
crease in temperature. The coefficient of ovendry wood of Agriculture. 466 p.
in the longitudinal direction is apparently independent
of specific gravity and species. In both hardwoods and Hawkins, G. A. 1978. Thermal properties of substances
softwoods, it ranges from 0.0000017 to 0.0000025 inch and thermodynamics. In: Mark’s standard handbook
per inch per degree Fahrenheit. for mechanical engineers. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill: 4-28 to 4-40.
The coefficients of thermal expansion in the radial and
tangential directions are 5 to 10 times greater than in James, William L. 1988. Electric moisture meters for
the longitudinal direction and are thus of more practi- wood. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL 6. Madison, WI: U.S.
cal interest. They depend on specific gravity, and for Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Prod-
ovendry wood can be approximated by the following ucts Laboratory. 17 p.
equations over the specific gravity range of 0.1 to 0.8:
Panshin, A. J.; de Zeeuw, Carl. 1980. Textbook of
wood technology. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Radial coefficient 722 p.

Siau, John F. 1984. Transport processes in wood.

Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 245 p.
Tangential coefficient
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1986. American soft-
wood lumber standard. Product Standard PS-20-70.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. 26 p.
where G is specific gravity. Thermal expansion coeffi-
cients can be considered independent of temperature
over the range of –60° to 130°F. Sources of Additional Information
The thermal expansion properties of wood containing Cech, M. Y.; Pfaff, F. 1977. Kiln operator’s manual for
water are difficult to define. When wood with moisture eastern Canada. Report OPX192E. Ottawa, Ontario:
is heated, it tends to expand because of normal thermal Eastern Forest Products Laboratory. 189 p.
expansion and at the same time to shrink because of
drying that occurs with the rise in temperature. Unless Little, Elbert L. Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States
wood is below about 3 to 4 percent moisture content, trees. Agric. Handb. 541. Washington, DC: U.S. De-
the shrinkage will be greater than the thermal expan- partment of Agriculture. 375 p.
sion. The question is sometimes asked if thermal ex-
pansion can cause checking in lumber. Because thermal Skaar, Christen. 1972. Water in wood. Syracuse, NY:
expansion is so small, it is doubtful that it can cause Syracuse University Press. 218 p.
checking.
Stamm, Alfred J. 1964. Wood and cellulose science
New York: The Ronald Press. 549 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1987. Wood Hand-

book. Agric. Handb. 72. Washington, DC: U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture. 466 p.

Ward, James C.; Pang, W. Y. 1980. Wetwood in trees:

a timber resource problem. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW
112. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Ex-
periment Station. 56 p.

16
Table 1-1—Commercial species grown in the United States

Commercial name for lumber Common tree name Botanical name

HARDWOODS

Alder
Red alder red alder Alnus rubra
Apple apple Malus spp.
Ash
Black ash1 black ash Fraxinus nigra
Oregon ash Oregon ash F. latifolia
White ash blue ash F. quadrangulata
green ash F. pennsylvanica
white ash F. americana
Aspen2 bigtooth aspen Populus grandidentata
quaking aspen P. tremuloides
Basswood3 American basswood Tilia americana
white basswood T. heterophylle
Beech beech, American Fagus grandifolia
Birch4 gray birch Betula populifolia
paper birch B. papyrifera
river birch B. nigra
sweet birch B. lenta
yellow birch B. alleghaniensis
Box elder boxelder Acer negundo
Buckeye Ohio buckeye Aesculus glabra
yellow buckeye A. octandra
Butternut butternut Juglans cinerea
Cherry black cherry Prunus serotina
Chestnut American chestnut Castanea dentata
balsam poplar Populus balsamifera
Cottonwood black cottonwood P. trichocarpa
eastern cottonwood P. deltoides
plains cottonwood P. sargentii
swamp cottonwood P. heterophylla
Dogwood flowering dogwood Cornus florida
Pacific dogwood C. nuttallii
Elder, see Box elder
Elm
Rock elm cedar elm Ulmus crassifolia
rock elm U. thomasii
September elm U. serotina
winged elm U. alata
Soft elm5 American elm U. americana
slippery elm U. rubra
Gum 6 sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua
Hackberry hackberry Celtis occidentalis
sugarberry C. laevigata
Hickory7 mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa
pignut hickory C. glabra
sand hickory C. pallida
shagbark hickory C. ovata
shellbark hickory C. laciniosa
Holly American holly Ilex opaca
lronwood eastern hophornbeam Ostyra virginiana
Locust black locust Robinia pseudoacacia
honeylocust Gleditsia triacanthos
Madrone Pacific madrone Arbutus menziesii
Magnolia southern magnolia Magnolia grandiflora
sweetbay M. virginiana
cucumber tree M. acuminata
Maple
Hard maple8 black maple Acer nigrum
sugar maple A. saccharum
Oregon maple bigleaf maple A. macrophyllum
Soft maple8 red maple A. rubrum
silver maple A. saccharinum

17
Table 1-1—Commercial species grown in the United States—continued

Commercial name for lumber Common tree name Botanical name

HARDWOODS—continued
Myrtle, see Oregon myrtle
Oak
Red oak black oak Quercus velutina
blackjack oak Q. marilandica
California black oak Q. kellogii
cherrybark oak Q. falcata var. pagodaefolia
laurel oak Q. laurifolia
northern pin oak Q. ellipsoidalis
northern red oak Q. rubra
Nuttall oak Q. nuttalli
pin oak Q. palustris
scarlet oak Q. coccinea
shingle oak Q. imbricaria
Shumard oak Q. shumardii
southern red oak Q. falcata
turkey oak Q. laevis
willow oak Q. phellos
White oak Arizona white oak Q. arizonica
blue oak Q. douglasii
bur oak Q. macrocarpa
California white oak Q. lobata
chestnut oak Q. prinus
chinkapin oak Q. muehlenbergii
Emory oak Q. emoryi
Gambel oak Q. gambelii
Mexican blue oak Q. oblongifolia
live oak Q. virginiana
Oregon white oak Q. garryana
overcup oak Q. lyrata
post oak Q. stellata
swamp chestnut oak Q. michauxii
swamp white oak Q. bicolor
white oak Q. alba
Oregon myrtle California-laurel Umbellularia californica
Osage orange Osage-orange Maclura pomifera
Pecan7 bitternut hickory Carya cordiformis
nutmeg hickory C. myristicaeformis
water hickory C. aquatica
pecan C. illinoensis
Persimmon common persimmon Diospyros virginiana
Sassafras sassafras Sassafras albidum
Sycamore American sycamore Platanus occidentalis
Tanoak tanoak Lithocarpus densiflorus
Tupelo9 black tupelo Nyssa sylvatica
Ogeechee tupelo N. ogeche
swamp tupelo N. silvatica var. biflora
water tupelo N. aquatica
Walnut black walnut Juglans nigra
Willow black willow Salix nigra
peachleaf willow S. amygdaloides
Yellow poplar yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera

SOFTWOODS
Cedar
Alaska cedar Alaska-cedar Chamaecyparis nootkatensis
Incense cedar incense-cedar Libocedrus decurrens
Port Orford cedar Port-Orford-cedar Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
Eastern red cedar eastern redcedar Juniperus virginiana
southern redcedar J. silicicola
Western red cedar western redcedar Thuja plicata
Northern white cedar northern white-cedar T. occidentalis
Southern white cedar Atlantic white-cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides
Cypress10 baldcypress Taxodium distichum
pondcypress T. distichum var. nutans
Fir
Balsam fir11 balsam fir Abies balsamea
Fraser fir A. fraseri
12
Douglas fir Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
Inland Douglas-fir P. menziesii var. glauca
Noble fir noble fir Abies procera

18
Table 1-1—Commercial species grown In the United States—concluded

Commercial name for lumber Common tree name Botanical name

SOFTWOODS—continued
Fir (continued)
White fir California red fir A. magnifica
grand fir A. grandis
noble fir A. procera
Pacific silver fir A. amabilis
subalpine fir A. lasiocarpa
white fir A. concolor
Hemlock
Eastern hemlock Carolina hemlock Tsuga caroliniana
eastern hemlock T. canadensis
Mountain hemlock mountain hemlock T. medensiana
West coast hemlock western hemlock T. heterophylla
Juniper
Western juniper alligator juniper Juniperus deppeana
Rocky Mountain juniper J. scopulorum
Utah juniper J. osteosperma
western juniper J. occidentalis
Larch
Western larch western larch Larix occidentalis
Pine
Jack pine jack pine Pinus banksiana
Lodgepole pine lodgepole pine P. contorta
Norway pine red pine P. resinosa
Ponderosa pine ponderosa pine P. ponderosa
Sugar pine sugar pine P. lambertiana
Idaho white pine western white pine P. monticola
Northern white pine eastern white pine P. strobus
Longleaf pine13 longleaf pine P. palustris
slash pine P. elliottii
Southern pine loblobbly pine Pinus taeda
longleaf pine P. palustris
pitch pine P. rigida
pond pine P. serotina
shortleaf pine P. echinata
slash pine P. elliottii
Virginia pine P. virginiana
Redwood redwood Sequoia sempervirens
Spruce
Eastern spruce black spruce Picea mariana
red spruce P. rubens
white spruce P. glauca
Engelmann spruce blue spruce P. pungens
Engelmann spruce P. engelmannii
Sitka spruce Sitka spruce P. sitchensis
Tamarack tamarack Larix laricina
Yew
Pacific yew Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia
1
Black ash is known commercially in some consuming centers as brown ash, and is also sometimes designated as such in specifications.
2
Aspen lumber is sometimes designated as poppIe.
3
For some commercial uses where a white appearance is required, the sapwood of American basswood ( Tilia americana) is specified under the designation
“white basswood.” This commercial-use designation should not be confused with the species (T. heterophylla) having the common name white basswood.
4
The principal lumber species is yellow birch. It may be designated either sap birch (all sapwood) or red birch (all hardwood) or it may be unselected. Sweet birch
is sold without distinction from yellow birch. Paper birch is a softer wood used principally for turnings and novelties and is widely know as white birch. The remaining
birches are of minor commercial importance.
5
Soft elm lumber is sometimes designated as white elm. A special type of slowly grown material is sometimes designated commercially as gray elm. Slippery elm
is called red elm in some localities, although that term is also used for two other elms.
6
Usually designated either as red gum or as sap gum, as the case may be, or as gum or sweetgum when not selected for color. (For black gum, see tupelo,
footnote 9.)
7
The impossibility of distinguishing between hickory ad pecan lumber for accurate species identification is recognized. Three of the four major Carya species in
the pecan group have the word “hickory” in their name.
8
When hard maple or soft maple is specified to be white, the specification generally is interpreted as being a requirement for sapwood, although it sometimes
may take on the special meaning of being all sapwood with a minimum of natural color.
9
The impossibility of distinguishing between black tupelo (blackgum), swamp tupelo, and water tupelo lumber for accurate species identification is recognized.
10
Cypress includes types designated as red cypress, white cypress, and yellow cypress. Red cypress is frequently classified and sold separately from the other
types.
11
Balsam fir lumber is sometimes designated either as eastern fir or as balsam.
12
Douglas fir may be specified either as Coast Region Douglas for or as Inland Region Douglas for, but if the particular type is not so specified or is not otherwise
indicated through the grade specifications, either or both types will be allowed.
13
The commercial requirements for longleaf pine lumber are that not only must it be produced from trees of the botanical species of Pinus elliottii and P. palustris,
but each piece in addition must average either on one end or the other not less than six annual rings per inch and not less than one-third summerwood. Longleaf pine
lumber is sometimes designated as pitch pine in the export trade.

19
Table 1-2—Tropical wood species

Common name (other common names)1 Botanical name2

Afrormosia (kokrodua, assamela) Pericopsis elata (Af)

Albarco (jequitiba, abarco, bacu, cerú, tauary) Cariniana spp. (LA)
Andiroba (crabwood, cedro macho, carapa) Carapa guianensis (LA]
Angelique (basralocus) Dicorynia guianensis (LA)
Apitong (keruing, eng, in, yang, heng, keroeing) Dipterocarpus spp. (As)
Avodire (blimah-pu, apapaye, lusamba, apaya) Turraeanthus africanus (Af)
Balata (bulletwood, chicozapote, ausubo) Manilkara bidentata (LA)
Balsa (corcho, gatillo, enea, pung, lana) Ochroma pyramidale (LA)
Banak (baboen, sangre, palo de sangre) Virola spp. (LA)
Benge (mutenye, mbenge) Guibourtia arnoldiana (Af)
Bubinga (essingang, ovang, kevazingo, waka) Guibourtia spp. (Af)
Caribbean pine (pino, ocote) Pinus caribaea (LA)
Cativo (amansamujer, camibar, muramo, curucai) Prioria copaifera (LA)
Ceiba (silk-cotton-tree, kapok-tree) Ceiba pentandra (LA)
Cocobolo (granadillo, funera, palo negro) Dalbergia retusa (LA)
Courbaril (cuapinol, guapinol, locust) Hymenaea courbaril (LA)
Cuangare (virola, fruta dorado, miguelario) Dialyanthera spp. (LA)
Cypress, Mexican (cipres) Cupressus lusitanica (LA)
Degame (lemonwood, camarón, palo camarón, surr,a) Calycophyllum candidissium (LA)
Determa (red louro, wana, wane, grignon rouge) Ocotea rubra (LA)
Ebony, East Indian (kaya malam, kaya arang) Diospyros ebenum (As)
Ebony, African (mgiriti, msindi, omenowa) Diospyros spp. (Af)
Gmelina (gumhar, yemane) Gmelina arborea (As)
Goncalo alves (palo de cera, palo de culebra) Astronium graveolens (LA)
Greenheart (demerara greenheart, bibiru) Ocotea rodiaei (LA)
Hura (possumwood, arbol del diablo, haba) Hura crepitans (LA)
llomba (gboyei, qualele, walele, otie, akomu) Pycanthus angolensis (Af)
Imbuia (Brazilian walnut, canella imbuia) Phoebe porosa (LA)
Ipe (bethabara, lapacho, amapa, cortez) Tabebuia spp. (lapacho group) (LA)
lroko (semli, odoum, rokko, oroko, abang) Chlorophora excelsa and regia (Af)
Jarrah Eucalyptus marginata (As)
Jelutong (jelutong bukit) Dyera costulate (As)
Kapur (keladan, kapoer, Borneo camphorwood) Drybalanops spp. (As)
Karri Eucalyptus diversicolor (As)
Kempas (impas, mengris) Koompassia malaccensis (As)
Keruing (apitong, eng, in, yang, heng, keroeing) Dipterocarpus spp. (As)
Lauan, red, light red, and white (maranti) Shorea spp. (As)
Lignumvitae (guayacán, palo santo) Guaiacum spp. (LA)
Limba (afara, ofram, fraké, akom, korina) Terminalia superba (Af)
Mahogany, African Khaya spp. (Af)
Mahogany, true (Honduras mahogany. caoba) Swietenia macrophylla (LA)
Manni (chewstick, barillo, cerillo, machare) Symphonia globulifera (LA)
Merbau (ipil, tat-talun, lumpha, lumpho, kwila) lntsia bijuga and palembanica (As)
Mersawa (palosapis, pengiran) Anisoptera spp. (As)
Mora (nato, nato rojo, mora de Guayana) Mora spp. (LA)
Obeche (arere, samba, ayous, wawa, abachi) Triplochiton scleroxylon (Af)
Ocote pine (pino, ocote) Pinus oocarpa (LA)
Okoume (gaboon, angouma, moukoumi, N’Koumi) Aucoumea klaineana (Af)
Opepe (kusia, badi, bilinga, akondoc, kilingi) Nauclea spp. (Af)
Parana pine (pinheiro do paraná) Araucaria angustifolia (LA)
Pau Marfim (marfim, pau liso, guatambú) Balfourodendron riedelianum (LA)
Peroba de campos (white peroba, ipe peroba) Paratecoma peroba (LA)
Peroba rosa (amarello, amargoso, ibira-romí) Aspidosperma spp. (LA)
Primavera (duranga, San Juan, palo blanca) Cybistax donnell-smithii (LA)
Purpleheart (amaranth, palo morado, morado) Peltogyne spp. (LA)
Ramin (melawis, garu buaja, lanutan-bagio) Gonystylus spp. (As)
Roble (encino, oak, ahuati, cucharillo) Quercus spp. (LA)
Roble (mayflower, amapa, roble blanco) Tabebuia spp. Roble group (LA)
Rosewood, Indian (shisham) Dalbergia latifolia (As)
Rosewood, Brazilian (jacarandá) Dalbergia nigra (LA)
Rubberwood (árbol de caucho, sibi-sibi) Hevea brasilliensis (LA, As)
Sande (cow-tree, mastate, avichuri) Brosimum spp. Utile group (LA)
Santa Maria (jacareuba, barí) Calophyllum brasiliense (LA)
Sapele (aboudikro, penkwa, muyovu) Entandrophragma cylindricum (Af)
Sepetir (sindur, supa, kayu galu, makata) Pseudosindora and Sindora spp. (As)
Spanish cedar (cedro, acajou rouge) Cedrela spp. (LA)
Sucupira (alcornoque, sapupira) Bowdichia spp. (LA)
Sucupira (botonallare, peonía, tatabu) Diplotropis purpurea (LA)
Teak (kyun, teck, teca) Tectona grandis (As]
Wallaba (palo machete, bijlhout, wapa, apá) Eperua spp. (LA)
1
Additional common names are listed in Chudnoff (1984).
2
Af is Africa; As, Asia and Oceania; and LA, Latin America.

20
Table 1-3—Standard hardwood cutting grades1

21
Table 1-4—Standard thickness for rough and surfaced (S2S) hardwood lumber

Nominal rough thickness (in) S2S thickness (in) Nominal rough thickness (in) S2S thickness (in)

Table 1-5—Average moisture content of green wood

Moisture content’ (percent) Moisture content’ (percent)

Mixed Mixed
heartwood heartwood
Heart- Sap- and Heart- Sap- and
Species wood wood sapwood Species wood wood sapwood

1
Based on ovendry weight.

22
Table 1-6—Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content at various dry-bulb temperatures and wet-bulb depressions
below 212°F.

Dry-bulb Relative humidity’ and equilibrium moisture content2 (%) at various

temper- wet-bulb depression temperatures (°F)
ature
(°F) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

23
Table 1-6—Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content at various dry-bulb
temperatures and wet-bulb depressions below 212°F—continued

Dry-bulb Relative humidity1 and equilibrium moisture content2 (%) at various

temper- wet-bulb depression temperatures (°F)
ature
(°F) 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 45 50

24
Table 1-6—Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content at various dry-bulb temperatures and wet-bulb depressions
below 212°F—continued

Dry-bulb Relative humidity1 and equilibrium moisture content2 (%) at various

temper- wet-bulb depression temperature (°F)
ature
(°F) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

25
Table 1-6—Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content at various dry-bulb temperatures
and wet-bulb depressions below 212°F—concluded

Dry-bulb Relative humidity1 and equilibrium moisture content 2

(%) at various
temper- wet-bulb depression temperatures (°F)
ature
(°F) 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 45 50

1
Relativehumidity values not italic.
2
Equilibrium moisture content values italic.

26
Table 1-7—Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content at various dry-bulb temperatures and
wet-bulb depressions above 212°F.

Dry-bulb Relative humidity1 and equilibrium moisture content2 (%) at various

temper- wet-bulb depression temperatures (°F)
ature
(°F) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

27
Table 1-7—Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content at various dry-bulb temperatures and
wet-bulb depressions above 212o F—concluded

Dry-bulb Relative humidity1 and equilibrium moisture content2 (%) at various

temper- wet-bulb depression temperatures (°F)
ature
(°F) 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80

28
Table 1-8—Specific gravity of wood

Average Average
specific specific
Species gravity Species gravity’

SOFTWOODS HARDWOODS—continued

29
Table 1-8—Specific gravity of wood-concluded

Average Average
specific specific
Species gravity1 Species gravity1

IMPORTED 2 IMPORTED2—continued

30
Table 1-9—Calculated weights of wood per thousand board feet actual measure

Approximate
correction factor
per 1,000 board feet
for each 1 percent
moisture content change

Below Above
30 percent 30 percent Weight (lb) per 1,000 actual board feet of various moisture content levels
moisture moisture
Species content content 6% 15% 25% 40% 60% 80%

SOFTWOODS

31
Table 1-9—Calculated weights of wood per thousand board feet actual measure-continued

Approximate
correction factor
per 1,000 board feet
for each 1 percent
moisture content change

Below Above
30 percent 30 percent Weight (lb) per 1,000 actual board feet of various moisture content levels
moisture moisture
Species content content. 8% 15% 25% 40% 60% 80%

HARDWOODS—continued

32
Table 1-9—Calculated weights of wood per thousand board feet actual measure—continued

Approximate
correction factor
per 1,000 board feet
for each 1 percent
moisture content change

Below Above
30 percent 30 percent Weight (lb) per 1,000 actual board feet of various moisture content levels
moisture moisture
Species content content 6% 15% 25% 40% 60% 80%

HARDWOODS—continued

33
Table 1-9—Calculated weights of wood per thousand board feet actual measure—concluded

Approximate
correction factor
per 1,000 board feet
for each 1 percent
moisture content change

Below Above
30 percent 30 percent Weight (lb) per 1,000 actual board feet of various moisture content levels
moisture moisture
Species content content 6% 15% 25% 40% 60% 80%

IMPORTED—continued

34
Table 1-10—Shrinkage values of wood, based on its dimensions when green

Shrinkage (percent)

Dried to 20-percent Dried to 6-percent Dried to 0-percent

moisture content1 moisture content2 moisture content

Species Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Volumetric

SOFTWOODS

35
Table 1-10—Shrinkage values of wood, based on its dimensions when green—continued

Shrinkage (percent)

Dried to 20-percent Dried to 6-percent Dried to 0-percent

moisture content1 moisture content2 moisture content

Species Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Volumetric

HARDWOODS—continued

36
Table 1-10—Shrinkage values of wood, based on its dimensions when green—continued

Shrinkage (percent)

Dried to 20-percent Dried to 6-percent Dried to 0-percent

moisture content1 moisture content2 moisture content

Species Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Volumetric

37
Table 1-10—Shrinkage values of wood, based on its dimensions when green-concluded

Shrinkage (percent)

Dried to 20-percent Dried to 6-percent Dried to O-percent

moisture content1 moisture content2 moisture content

Species Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Radial Tangential Volumetric

IMPORTED—continued

Table 1-11—Average electrical resistance along the grain, for selected species, as measured at 80°F between two pairs of needle
electrodes 1-1/4 inches apart and driven to a depth of 5/16 inch

Electrical resistance (megohms) at different levels of moisture content (percent)

Species 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

38
Appendix— (Hawkins 1978). By writing energy and mass balances
Equations for Relating for the process of adiabatic saturation
Temperature, Humidity,
and Moisture Content (1)

In this appendix, we present a series of equations that

relate wet- and dry-bulb temperatures to specific and where
relative humidities, and equations that relate EMC to
relative humidity (RH) and temperature. A psychro- Y is specific humidity (lb water/lb dry air),
metric chart and an example of how to calculate spe-
Y s specific humidity for saturation at Ts (lb water/lb
cific and relative humidities are included.
dry air),

Wet-bulb Temperature and Tdb dry-bulb temperature (°F),

Relative Humidity T s adiabatic saturation temperature (°F),

When unsaturated air is brought in contact with wa-

and
ter, the air is humidified and cooled. If the system is
operated so that no heat is gained or lost to the sur-
roundings, the process is adiabatic. Thus, if the wa-
ter remains at constant temperature, the latent heat of (2)
evaporation must equal the sensible heat released by
the air in cooling. If the temperature reached by the
air when it becomes saturated is the same as the water where
temperature, this temperature is called adiabatic sat-
uration temperature or the thermodynamic wet-bulb ρS is vapor pressure at Ts (inHg) and
temperature.
ρt total pressure (inHg).
When unsaturated air is passed over a wetted ther-
mometer bulb, so that water evaporates from the wet- To calculate relative vapor pressure at Tdb, it is neces-
ted surface and causes the thermometer bulb to cool, sary to calculate partial pressure ρ at Tdb as follows:
an equilibrium temperature (called the true wet-bulb
temperature) is reached. At this point, the rate of heat
transfer from the wetted surface is equal to the rate at (3)
which the wetted surface loses heat in the form of la-
tent heat of evaporation. The thermodynamic wet-bulb
and true wet-bulb temperatures are not necessarily and relative vapor pressure h is
equal, but in the range of 215°F to 300°F the differ-
ence between these temperatures is negligible. Thus,
the RH values based on the difference between the dry- (4)
bulb temperature and the thermodynamic wet-bulb
temperature do not differ significantly from RH values
based on the difference between the dry-bulb tempera-
ture and the true wet-bulb temperature. The maximum where ρ* is saturated vapor pressure at Tdb (inHg).
difference is 0.54 percent RH; on the average, the differ-
ence is +0.25 percent RH. The RH is then defined as

Relative humidity can be calculated from the adiabatic

saturation temperature by the following procedure RH = h × 100 (5)

Example: Given Tdb = 140°F, Ts = 120°F, and

ρt = 29.92 inHg, calculate the specific and relative
humidities.

39
 Step 1: Find the specific humidity at Y s from equation Relative Humidity and
(2). To do this we need to know the ρs of water at Ts. Equilibrium Moisture Content
From table 1-A-1, ρs at 120°F is 3.446 inHg.
The EMC and RH temperature relationships of tables
Thus, from equation (2) 1-6 and 1-7 can be expressed in equation form, which
is sometimes more convenient than table form. Useful
equations can be derived from theories for the adsorp-
tion of water on hygroscopic materials. One such equa-
tion that works particularly well is
Step 2: Calculate Y at Tdb = 140°F. From
equation (1)

where
M is moisture content (percent),
h relative vapor pressure, and

Step 3: Calculate ρ at the dry-bulb temperature from (7)

equation (3). (8)
(9)
(10)

Equations (6) to (10) represent least squares regres-

Step 4: To calculate relative vapor pressure h at the sion fits of the data in tables 1-6 and 1-7. As such,
dry-bulb temperature, we need to know the saturated they give estimates close to but not exactly the same
vapor pressure ρ* at Tdb. From table 1-A-1, ρ* at as those in the tables. For example, the EMC at
Tdb = 140°F is 5.881 inHg. From equation (4) Tdb = 140°F and Ts = 120°F from table 1-6 is 8.0
percent. From equations (6) to (10), the EMC is 8.4
percent at 55.1 percent RH.

40
Figure 1-A-1—Psychrometric chart. (ML88 5580) Figure 1-A-2—Lines of constant equilibrium moisture
content. (ML88 5577)

Psychrometric Charts

Psychrometric charts are another useful way to repre-

sent wet- and dry-bulb temperatures and absolute and
relative humidities. Figure 1-A-1 is a typical psychro-
metric chart showing the relationship between these
four variables. Using the example Tdb = 140°F and
T s = 120°F, the specific humidity at the intersection
of these two temperature lines is approximately 0.075
lb/lb and the RH, 55 percent. Figure 1-A-2 shows the
relationship between wet- and dry-bulb temperatures
and EMC. At the intersection of 140°F dry-bulb tem-
perature and 120°F wet-bulb temperature, the EMC is
8 percent.

41