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2 INTRODUCTION
In valuing and assessing the financial health of any company, various types of analyses are necessary to develop a competent report and conclusion, whether it is digging into the qualitative aspects of a company, or the quantitative. With the quantitative, it considers examining the measurable dynamics of a company. How we pull out the quantitative aspect will come largely from calculations using the items on a companys financial statements (i.e. income statement, balance sheet, statement of cash flows). As you probably know, the majority of the ratios calculated in this tutorial will be looking at items from a financial statement and understanding the relationship between them. Like any research, quantitative analysis will produce excellent results when combined with other methods and techniques in studying a company.

1.2.1 Meaning of Ratios

While ratios can tell us much about a company, it is important to note that ratios are most effective when analyzing a ratios trend or when comparing a ratio against its competitors. Understanding the companys history and environment is key in determining its health, value, and future potential. It is also important to note how the ratio is changing. For example, take the P/E ratio, which is the stock price divided by earnings of the company. Essentially, this tells us how much investors are willing to pay for Rs1 of earnings the company generates. If the P/E ratio falls, it may be due to two possible factors: 1) The stock price falls, which generally is probably not a good thing, or 2) earnings are up, and the stock price simply hasnt compensated for this change yet, which is a good thing. There are many sources that will give you a comprehensive listing of financial statements and historical pricing to calculate these ratios. For example, the Trading Room employs the use of Reuters that will give you up to 20 years worth of financial statements, along with Fact Set that can give you up to 10 years worth of historical prices for a company.

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1.2.2 Meaning of Ratio Analysis

Ratio analysis is a key dimension of financial management, suggesting a relationship between profit and loss as mentioned in the balance sheet of an organization. Its appropriate use will go toward giving a true picture of the financial health of the unit. Its benefits can be seen in areas of management, production, marketing, personnel management etc. An enterprise keeps fit by ensuring that inter alia, its various financial proportions are feasible. The absolute accounting figures reported in the financial statements do not provide a meaningful understand of the performance and the financial position of a aim. These figures convey effective meaning when it is related to some other relevant information. In assessing the financial stability of a firm, a management should, apart from profitability, be interested in relative figures rather than in absolute figures. In fact, an analysis of financial statements is possible only when figures are expressed as percentages or ratios. The Latin word ratio stands for reason. In English ratio stands for the relationship. Ratio analysis is defined to mean the establishment of reasoned relationship of a fixed variable character between measurements of certain phenomenon having some kind of linkage. A ratio shows the arithmetical relationship between two figures. Thus we can say that the ratio of gross profit to sale is 1:4 or 25% (stated as percentage) or 25. It is obvious that absolute figures do not convey much. Thus if we say that Co. A made a profit of Rs. 50,000 and Co. B a profit of Rs. 60,000 we cannot automatically conclude that Co. B is more profitable. If we say that Co. A has made a profit of Rs. 50,000 against Rs. 5, 00,000 employed as capital, it can be concluded that Co. A is more profitable since its net profit to capital employed ratio is 10% as against % of B. rations show the relationship between the relevant figures. With their help, we can reach useful conclusions about the performance and financial health of a company. It goes without saying that ratios should be worked out on the basis of figures which are significantly related will be meaningless but that of total debtors to credit sales definitely is. It will be no use establishing ration ratio between figures, which do not influence one other. It has been suggested by some accounts that in

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the arrangements of ratios properly, the more desirable item should be divided by the one that is less desirable so that any favorable change reflects itself by an increase in the ratio. For example it is more desirable to have more current assets than current liabilities; hence current assets should be divided by current liabilities. This suggestion, however, is not universally accepted. Consequently, there is lack of uniformity in the expression of results; while discussing the ratios, along with name of each ratio, the formula for the ratios also need to be stated.

Nature and Conditions of Applicability for Inter-firm and Intra-firm Comparison

Accounting ratio may be employed to analyze and for analyzing and comparing the working results of a concern for a year with that of another and also determining the efficiency of the employment of capital by comparing amounts of its capital, assets, liabilities and sales with those of another concern in the same industry. Internal comparison provided the conditions of working remain substantially the same from one period to another, can be helpful in determining the trends of the business the same industry. Internal comparison provided the conditions of working remain substantially the same from one period to another, can be helpful in determining the trends of the business and analyzing factors which may have contributed either to a rise or fall in its sales or that of gross profit. Inter-firm comparison, i.e., between firms in the same industry, also can be very instructive to the management in as much as the examination of ratios in different industries may illustrate:

(1) Different methods of trading followed by them. (2) Different uses or sources of capital. (3) Different policies followed by different concerns retain their uniformity.

The definition of terms have been agreed upon beforehand and accounting statements drawn up in a manner that comparable figures comparison based on accounting ratios is to ascertain significant variation in the rate of earnings or the financial structure that may
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exist between one unit and another in the same industry, so that any weakness revealed there by may be remedied. But such a comparison would be valid only if the firms are of a similar size, carrying on a similar business and situated in localities, which afford almost identical facilities for carrying on the business. In the case of firms engaged in diverse activities, a purposive comparison is practicable only if their total figures are broken down to arrive at arrive at separate figures as regards the different activities of the firm. These ratios are a very sensitive tool. As such, to get at a correct indication, which may serve as a useful guide for the determination of future policies, there must exist a high degree of comparison, the conditions under which the firm was working during different periods of time should be identical. To make the comparison as informative as possible, the firms within an industrial group should be classified as those showing the highest, lowest and average returns on capital employed as compared to fixed assets and a similar policy should be followed in regard to quantities of stocks, stores and work-in-progress held. An intra-firm comparison of financial results of different units in the same industry can be made even by establishing a standard ratio. The method is based on the broad principle that for every industry, there are certain characteristic financial and operating ratio, and depending upon the nature of its activities, the standards where, of can be set up by averaging the rations several concerns in the industry. For example, if the gross profit rations and some of the expense rations of several sugar mills in an area are averaged, the average rations would provide the standards that each mill must approximate to enjoy an average measure of success.

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1.2.3Advantages of Ratio analysis

To workout the profitability: Accounting ratio help to measure the profitability of the business by calculating the various profitability ratios. It helps the management to know about the earning capacity of the business concern. In this way profitability ratios show the actual performance of the business. To workout the solvency: With the help of solvency ratios, solvency of the company can be measured. These ratios show the relationship between the liabilities and assets. In case external liabilities are more than that of the assets of the company, it shows the unsound position of the business. In this case the business has to make it possible to repay its loans. Helpful in analysis of financial statement: Ratio analysis help the outsiders just like creditors, shareholders, debenture-holders, bankers to know about the profitability and ability of the company to pay them interest and dividend etc. Helpful in comparative analysis of the performance: With the help of ratio analysis a company may have comparative study of its performance to the previous years. In this way company comes to know about its weak point and be able to improve them. To simplify the accounting information: Accounting ratios are very useful as they briefly summaries the result of detailed and complicated computations. To workout the operating efficiency: Ratio analysis helps to workout the operating efficiency of the company with the help of various turnover ratios. All turnover ratios are worked out to evaluate the performance of the business in utilizing the resources. To workout short-term financial position: Ratio analysis helps to workout the short-term financial position of the company with the help of liquidity ratios. In case short-term financial position is not healthy efforts are made to improve it.

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Helpful for forecasting purposes: Accounting ratios indicate the trend of the business. The trend is useful for estimating future. With the help of previous years ratios, estimates for future can be made. In this way these ratios provide the basis for preparing budgets and also determine future line of action. Helpful in decision making. The process of producing financial ratios is concerned with the Identification of the significant accounting data relationships, which give the decisionmakers insights into the company being assessed ratio analysis involves a study of the total financial picture. By basing conclusions upon a thorough understanding of the important of each ratio, the analyst can recommend and indicate positive action with confidence. Predict company failure: One of the most fruitful areas for use of traditional financial ratio seems to be that of predicting company failures.

Helpful to top management:. There is certain priority ratio for the chief executives in to the key areas, which are common to nearly all business and with which the top management is seriously concerned with. These priority ratios enable chief executives to understand the relationship between his organization, at one end, and the market, investors, suppliers and employees, at the other. He is also in a position to watch how well the organization is using its assets and how well it is providing for the future.

Helpful to managers: There are ratios, which help the marketing manager, the purchase manager, the financial manager and others representing the middle management to know what the positions are like and how to find a way out in typical situations from time to time.

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1.2.4 Limitation of Ratio Analysis

Limited Comparability: Different firms apply different accounting policies. Therefore the ratio of one firm can not always be compared with the ratio of other firm. Some firms may value the closing stock on LIFO basis while some other firms may value on FIFO basis. Similarly there may be difference in providing depreciation of fixed assets or certain of provision for doubtful debts etc. False Results: Accounting ratios are based on data drawn from accounting records. In case that data is correct, then only the ratios will be correct. For example, valuation of stock is based on very high price, the profits of the concern will be inflated and it will indicate a wrong financial position. The data therefore must be absolutely correct. Effect of Price Level Changes: Price level changes often make the comparison of figures difficult over a period of time. Changes in price affect the cost of production, sales and also the value of assets. Therefore, it is necessary to make proper adjustment for price-level changes before any comparison. Qualitative factors are ignored: Ratio analysis is a technique of quantitative analysis and thus, ignores qualitative factors, which may be important in decision making. For example, average collection period may be equal to standard credit period, but some debtors may be in the list of doubtful debts, which is not disclosed by ratio analysis. Effect of window-dressing: In order to cover up their bad financial position some companies resort to window dressing. They may record the accounting data according to the convenience to show the financial position of the company in a better way. Costly Technique: Ratio analysis is a costly technique and can be used by big business houses. Small business units are not able to afford it. Misleading Results: In the absence of absolute data, the result may be misleading. For example, the gross profit of two firms is 25%. Whereas the profit earned by one is just Rs. 5,000 and sales are Rs. 20,000 and profit earned by the other one is Rs. 10, 00,000 and sales
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are Rs. 40, 00,000. Even the profitability of the two firms is same but the magnitude of their business is quite different. Absence of standard university accepted terminology: There are no standard ratios, which are universally accepted for comparison purposes. As such, the significance of ratio analysis technique is reduced. Does not represent actual position: The valuation contained in the final statements does not represent the actual position because it is based on the assumption that the financial statement presents a reasonable picture of what is happening in the business. The information relates only to a particular period of what and cannot be relied upon excessively. The ratio refers to past events and may not represent the present or future events.

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1.2.5

TYP ES O F RATIO S

Broadly speaking, the operations and financial position of the firm can be described by studying its short term and long-term liquidity position, profitability and its operational activities. Therefore, ratios can be classified into following four broad categories: -

Li qui di t y Rat i os . ( Shor t -t er m Sol ve ncy r at i os) Capi t al St ruct ure Rat i os . ( Lever age r at i os) Act i vi t y Rat i os. ( T ur nover or Per f ormance r at i os) P rof i t abil i t y Rat i os.

Liquidity Ratios
Liquidity ratios also referred to as solvency ratios, show the ability of to meet financial obligations over the short-term. These ratios help you assess the organizations ability to meet such near-term obligations as accounts payable, or to maintain regular operations, with current assets that will become available in the near future (typically within one year). These ratios give information on the adequacy of unrestricted cash for seeding new community development projects, bridging cash shortfalls, and providing collateral for loans.

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(a) Current ratio may be defined as the relationship between current assets and current liabilities. This ratio is also known as "working capital ratio". It is a measure of general liquidity and is most widely used to make the analysis for short term financial position or liquidity of a firm. It is calculated by dividing the total of the current assets by total of the current liabilities. Formula: Following formula is used to calculate current ratio: [Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities Components: The two basic components of this ratio are current assets and current liabilities. Current assets include cash and those assets which can be easily converted into cash within a short period of time, generally, one year, such as marketable securities or readily realizable investments, bills receivables, sundry debtors, (excluding bad debts or provisions), inventories, work in progress, etc. Prepaid expenses should also be included in current assets because they represent payments made in advance which will not have to be paid in near future. Current liabilities are those obligations which are payable within a short period of tie generally one year and include outstanding expenses, bills payable, sundry creditors, bank overdraft, accrued expenses, short term advances, income tax payable, dividend payable, etc. However, some times a controversy arises that whether overdraft should be regarded as current liability or not. Often an arrangement with a bank may be regarded as permanent and therefore, it may be treated as long term liability. At the same time the fact remains that the overdraft facility may be cancelled at any time. Accordingly, because of this reason and the need for conversion in interpreting a situation, it seems advisable to include overdrafts in current liabilities.

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Significance: This ratio is a general and quick measure of liquidity of a firm. It represents the margin of safety or cushion available to the creditors. It is an index of the firms financial stability. It is also an index of technical solvency and an index of the strength of working capital. . A ratio equal to or near 2 : 1 is considered as a standard or normal or satisfactory. (b) Quick ratio is also termed as "Liquidity Ratio", Acid Test Ratio" . It is the ratio of liquid assets to current liabilities. The true liquidity refers to the ability of a firm to pay its short term obligations as and when they become due. Components: The two components of liquid ratio (acid test ratio or quick ratio) are liquid assets and liquid liabilities. Liquid assets normally include cash, bank, sundry debtors, bills receivable and marketable securities or temporary investments. In other words they are current assets minus inventories (stock) and prepaid expenses. Inventories cannot be termed as liquid assets because it cannot be converted into cash immediately without a loss of value. In the same manner, prepaid expenses are also excluded from the list of liquid assets because they are not expected to be converted into cash. Similarly, Liquid liabilities means current liabilities i.e., sundry creditors, bills payable, outstanding expenses, short term advances, income tax payable, dividends payable, and bank overdraft (only if payable on demand). Some time bank overdraft is not included in current liabilities, on the argument that bank overdraft is generally permanent way of financing and is not subject to be called on demand. In such cases overdraft will be excluded from current liabilities. Formula of Liquidity Ratio: [Liquid Ratio = Liquid Assets / Current Liabilities]

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Significance: The quick ratio/acid test ratio is very useful in measuring the liquidity position of a firm. It measures the firm's capacity to pay off current obligations immediately and is more rigorous test of liquidity than the current ratio. As a convention, generally, a quick ratio of "one to one" (1:1) is considered to be satisfactory. (c) Absolute liquidity is represented by cash and near cash items. It is a ratio of absolute liquid assets to current liabilities. In the computation of this ratio only the absolute liquid assets are compared with the liquid liabilities. The absolute liquid assets are cash, bank and marketable securities. It is to be observed that receivables (debtors/accounts receivables and bills receivables) are eliminated from the list of liquid assets in order to obtain absolute4 liquid assets since there may be some doubt in their liquidity. Formula of Absolute Liquid Ratio: [Absolute Liquid Ratio = Absolute Liquid Assets / Current Assets] Significance: This ratio gains much significance only when it is used in conjunction with the current and liquid ratios. A standard of 0.5 : 1 absolute liquidity ratio is considered an acceptable norm. That is, from the point of view of absolute liquidity, fifty cents worth of absolute liquid assets are considered sufficient for one dollar worth of liquid liabilities. However, this ratio is not in much use.

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 Activity Ratio: Activity or turnover Ratios measures the effectiveness with which a
concern uses resources at its disposal. These ratios are employed to evaluate the efficiency with which the firm manages and utilizes its assets. (a) Stock turn over ratio and inventory turn over ratio are the same. This ratio is a relationship between the cost of goods sold during a particular period of time and the cost of average inventory during a particular period. It is expressed in number of times. Stock turn over ratio / Inventory turn over ratio indicates the number of time the stock has been turned over during the period and evaluates the efficiency with which a firm is able to manage its inventory. This ratio indicates whether investment in stock is within proper limit or not Components of the Ratio: Average inventory and cost of goods sold are the two elements of this ratio. Average inventory is calculated by adding the stock in the beginning and at the and of the period and dividing it by two. In case of monthly balances of stock, all the monthly balances are added and the total is divided by the number of months for which the average is calculated. Formula of Stock Turnover/Inventory Turnover Ratio: The ratio is calculated by dividing the cost of goods sold by the amount of average stock at cost.

(i) [Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of goods sold / Average stock at cost]

Generally, the cost of goods sold may not be known from the published financial statements. In such case, the inventory turnover ratio may be calculated by dividing net sales by average inventory at cost. If average inventory at cost is not known then inventory at selling price may be taken as the denominator and where the opening inventory is also not known the close inventory figure may be taken as the average inventory.
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(ii) [Inventory Turnover Ratio = Net Sales / Average Inventory at Cost] (iii) [Inventory Turnover Ratio = Net Sales /Average stock at Selling Price] (iv) [Inventory Turnover Ratio = Net Sales / Inventory] .

Significance of ITR Inventory turnover ratio measures the velocity of conversion of stock into sales. Usually a high inventory turnover/stock velocity indicates efficient management of inventory because more frequently the stocks are sold, the lesser amount of money is required to finance the inventory. A low inventory turnover ratio indicates an inefficient management of inventory (b) Debtors turnover ratio or accounts receivable turnover ratio indicates the velocity of debt collection of a firm. In simple words it indicates the number of times average debtors (receivable) are turned over during a year. Formula of Debtors Turnover Ratio: [Debtors Turnover Ratio = Net Credit Sales / Average Trade Debtors] The two basic components of accounts receivable turnover ratio are net credit annual sales and average trade debtors. The trade debtors for the purpose of this ratio include the amount of Trade Debtors & Bills Receivables. The average receivables are found by adding the opening receivables and closing balance of receivables and dividing the total by two. It should be noted that provision for bad and doubtful debts should not be deducted since this may give an impression that some amount of receivables has been collected. But when the information about opening and closing balances of trade debtors and credit sales is not available, then the debtors turnover ratio can be calculated by dividing the total

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sales by the balance of debtors (inclusive of bills receivables) given. and formula can be written as follows. [Debtors Turnover Ratio = Total Sales / Debtors] Significance of the Ratio: Accounts receivable turnover ratio or debtors turnover ratio indicates the number of times the debtors are turned over a year. The higher the value of debtors turnover the more efficient is the management of debtors or more liquid the debtors are. Similarly, low debtors turnover ratio implies inefficient management of debtors or less liquid debtors. It is the reliable measure of the time of cash flow from credit sales. There is no rule of thumb which may be used as a norm to interpret the ratio as it may be different from firm to firm. (c) Creditor turnover ratio: This ratio is similar to the debtors turnover ratio. It compares creditors with the total credit purchases. It signifies the credit period enjoyed by the firm in paying creditors. Accounts payable include both sundry creditors and bills payable. Same as debtors turnover ratio, creditors turnover ratio can be calculated in two forms, creditors turnover ratio and average payment period. Formula: Following formula is used to calculate creditors turnover ratio: [Creditors Turnover Ratio = Credit Purchase / Average Trade Creditors] Significance of the Ratio: The average payment period ratio represents the number of days by the firm to pay its creditors. A high creditors turnover ratio or a lower credit period ratio signifies that the creditors are being paid promptly. This situation enhances the credit worthiness of the company. However a very favorable ratio to this effect also shows that the business is not taking the full advantage of credit facilities allowed by the creditors.

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(d) Working capital turnover ratio indicates the velocity of the utilization of net working capital. This ratio represents the number of times the working capital is turned over in the course of year and is calculated as follows: Formula of Working Capital Turnover Ratio: Following formula is used to calculate working capital turnover ratio [Working Capital Turnover Ratio = Cost of Sales / Net Working Capital] The two components of the ratio are cost of sales and the net working capital. If the information about cost of sales is not available the figure of sales may be taken as the numerator. Net working capital is found by deduction from the total of the current assets the total of the current liabilities. Significance: The working capital turnover ratio measures the efficiency with which the working capital is being used by a firm. A high ratio indicates efficient utilization of working capital and a low ratio indicates otherwise. But a very high working capital turnover ratio may also mean lack of sufficient working capital which is not a good situation. (e) Fixed assets turnover ratio is also known as sales to fixed assets ratio. This ratio measures the efficiency and profit earning capacity of the concern. Higher the ratio, greater is the intensive utilization of fixed assets. Lower ratio means under-utilization of fixed assets. The ratio is calculated by using following formula: Formula of Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio: Fixed assets turnover ratio turnover ratio is calculated by the following formula: Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = Cost of Sales / Net Fixed Assets

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 PROFITABILITY RATIOS:

Profit as compared to the capital employed is measured as the profitability of concern. Thus the profitability ratios are those ratios which measure the overall efficiency of the firm. (a) Gross profit ratio (GP ratio) is the ratio of gross profit to net sales expressed as a percentage. It expresses the relationship between gross profit and sales. Components: The basic components of the calculation of gross profit ratio are gross profit and net sales. Net sales mean that sale minus sales returns. Gross profit would be the difference between net sales and cost of goods sold. Cost of goods sold in the case of a trading concern would be equal to opening stock plus purchases, minus closing stock plus all direct expenses relating to purchases. In the case of manufacturing concern, it would be equal to the sum of the cost of raw materials, wages, direct expenses and all manufacturing expenses. In other words, generally the expenses charged to profit and loss account or operating expenses are excluded from the calculation of cost of goods sold. Formula: Following formula is used to calculate gross profit ratios: [Gross Profit Ratio = (Gross profit / Net sales) 100] Significance: Gross profit ratio may be indicated to what extent the selling prices of goods per unit may be reduced without incurring losses on operations. It reflects efficiency with which a firm produces its products. As the gross profit is found by deducting cost of goods sold from net sales, higher the gross profit better it is. There is no standard GP ratio for evaluation.

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(b) Net profit ratio is the ratio of net profit (after taxes) to net sales. It is expressed as percentage. Components of net profit ratio: The two basic components of the net profit ratio are the net profit and sales. The net profits are obtained after deducting income-tax and, generally, non-operating expenses and incomes are excluded from the net profits for calculating this ratio. Thus, incomes such as interest on investments outside the business, profit on sales of fixed assets and losses on sales of fixed assets, etc are excluded. Formula: [Net Profit Ratio = (Net profit / Net sales) 100] Significance: NP ratio is used to measure the overall profitability and hence it is very useful to proprietors. The ratio is very useful as if the net profit is not sufficient, the firm shall not be able to achieve a satisfactory return on its investment. This ratio also indicates the firm's capacity to face adverse economic conditions such as price competition, low demand, etc. Obviously, higher the ratio the better is the profitability. But while interpreting the ratio it should be kept in mind that the performance of profits also be seen in relation to investments or capital of the firm and not only in relation to sales. (c) Return on Shareholders Investment or Net worth Ratio: It is the ratio of net profit to share holder's investment. It is the relationship between net profit (after interest and tax) and share holder's/proprietor's fund. This ratio establishes the profitability from the share holders' point of view. The ratio is generally calculated in percentage. Components: The two basic components of this ratio are net profits and shareholder's funds. Shareholder's funds include equity share capital, (preference share capital) and all reserves
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and surplus belonging to shareholders. Net profit means net income after payment of interest and income tax because those will be the only profits available for share holders. Formula of return on shareholder's investment or net worth Ratio: [Return on share holder's investment = {Net profit (after interest and tax) / Share holder's fund} 100] Significance: This ratio is one of the most important ratios used for measuring the overall efficiency of a firm. As the primary objective of business is to maximize its earnings, this ratio indicates the extent to which this primary objective of businesses being achieved. This ratio is of great importance to the present and prospective shareholders as well as the management of the company. As the ratio reveals how well the resources of the firm are being used, higher the ratio, better are the results. The inter firm comparison of this ratio determines whether the investments in the firm are attractive or not as the investors would like to invest only where the return is higher. (d) Return on Equity Capital (ROEC) Ratio: n real sense, ordinary shareholders are the real owners of the company. They assume the highest risk in the company. (Preference share holders have a preference over ordinary shareholders in the payment of dividend as well as capital. Preference share holders get a fixed rate of dividend irrespective of the quantum of profits of the company). The rate of dividends varies with the availability of profits in case of ordinary shares only. Thus ordinary shareholders are more interested in the profitability of a company and the performance of a company should be judged on the basis of return on equity capital of the company. Return on equity capital which is the relationship between profits of a company and its equity can be calculated as follows:

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Formula of return on equity capital or common stock: Formula of return on equity capital ratio is:
Return on Equity Capital = [(Net profit after tax Preference dividend) / Equity share capital] 100

Components: Equity share capital should be the total called-up value of equity shares. As the profit used for the calculations are the final profits available to equity shareholders as dividend, therefore the preference dividend and taxes are deducted in order to arrive at such profits. Significance: This ratio is more meaningful to the equity shareholders who are interested to know profits earned by the company and those profits which can be made available to pay dividends to them. Interpretation of the ratio is similar to the interpretation of return on shareholder's investments and higher the ratio better is.

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 Leverage Ratio: Any ratio used to calculate the financial leverage of a company to get
an idea of the company's methods of financing or to measure its ability to meet financial obligations. There are several different ratios, but the main factors looked at include debt, equity, assets and interest expenses. A ratio used to measure a company's mix of operating costs, giving an idea of how changes in output will affect operating income. Fixed and variable costs are the two types of operating costs; depending on the company and the industry, the mix will differ. (a) Debt to Equity Ratio: Debt-to-Equity ratio indicates the relationship between the external equities or outsiders funds and the internal equities or shareholders funds. It is also known as external internal equity ratio. It is determined to ascertain soundness of the long term financial policies of the company. Formula of Debt to Equity Ratio: Following formula is used to calculate debt to equity ratio [Debt Equity Ratio = External Equities / Internal Equities] Or [Outsiders funds / Shareholders funds] Components: The two basic components of debt to equity ratio are outsiders funds i.e. external equities and share holders funds, i.e., internal equities. The outsiders funds include all debts / liabilities to outsiders, whether long term or short term or whether in the form of debentures, bonds, mortgages or bills. The shareholders funds consist of equity share capital, preference share capital, capital reserves, revenue reserves, and reserves representing accumulated profits and surpluses like reserves for contingencies, sinking funds, etc. The accumulated losses and deferred expenses, if any, should be deducted from the total to find out shareholder's funds. Some writers are of the view that current liabilities do not reflect long term commitments and they should be excluded from outsider's funds.
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There are some other writers who suggest that current liabilities should also be included in the outsider's funds to calculate debt equity ratio for the reason that like long term borrowings, current liabilities also represents firm's obligations to outsiders and they are an important determinant of risk. However, we advise that to calculate debt equity ratio current liabilities should be included in outsider's funds. The ratio calculated on the basis outsider's funds excluding liabilities may be termed as ratio of long-term debt to share holders funds. Significance of Debt to Equity Ratio: Debt to equity ratio indicates the proportionate claims of owners and the outsiders against the firms assets. The purpose is to get an idea of the cushion available to outsiders on the liquidation of the firm. A ratio of 1:1 is usually considered to be satisfactory ratio although there cannot be rule of thumb or standard norm for all types of businesses. Theoretically if the owners interests are greater than that of creditors, the financial position is highly solvent. In analysis of the long-term financial position it enjoys the same importance as the current ratio in the analysis of the short-term financial position.

(b) Proprietary Ratio or Equity Ratio: This is a variant of the debt-to-equity ratio. It is also known as equity ratio or net worth to total assets ratio. This ratio relates the shareholder's funds to total assets. Proprietary / Equity ratio indicates the long-term or future solvency position of the business. Formula of Proprietary/Equity Ratio: Proprietary or Equity Ratio = Shareholders funds / Total Assets Components: Shareholder's funds include equity share capital plus all reserves and surpluses items. Total assets include all assets, including Goodwill. Some authors exclude goodwill from total
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assets. In that case the total shareholder's funds are to be divided by total tangible assets. As the total assets are always equal to total liabilities. The total liabilities may also be used as the denominator in the above formula. Significance: This ratio throws light on the general financial strength of the company. It is also regarded as a test of the soundness of the capital structure. Higher the ratio or the share of shareholders in the total capital of the company, better is the long-term solvency position of the company. A low proprietary ratio will include greater risk to the creditors. (C) Fixed Assets to Proprietor's Fund Ratio: Fixed assets to proprietor's fund ratio establishes the relationship between fixed assets and shareholders funds. The purpose of this ratio is to indicate the percentage of the owner's funds invested in fixed assets. Formula: [Fixed Assets to Proprietors Fund = Fixed Assets / Proprietors Fund] The fixed assets are considered at their book value and the proprietor's funds consist of the same items as internal equities in the case of debt equity ratio. Significance: The ratio of fixed assets to net worth indicates the extent to which shareholder's funds are sunk into the fixed assets. Generally, the purchase of fixed assets should be financed by shareholder's equity including reserves, surpluses and retained earnings. If the ratio is less than 100%, it implies that owners funds are more than fixed assets and a part of the working capital is provided by the shareholders. When the ratio is more than the 100%, it implies that owners funds are not sufficient to finance the fixed assets and the firm has to depend upon outsiders to finance the fixed assets. There is no rule of thumb to interpret this ratio by 60 to 65 percent is considered to be a satisfactory ratio in case of industrial undertakings.
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(d) Current Assets to Proprietor's Fund Ratio: Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio establishes the relationship between current assets and shareholder's funds. The purpose of this ratio is to calculate the percentage of shareholders funds invested in current assets. Formula: [Current Assets to Proprietors Funds = Current Assets / Proprietor's Funds] Significance: Different industries have different norms and therefore, this ratio should be studied carefully taking the history of industrial concern into consideration before relying too much on this ratio.

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