Compressed Air System

Air Is Free !!!

Compressed Air Is Not Free !!!

 Approximately
10% gets to the
point of use!!

ƒ Compressed Air Efficiency:

ƒ60 to 80% of the power of the prime mover is converted into an
unusable form of energy (HEAT)
ƒAnd to a lesser extent, into friction, misuse and noise
A typical compressed air
system
Types of Air Compressors
There are three basic types of air compressors:
Reciprocating (Recip)
Rotary Screw (Screw)
Rotary Centrifugal (Centrifugal)

These types are further defined by:

the number of compression stages
method of cooling (air, water, oil)
drive method (motor, engine, steam, other)
how they are lubricated (oil, oil-free)
packaged or custom-built
 Positive-Displacement Compressors –
Reciprocating

A piston, driven through a crankshaft and connecting rod by

an electric motor reduces the volume in the cylinder occupied
by the air or gas, compressing it to a higher pressure.
Single-acting compressors have a compression stroke in only
one direction, while double-acting units provide a
compression stroke as the piston moves in each direction.
Large industrial reciprocating air compressors are double-
acting and water-cooled.
Multi-stage double-acting compressors are the most efficient
compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and
more costly than comparable rotary units.
Reciprocating compressors are available in sizes from less
than 1 hp to more than 600 hp.
Positive-Displacement Compressors -
Rotary compressors

Most commonly used in sizes from about 30-200 hp.

Most common type of rotary compressor is the helical
twin screw-type (also known as rotary screw or
helical lobe).
Male and female screw-rotors mesh, trapping air, and
reducing the volume of the air along the rotors to the
air discharge point.
Rotary screw compressors have low initial cost,
compact size, low weight, and are easy to maintain.
Rotary screw compressors are available in sizes from
3-600 hp and may be air- or water-cooled.
Less common rotary compressors include sliding-
vane, liquid-ring, and scroll-type.
 Dynamic Compressors -
centrifugal

These compressors raise the pressure of air or gas by

imparting velocity energy and converting it to
pressure energy.
The centrifugal-type is the most common and is
widely used for industrial compressed air. Each
impeller, rotating at high speed, imparts primarily
radial flow to the air or gas which then passes
through a volute or diffuser to convert the residual
velocity energy to pressure energy.
Some large manufacturing plants use centrifugal
compressors for general plant air, and, in some
cases, plants use other compressor types to
accommodate demand load swings while the
centrifugal compressors handle the base load.
 Dynamic Compressors –
Axial and mixed flow

Axial compressors consist of a rotor with multiple

rows of blades and a matching stator with rows of
stationary vanes. The rotating blades impart velocity
energy, primarily in an axial plane. The stationary
vanes then act as a diffuser to convert the residual
velocity energy into pressure energy.
This type of compressor is restricted to very high
flow capacities and generally has a relatively high
compression efficiency.
Mixed flow compressors have impellers and rotors
which combine the characteristics of both axial and
centrifugal compressors.
 General Selection Criteria
for Compressors

Capacity (m3/h) Pressure (bar)

Type of Compressor
From To From To
Roots power compressor 100 30000 0.1 1
single stage
Reciprocating
- Single / Two stage 100 12000 0.8 12
- Multi stage 100 12000 12.0 700
Screw
- Single stage 100 2400 0.8 13
- Two stage 100 2200 0.8 24
Centrifugal 600 300000 0.1 450
 SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Intake Air Filters : Prevent dust and atmospheric impurities from
entering compressor. Dust causes sticking valves, scored cylinders,
excessive wear etc.
Inter-stage Coolers : Reduce the temperature of the air (gas) before it
enters the next stage to reduce the work of compression and increase
efficiency. They can be water-or air-cooled.
After Coolers : Reduce the temperature of the discharge air, and
thereby reduce the moisture carrying capacity of air.
Air-dryers : Air dryers are used to remove moisture, as air for
instrument and pneumatic equipment needs to be relatively free of any
moisture. The moisture is removed by suing adsorbents or refrigerant
dryers, or state of the art heatless dryers.
Moisture Traps : Air traps are used for removal of moisture in the
compressed air distribution lines. They resemble steam traps wherein
the air is trapped and moisture is removed.
Receivers : Depending on the system requirements, one or more air
receivers are generally provided to reduce output pulsations and
pressure variations.
 Dryers
When air leaves an aftercooler and moisture separator, it is typically saturated. Any
further radiant cooling as it passes through the distribution piping, which may be exposed
to colder temperatures, will cause further condensation of moisture with detrimental
effects such as corrosion and contamination of point-of-use processes. This problem can
be avoided by the proper use of compressed air dryers. The most common types are:

Refrigerant-type dryers cool the air to 35 to 40F and then remove the
condensed moisture before the air is reheated and discharged
Deliquescent-type dryers use a hygroscopic desiccant material with a high
affinity for water. The desiccant absorbs water vapor and is dissolved in the
liquid formed. Dew point suppression of 15 to 50F degrees can be expected
when the proper bed level is maintained
Twin tower regenerative-type dryers use a desiccant which adsorbs water
vapor in the air stream. Adsorb means that the moisture adheres to the
desiccant, collecting in the thousands of small pores within each desiccant
bead. The composition of the desiccant is not changed and the moisture can
be driven off in a regeneration process by applying dry purge air, by the
application of heat, or a combination of both. Regenerative desiccant-type
dryers typically are of twin tower construction. One tower dries the air from
the compressor while the desiccant in the other tower is being regenerated,
after the pressure in the tower being regenerated has been reduced to
atmospheric pressure. The purge air requirement can range from 10 to 18% of
the total air flow, depending on the type of dryer. The typical regenerative
desiccant dryer at 100 psig has a pressure dew point rating of -20F to -40F
 Air Receiver
Receivers are used to provide compressed air storage
capacity to meet peak demand events and help control
system pressure.
Receivers are especially effective for systems with widely
varying compressed air flow requirements.
Where peaks are intermittent, a large air receiver may allow
a smaller air compressor to be used and can allow the
capacity control system to operate more effectively and
improve system efficiency.
An air receiver after a reciprocating air compressor can
provide dampening of pressure pulsations, radiant cooling,
and collection of condensate.
Demand-side control will optimize the benefit of the air
receiver storage volume by stabilizing system header
pressure and "flattening" the load peaks.
 Heat Recovery with Water-Cooled
Compressors
Heat recovery for space heating is not as
common with water-cooled compressors
because an extra stage of heat exchange is
required and the temperature of the available
heat is lower. Since many water-cooled
compressors are quite large, however, heat
recovery for space heating can be an
attractive opportunity. Recovery efficiencies
of 50-60% are typical.
 Traps and Drains
Automatic condensate drains or traps are used to prevent the
loss of air through open petcocks and valves.
Drain valves should allow removal of condensate but not
compressed air.
Two types of traps are common: mechanical and electrical.
Mechanical traps link float devices to open valves when
condensate rises to a preset level.
Electric solenoid drain valves operate on a preset time cycle, but
may open even when condensate is not present.
Other electrical devices sense liquid level and open to drain only
when condensate is present. Improperly operating or
maintained traps can create excessive air usage and waste
energy
 Air Distribution Systems
The air distribution system links the various components of the
compressed air system to deliver air to the points of use with minimal
pressure loss.
The specific configuration of a distribution system depends on the
needs of the individual plant, but frequently consists of an extended
network of main lines, branch lines, valves, and air hoses.
The length of the network should be kept to a minimum to reduce
pressure drop.
Air distribution piping should be large enough in diameter to minimize
pressure drop.
A loop system is generally recommended, with all piping sloped to
accessible drop legs and drain points.

When designing an air distribution system layout, it is best to place the

air compressor and its related accessories where temperature inside
the plant is the lowest.
A projection of future demands and tie-ins to the existing distribution
system should also be considered.
Reciprocating compressor
Screw compressor
Centrifugal Compressor
 Compressor efficiency

(NK / (K - 1) )(Q × Ps / 0.612) ⎡⎢⎛⎜ Pd P ⎞⎟ ⎤

K -1
Theoretical kW = NK
- 1⎥
⎣⎝ s ⎠ ⎦

N = No. of stages
K = Ratio of specific heats (1.35 for air)
Ps = suction pressure in kg/cm2
Pd = Discharge pressure in kg/cm2
Q = Actual air flow (m3/min.)
Actual kW = √ 3 V I × PF as measured

Efficiency of compressor and motor combination = 100 × Theoretical kW

Actual kW
Energy Efficiency practices in
compressed air systems
 Effect of Intake Air temperature
on Power Consumption
Inlet Relative Air Power Saved
Temperature (0C) Delivery (%) (%)
10.0 102.0 + 1.4
15.5 100.0 Nil
21.1 98.1 - 1.3
26.6 96.3 - 2.5
32.2 94.1 - 4.0
37.7 92.8 - 5.0
43.3 91.2 - 5.8

Every 40C rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy consumption by 1 % to
achieve equivalent output. Hence, cool air intake leads to a more efficient compression.
 p
Air Inlet Filter on Power
Consumption
Pressure Drop Increase in Power
Across air filter Consumption (%)
(mmWC)
0 0
200 1.6
400 3.2
600 4.7
800 7.0
For every 25 mbar pressure lost at the inlet due to choked filters, the
compressor performance is reduced by about 2 percent.
 Elevation
Percentage Relative
Barometric Volumetric Efficiency
Altitude
Pressure Compared with Sea Level
Meters
Mbar
At 4 bar At 7 bar
Sea level 1013 100.0 100.0
500 945 98.7 97.7
1000 894 97.0 95.2
1500 840 95.5 92.7
2000 789 93.9 90.0
2500 737 92.1 87.0

It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power

to achieve a particular delivery pressure than those at sea lvel, as the
compression ratio is higher.
 Efficacy of Inter and After
Coolers

Imperfect Perfect Chilled Water

Details
Cooling Cooling Cooling
1 Stage inlet temperature 0C 21.1 21.1 21.1
2 Stage inlet temperature 0C 26.6 21.1 15.5
Capacity (m 3/min) 15.5 15.6 15.7
Shaft Power (kW) 76.3 75.3 74.2
Specific energy consumption 4.9 4.8 4.7
kW (m 3/min)
Percent Change + 2.1 - - 2.1

It can be seen from the table that an increase of 5.50C in the inlet to the second stage
results in a 2 % increase in the specific energy consumption. Use of cold water
reduces power consumption.
 Cooling Water
Requirement

Minimum quantity of
Cooling Water required
Compressor Type
for 2.85 m 3/min. FAD at 7
bar (lpm)
Single-stage 3.8
Two-stage 7.6
Single-stage with after-cooler 15.1
Two-stage with after-cooler 18.9
 Power Reduction through
Pressure Reduction
Pressure
Power Reduction (%)
Reduction
Single-
Two-stage Two-
From stage
To (bar) Water- stage Air-
(bar) Water-
cooled cooled
cooled
6.8 6.1 4 4 2.6
6.8 5.5 9 11 6.5

A reduction in the delivery pressure of a compressor would

reduce the power consumption.
 Expected Specific Power Consumption of
Reciprocating Compressors (based on motor
input)

Pressure bar No. of Stages Specific Power

kW/170 CMH
1 1 6.29
2 1 9.64
3 1 13.04
4 2 14.57
7 2 18.34
8 2 19.16
10 2 21.74
15 2 26.22
 Energy Wastage due to
Smaller Pipe Diameter
Pipe Pressure drop (bar) Equivalent power
Nominal per 100 meters losses (kW)
Bore (mm)
40 1.80 9.5
50 0.65 3.4
65 0.22 1.2
80 0.04 0.2
100 0.02 0.1

Typical acceptable pressure drop in industrial practice is 0.3 bar in

mains header at the farthest point and 0.5 bar in distribution system
 Discharge of Air through
Orifice

Gauge
Pressure 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm 12.5 mm
Bar
0.5 0.06 0.22 0.92 2.1 5.7 22.8 35.5
1.0 0.08 0.33 1.33 3.0 8.4 33.6 52.5
2.5 0.14 0.58 2.33 5.5 14.6 58.6 91.4
5.0 0.25 0.97 3.92 8.8 24.4 97.5 152.0
7.0 0.33 1.31 5.19 11.6 32.5 129.0 202.0
 Cost of Air Leakage

Orifice Size KW * Energy Waste

mm Wasted (Rs/Year)
0.8 0.2 8000
1.6 0.8 32000
3.1 3.0 120000
6.4 12.0 480000

* based on Rs. 5 / kWh ; 8000 operating hours; air at 7.0 bar

 Heat Recovery
As noted earlier, compressing air generates heat. In fact,
industrial-sized air compressors generate a substantial amount
of heat that can be recovered and put to useful work. More than
80% of the electrical energy going to a compressor becomes
heat. Much of this heat can be recovered and used for
producing hot water or hot air.
Typical uses for recovered heat include supplemental space
heating, industrial process heating, water heating, makeup air
heating, and boiler makeup water preheating. Recoverable heat
from a compressed air system is not, however, normally hot
enough to be used to produce steam directly.
As much as 80-93% of the electrical energy used by an
industrial air compressor is converted into heat. In many cases,
a properly designed heat recovery unit can recover anywhere
from 50-90% of this available thermal energy and put it to
useful work heating air or water
Heat Recovery with Air-Cooled Rotary
Screw Compressors
Air-cooled packaged rotary screw compressors are very amenable to
heat recovery for space heating or other hot air uses. Ambient
atmospheric air is heated by passing it across the system's aftercooler
and lubricant cooler, where it extracts heat from both the compressed
air and the lubricant that is used to lubricate and cool the compressor.

Since packaged compressors are typically enclosed in cabinets and

already include heat exchangers and fans, the only system
modifications needed are the addition of ducting and another fan to
handle the duct loading and to eliminate any back pressure on the
compressor cooling fan. These heat recovery systems can be
modulated with a simple thermostatically-controlled hinged vent.
When heating is not required -- such as in the summer months -- the
hot air can be ducted outside the building. The vent can also be
thermostatically regulated to provide a constant temperature for a
heated area.

Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying, preheating
aspirated air for oil burners, or any other application requiring warm
air. As a rule of thumb, approximately 50,000 Btu/hour of energy is
available for each 100 cfm of capacity (at full-load). Air temperatures
of 30 to 40oF above the cooling air inlet temperature can be
obtained. Recovery efficiencies of 80-90% are common
Steps in simple shop-floor
method for leak
quantification
Shut off compressed air operated equipments (or conduct test
when no equipment is using compressed air).
Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of
operation
Note the sub-sequent time taken for ‘on load’ and ‘off load’
cycles of the compressors. For accuracy, take ON & OFF times
for 8 – 10 cycles continuously. Then calculate total ‘ON’ Time
(T) and Total ‘OFF’ time (t).
The system leakage is calculated as
System leakage (cmm) = Q × T / (T + t)
Q = Actual free air being supplied during trial, in cubic
meters per minute
T = Time on load in minutes
t = Time unload in minutes
 Leak test: example
Compressor capacity (CMM) = 35
Cut in pressure kg/SQCMG = 6.8
Cut out pressure kg/SQCMG = 7.5
On load kW drawn = 188 kW
Unload kW drawn = 54 kW
Average ‘On-load’ time = 1.5 minutes
Average ‘Unload’ time = 10.5 minutes
Comment on leakage quantity and avoidable loss of power due to
air leakages. (1.5) × 35
a) Leakage quantity (CMM)(1.5) =
+ (10.5)

= 4.375 CMM
b) Leakage per day = 6300 CM/day 188 kWh
c) Specific power for compressed air generation= (35 × 60 )CMH
= 0.0895 kwh/m3
d) Power lost due to leakages/day = 563.85 kWh
 Capacity Assessment in
Shop-floor
Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test
from main compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or
blanking it, thus closing the receiver outlet.
Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the
pipe line. Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start
the test.
Start the compressor and activate the stop watch.
Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the
receiver) from initial pressure P1.
Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below :

P2 − P1 V
Actual Free air discharge
Q= × NM 3 / Min.
P0 T
Where
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver,
after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes
 Example
Piston displacement : 16.88 CMM
Theoretical compressor capacity : 14.75 CMM @ 7 kg/SQCMG
Compressor rated rpm 750 : Motor rated rpm :
1445
Receiver Volume : 7.79 CM
Additional hold up volume,
i.e., pipe / water cooler, etc., is : 0.4974 CM
Total volume : 8.322 CM
Initial pressure P1 : 0.5 Kgf / SQCMG
Final pressure P2 : 7.03 Kgf / SQCMG
Atmospheric pressure P0 : 1.026
Kgf/cm2A
( P2 − P1 ) ×
Total Volume
Atm. Pressure × Pumpup time
Compressor output CMM :
(7.03 − 0.5) × 8.322
1.026 × 4.021
= 13.17 CMM
How Air Amplifiers Work

Compressed air flows through the inlet (1) into an annular chamber
(2). It is then throttled through a small ring nozzle (3) at high
velocity. This primary air stream adheres to the coanda profile (4),
which directs it toward the outlet. A low pressure area is created
at the center (5) inducing a high volume flow of surrounding air
into the primary air stream. The combined flow of primary and
surrounding air exhausts from the Air Amplifier in a high volume,
high velocity flow.
HVAC and Refrigeration
System
 Ton of refrigeration

The cooling effect produced is quantified as tons of

refrigeration.

1 ton of refrigeration = 3024 kCal/hr

heat rejected.
Conceptual view of a chilled-water
air-conditioning system
 CFCs Are On The Way Out
Eighty percent of today’s existing chillers are centrifugal chillers that use R-11 as refrigerant. The newer,
non-CFC alternative to R-11 is HCFC-123. Some centrifugal chillers use R-12; its non-CFC alternative is
HFC-134a. Unitary A/C units typically use R-22, which will be phased out in the future.
Refrigerants Action
Phase-Out Dates

1996
R-11, R-12, R-500, HCFC-152A, Production of these refrigerants is stopped. Equipment
CFC-114 using these refrigerants is no longer manufactured.

2010
HCFC-22 Manufacture of equipment using this refrigerant is stopped.

2020
HCFC-22 Production of this refrigerant is stopped.

2020
HCFC-123 Manufacture of equipment using this refrigerant is stopped.

2030
HCFC-123 Production of this refrigerant is stopped.
Introduction

Refrigeration deals with the transfer

of heat from a low temperature level
at the heat source to a high
temperature level at the heat sink.

„ Air conditioning for comfort

„ Refrigeration for process
Vapour compression System
How do the chillers work ?

1. Boiling point of the water is a function of pressure. At atmospheric pressure water boils at 100 deg. C.
When maintained at high vacuum, water will boil and subcool itself. The boiling point of the water at
6 mmHg (abs) is 3.7 deg. C.
How do the chillers work ?

2. Lithium Bromide (LiBr) has the property to absorb water due to its chemical affinity. At higher
concentration and lower temperature LiBr absorbs water vapour (refrigerant vapour) very effectively.
How do the chillers work ?

3. As Lithium Bromide becomes dilute it loses its capacity to absorb water vapour. It thus needs to be
reconcentrated using a heat source. Heat source may be Steam or Flue gases or even Hot water.
Vapour absorption chillers: Types

„ Single effect steam fired (0.4 to 2 kg/cm2)

„ Steam Consumption for 200 TR = 8.5 Kg/hr/TR
„ Double effect steam fired (3 to 9 kg/cm2)
„ Steam Consumption for 200 TR = 4.5 Kg/hr/TR
„ Cost of m/c = Rs. 12000 to 15000 per TR
„ Low temperature hot water fired (75 – 100oC)
„ High temperature hot water fired (110 – 145oC)
„ Direct fired (oil, gas, kerosene)
„ HSD/LDO Consumption = 0.313 lit/hr/TR
„ Kerosene Consumption =0.326lit/hr/TR
„ Cost of m/c = Rs. 20,000 to 25000 per TR
 Properties of Commonly
used Refrigerants

Boiling Freezing Vapor Vapor Enthalpy *

Refrigerant Point Point Pressure Volume * Liquid (kJ Vapor
** (oC) (oC) * (kPa) (m 3 / Kg) / Kg) (kJ / Kg)
R - 11 23.82 -111.0 25.73 0.61170 191.40 385.43
R - 12 -29.79 -158.0 219.28 0.07702 190.72 347.96
R - 22 -40.76 -160.0 354.74 0.06513 188.55 400.83
R - 502 -45.40 --- 414.30 0.04234 188.87 342.31
R-7 -33.30 -77.7 289.93 0.41949 -808.71 487.76
(Ammonia)
COP = (H2-H1)/(H3-H2)
 Performance Assessment

The specific power consumption kW/TR is a useful indicator of the

performance of refrigeration system. By messing refrigeration duty
performed in TR and the Kilo Watt inputs measured, kW/TR is
used as a reference energy performance indicator.

The refrigeration TR is assessed as TR = Q ⋅Cp ⋅ (Ti – To) / 3024

Where TR is cooling TR duty
Q is mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr
Cp is coolant specific heat in kCal /kg / 0C
Ti is inlet. Temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in 0C.
To is outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in 0C.
 Overall energy consumption

„ Compressor kW
„ Chilled water pump kW
„ Condenser water pump kW
„ Cooling tower fan kW

Overall kW/TR = sum of all above kW/ TR

 Effect of Variation in Evaporator
Temperature on
Compressor Power Consumption

Evaporator Refrigeration Specific

Increase in
Temperature Capacity Power
kW/ton (%)
(0C) (tons) Consumption
5.0 67.58 0.81 -
0.0 56.07 0.94 16.0
-5.0 45.98 1.08 33.0
-10.0 37.20 1.25 54.0
-20.0 23.12 1.67 106.0

A 10C raise in evaporator temperature can help to save almost 3 % on power

consumption.
Condenser Temperature on
Compressor Power
Consumption

Condensing Refrigeration Specific Increase in

Temperature Capacity Power kW/TR
0
( C) (tons) Consumption (%)
26.7 31.5 1.17 -
35.0 21.4 1.27 8.5
40.0 20.0 1.41 20.5
Effect of Poor Maintenance
on Compressor Power
Consumption
Specific Increase
Evap. Cond. Refrigeration
Power in
Condition Temp Temp Capacity
Consumption kW/Ton
(0C) (0C) (tons)
(kW/ton) (%)
Normal 7.2 40.5 17.0 0.69 -
Dirty 7.2 46.1 15.6 0.84 20.4
condenser
Dirty 1.7 40.5 13.8 0.82 18.3
evaporator
Dirty 1.7 46.1 12.7 0.96 38.7
condenser
and
evaporator
 ENERGY SAVINGS
OPPORTUNITIES

„ Cold Insulation
„ Building Envelop
„ Building Heat Loads
„ Process Heat Loads Minimisation
„ Flow optimization and Heat transfer area increase
to accept higher temperature coolant
„ Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of chilled
water, idle flows
„ Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat
exchangers
At the Refrigeration A/C
Plant Area
„ Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant
components as per manufacturer guidelines.
„ Ensure adequacy of chilled water and cooling water
flows, avoidance of bypass flows by valving off the
idle equipment.
„ Minimize part load operations by matching loads and
plant capacity on line, adopting variable speed drives
for varying process load.
„ Ensure efforts to continuously optimize condenser
and evaporator parameters for minimizing specific
energy consumption and maximizing capacity.
„ Adopt VAR system where economics permit as a non
CFC solution
 Select the right Cooling Medium

Type of cooling Power Consumption

1. Cooling tower water 0.1 KW/TR

2. Chilled water System at 10oC 0.7 KW/TR
3. Brine System at -20oC 1.8 KW/TR

Order of preference
Cooling water ChilledWater Brine
 Energy Savings in Refrigeration
systems

There are two broad ways by which

energy can be conserved

By decreasing the load

1.

By optimising the refrigeration system

2.
Calculating the operating load of a chiller plant

Hot well
Refrigeration
Refrigeration 12OC
plant
plant Process
Cold well
8OC

Chilled water flow – 100 m3/hr

m Cp ∆Τ
Refrigeration TR - 100,000 kg/hr x 1 x 4
3000
- 133.33 TR

Power drawn by compressor, kW

Efficiency -
TR
120
- = 0.9
133.33
Energy saving measures in A/c System
„ Comfort conditions: 25OC, 55 % RH
„ Minimize heat load through glass windows
„ Provide sun control film, Use double glass

„ Insulate roof top in A/C Building

„ Provide under deck insulation of 50 mm, Provide lawns at roof top

„ Optimize fresh air supply into a/c room

„ Conduct CO2 study to optimize fresh air quantity

„ 10-15 cfm/person or 0.25 cfm/sq..ft as per ASHRAE

„ Minimise artificial lighting

„ Use natural lighting , 3.5 kw lighting consumes 1.0 TR load

„ Provide controls
„ install thermostat to control peak and base load

„ Provide VSD for AHU with return air temp.sensor-set at 25oC

„ Air tight the building envelop

„ prevent cold air leakage, Provide door closures

„ Avoid heat producing equipments inside the room

„ keep away UPS Battery , ovens, other loads
 Efficient operation & maintenance

„ The suction Temperature, pressure delivery pressure of

compressors should be kept at optimum level
„ Ensure all indicators are working properly
„ Keep record of oil consumption
„ Condensers
„ Remove scale and algae and adopt suitable water treatment
„ Give periodic purging of non-condensable gases
„ Lesser the water temperature more the COP
„ Routine defrosting of Cooling coils
„ Stop condenser water pump when compressor not working
„ 5OC rise in condensing temperature increases 10 % power
consumption
„ 5OC rise in evaporating temperature increases 10 % power
consumption
 Energy saving measures in
refrigeration

„ Look for process modifications to reduce the cooling load

„ Use cooling water to remove the maximum heat before using chilled water
„ Provide VSD for condenser water pumps
„ to vary the cooling water flow to maintain 4oC difference across the condensers
„ Avoid primary pump operation
„ Normally two pumps are operation(Chilled water supply pump from cold well
and return water pump from hot well)
„ Modify to operate only return water pump
„ Provide VSD for efficient part load operation
„ Explore ‘Ice-bank’ system for Maximum demand reduction
„ Explore application of vapour absorption with cost economics
„ Replace old systems with modern energy efficient systems
 Cold Insulation
Difference in temperature Heat ingress Exposed area per
between ambient and Kcal/m2/hr tonne of refrigeration
surface
5 35 86
10 73 41
15 113 27
20 154 19
Basis:
Ambient temperature - 35OC, emissivity – 0.8, still air conditions
Allowable heat ingress – 10 –15 Kcal/m2/hr

„ Thumb rules for cold Insulation

„ Chilled water pipe insulation (Provide 2 to 3 inch thickness)
„ Duct insulation (Provide 1 to 2 inch thickness)
„ Suction line refrigerant pipe insulation(Provide 2 to3 inch thickness)
End
Fans and Blowers
 Difference between fans, blowers and
compressors

As per ASME the specific pressure, i.e, the ratio of the discharge
pressure over the suction pressure is used for defining the fans,
blowers and compressors as highlighted below :

Equipment Specific Ratio Pressure rise (mmWg)

Fans Up to 1.11 1136

Blowers 1.11 to 1.20 1136 – 2066

Compressors more than 1.20 -

Typical centrifugal fan operation
 Fan types

Centrifugal fan Axial fan

 Centrifugal Fan: Types

Paddle Blade Forward Curved Backward Curved

(Radial blade) (Multi vane)
 Axial Flow Fan: Types
Tube Axial Vane Axial Propeller
 Fan Types and Efficiencies

Peak Efficiency
Centrifugal Fans
Range
Airfoil, backwardly curved/inclined 79-83
Modified radial 72-79
Redial 69-75
Pressure blower 58-68
Forwardly curved 60-65
Axial fan
vanaxial 78-85
Tubeaxial 67-72
Propeller 45-50
 Axial-flow Fans Centrifugal Fans

Typical Typical
Type Characteristics Type Characteristics
Applications Applications

Prope Low pressure, high Air- Radial High pressure, Various industrial
ller flow, low efficiency, circulation, medium flow, applications, suitable
peak efficiency close ventilation, efficiency close to for dust laden, moist
to point of free air exhaust tube-axial fans, power air/gases
delivery increases continuously

Tube- Medium pressure, HVAC, Forward- Medium pressure, Low pressure

axial high flow, higher drying ovens, curved high flow, dip in HVAC, packaged
efficiency than exhaust blades pressure curve, units, suitable for
propeller type, dip in systems efficiency higher than clean and dust laden
pressure-flow curve radial fans, power air / gases
before peak pressure rises continuously
point.

Vane- High pressure, High pressure Backward High pressure, high HVAC, various
axial medium flow, dip in applications curved flow, high efficiency, industrial
pressure-flow curve, including blades power reduces as flow applications, forced
use of guide vanes HVAC increases beyond draft fans, etc.
improves efficiency systems, point of highest
exhausts efficiency

Airfoil type Same as backward Same as backward

curved type, highest curved, but for clean
efficiency air applications
System characteristic curve
System curve
 Fan Laws
Flow ? Speed Pressure ? (Speed)2 Power ? (Speed)3

Q1 N 1 SP1 ⎛ N 1 ⎞
2
kW 1 ⎛ N 1 ⎞
3
= =⎜ =⎜
Q2 N 2 ⎟ ⎟
SP 2 ⎝ N 2 ⎠ kW 2 ⎝ N 2 ⎠
Varying the RPM by 10% Varying the RPM by 10% Varying the RPM by 10%
decreases or increases air decreases or increases the decreases or increases the
delivery by 10%. static pressure by 19%. power requirement by
27%.
Where Q – flow, SP – Static Pressure, kW – Power and N – speed (RPM)
 Fan static pressure
Fan Static Pressure U SP = SP (Fan outlet) – SP (Fan outlet)
SP (Fan outlet) – Static pressure at fan outlet, inches WC
SP (Fan outlet) – Static pressure at fan inlet, inches WC

U SP = 0.05 – (-10)
= 10.05 in W.C.
Static Pressure Profile of the System
Static pressure drop and rise
across entire system

Fan behaviour
 Speed vs Power

% Speed % Power
100 100
90 73
80 51
70 34
60 22
50 13
 Flow control

ªDamper - Most Popular

ªVariable Speed Drive
Recirculation

100 Damper

VFC
Power 75

50
VFD
25
Ideal
25 50 75 100
Flow
Impact of speed reduction
Use of VSD: Boiler ID fan case study
Use of VSD: Boiler ID fan case study
(contd.)
 Energy audit of fan
• Collect fan and motor specifications with ducting
network
• Measure motor power input
• Measure fan and motor speed
• Measure static pressure at various points in the
duct
• Measure total and static pressure and compute
flow
• Estimate the system efficiency and check fan
operating point
 What to Look for in the Field
Overall system efficiency will be determined by the type of fan or blower, its
interaction with the air distribution system, and the method of control.

•Determine whether the right type of fan or blower is used for an application. Is
your fan or blower is providing the best efficiency and performance in a given
application.

•The efficiency of a system depends on the number and type of bends and
restrictions. Sharp bends, especially, increase the resistance the fan or blower
must overcome. Bends and restrictions near the inlet or outlet seriously degrade
capacity and efficiency.

•With a properly selected fan or blower and well-designed air distribution

system, the method of control is the main thing determining energy efficiency.
In systems requiring constant air volume, the speed of a belt-driven fan or
blower should be adjusted by proper selection of pulley sizes, and equipment
should operate only when needed. In systems requiring variable airflow, an
adjustable-speed control is most efficient.
 Energy conservation in fans
• Match fan capacity to demand
– downsizing, pulley change, VSD..
• Avoid unnecessary demand
– excess air reduction
– idling
• Reduce pressure drops
– Remove redundant ducts
– Modify ducting with minimum bends
• Drive system
– Provide direct drive where possible
– Replace V-belt by flat belt
• Replace with energy efficient fans
• Regular preventive maintenance
Energy saving in Boiler ID fan by speed
reduction through pulley change

10” 26 kW
8”

1470 RPM 1181 RPM

10” 14 kW
6”

1470 RPM 882RPM

End
Pumps and Pumping Systems
End
Energy Balance for a Typical Pumping System
100%
ELECTRICITY

MOTOR 12% LOSS

COUPLING 2% LOSS

PUMPS
24% LOSS

VALVES
9% LOSS

PIPES
11% LOSS

WORK DONE ON WATER

Centrifugal pump
Static head
Friction head or Dynamic head
System with high static head
System with low static head
Pump curve
Pump operating point
Typical pump characteristic curves
 Effect of Throttling
Pump Curve at
Const. Speed

70 m 82%
A
50 m
Full open valve
42 m
System Curves
Head
Meters
Static Operating Points
Head
300 m3/hr 500 m3/hr
3
Flow (m /hr)
 Effect of Throttling
Pump Curve at
Const. Speed Pump Efficiency 77%

70 m Partially B 82%
closed valve
A
50 m
Full open valve
42 m
System Curves C
Head
Meters
Static Operating Points
Head
300 m3/hr 500 m3/hr
3
Flow (m /hr)
Centrifugal Pump Performance
Chart
Efficiency Curves
28.6 kW

14.8 kW
 Power Requirement for Pump
You can use any of the following formulas to make your calculations:
Power calculations

Assume that we need to pump 68 m3/hr. to a 47

meter head with a pump that is 60% efficient at that
point.

Liquid Power - 68 x 47 / 360 = 8.9 Kw

Shaft Power - 8.9 / 0.60 = 14.8 Kw
Motor Power - 14.8 / 0.9 = 16.4 Kw
 Using oversized pump !
As shown in the drawing, we should be using impeller "E" to
do this, but we have an oversized pump so we are using the
larger impeller "A" with the pump discharge valve throttled
back to 68 cubic meters per hour, giving us an actual head of
76 meters.

Now our Kilowatts look like this:

Liquid Power - 68 x 76 / 360 = 14.3 Kw

Shaft Power - 14.3 / 0.50 = 28.6 Kw
Motor Power - 28.6 / 0.9 = 31.8 Kw
 Losing Energy

Subtracting the amount of kilowatts we should have been

using gives us:
31.8 - 14.8 = 17 extra kilowatts being used to pump against
the throttled discharge valve.

Extra energy used - 8760 hrs/yr x 17 = 1,48,920 kw.

= Rs. 5.95 lacs/annum

In this example the extra cost of the electricity could almost

equal the cost of purchasing the pump.
 Flow vs Speed

If the speed of the impeller is increased from N1 to N2 rpm,

the flow rate will increase from Q1 to Q2 as per the given
formula:
The affinity law for a centrifugal pump
with the impeller diameter held
constant and the speed changed:

Flow:
Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2
Example: 100 / Q2 = 1750/3500
Q2 = 200 GPM
 Head Vs speed

The head developed(H) will be proportional to the square of the quantity

discharged, so that
Head:

H1/H2 = (N12) / (N22)

Example: 100 /H2 = 1750 2 / 3500 2
H2 = 400 Ft
 Power Vs Speed

The power consumed(W) will be the product of H and Q, and, therefore

Power(kW):

kW1 / kW2 = (N13) / (N23)

Example: 5/kW2 = 17503 / 35003
kW2 = 40
The affinity law for a centrifugal pump with the speed held
constant and the impeller diameter changed:
Flow:
Q1 / Q2 = D1 / D2
Example: 100 / Q2 = 8/6
Q2 = 75 GPM

Head:
H1/H2 = (D1) x (D1) / (D2) x (D2)
Example: 100 /H2 = 8 x 8 / 6 x 6
H2 = 56.25 Ft

Power(kW):
kW1 / kW2 = (D1) x (D1) x (D1) / (D2) x (D2) x (D2)
Example: 5/kW2 = 8 x 8 x 8 / 6 x 6 x 6
kW2 = 2.1
Pumps in parallel
 Cooling Tower Theory
Heat is transferred from water drops to the surrounding air by the
transfer of sensible and latent heat

Water Drop with Interfacial Film

 How cooling tower works ?
• Heat and Mass transfer
• 1 kg of water on evaporation removes approximately 530
kcals of heat
• The heat given up by the water falling inside the tower
equals the heat gained by the air rising through the tower
• The hot water entering the tower is distributed within the
structure in a manner that exposes a very large water
surface to the air passing through.
• Water distribution is accomplished by means of spray
nozzles or distribution pans and by means of various types
of “fill.”
• This fill increases the exposed water surface to maximize
contact with the air, increasing the rate of heat transfer.
Tower Size vs Approach
 Thermal Performance
• Thermal performance of an evaporative tower is primarily
dependent upon the entering air wet bulb temperature
(WBT) and relative humidity (RH).
• The entering WBT is an independent variable that dictates
cooling tower selection.
• It is both the theoretical limit to the leaving cold water
temperature and the only air parameter involved in cooling
tower selection.
• The difference between the WBT and the tower leaving or
cold water temperature (CWT) is called the approach
temperature or the approach.
• Approach temperatures generally fall between 5 and 20 F.
• The difference between the tower leaving or hot water
temperature (HWT) and the CWT is called the range
• Range, heat load, and WBT also affect tower size
 Water losses in cooling tower

Water losses include evaporation, drift (water entrained in discharge vapor),

and blow down (water released to discard solids).

Drift losses are estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.2% of water supply.

Evaporation Loss = 0.00085 x water flow rate x (T1-T2)

Blow down Loss = Evaporation Loss/(cycles-1)

where cycles is the ratio of solids in the circulating water to the

solids in the make-up water

Total Losses = Drift Losses + Evaporation Losses + Blow down Losses

End
 Lighting

Syllabus
Lighting System: Light source, Choice
of lighting, Luminance requirements,
and Energy conservation avenues
Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features
Lamps:Lamp is equipment, which produces light.
• Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by
the flow of electric current through it. The principle parts of an incandescent lamp, also
known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill
gas and the cap.
• Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror,
which follows exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to
corrosion, thus making the lamp maintenance free and output efficient.
• Gas discharge lamps:
The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in
either a tubular or elliptical outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
Mercury Vapour Lamps
Sodium Vapour Lamps
Metal Halide Lamps
 Most commonly used lamps

• Fluorescent lamps (FTL)

• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
• Mercury Vapour Lamps
• Sodium Vapour Lamps
• Metal Halide Lamps
Luminaire
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light
emitted from one or more lamps. The luminaire includes, all the
parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps, except the
lamps themselves. principles used in optical luminaire are
reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.
Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:
§ Ballast:
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance
characteristics of any discharge lamps. In case of fluorescent
lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting.
§ Ignitors:
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium
vapour lamps.
Illuminance
This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a
point of surface containing the point, by the area of that element. The illuminance
provided by an installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the
appearance of the space.

Lux (lx): This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lux,
uniformly distributed over a surface area of one square metre. One lux is equal to one
lumen per square meter.

Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the
lamp. It is a reflection of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light
form.

Colour Rendering Index (RI)

Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given
light source confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminent;
suitable allowance having been made for the state of Chromatic adaptation.
 Lighting System Approach
Ballast
Lamps (light source)
Ceiling
Fixture

Lens or Diffuser

Switch

Walls
The Requirement Work Surface

Floor
 Lighting Quality

• Illumination level.
• Uniformity
• Absence of glare.
• Colour rendering index (CRI).
 Luminaire

• This is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the

light emitted from one or more lamps.
• The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing
and protecting the lamps, except the lamps themselves.
• In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary circuit
auxiliaries, together with the means for connecting them to
the electric supply.
• The basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are
reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.
 Gear

• Ballast
– A current limiting device, to counter negative
resistance characteristics of any discharge
lamps. In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the
initial voltage build-up, required for starting
• Ignitors
– These are used for starting high intensity Metal
Halide and Sodium vapour lamps
 Illuminance
• Is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on
an element of the surface at a point of surface
containing the point, by the area of that element.
• The illuminance provided by an installation affects
both the performance of the tasks and the
appearance of the space.
• Lux (lx)
– Is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one
lux, uniformly distributed over a surface area of one
square metre.
 Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

Is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a

lamp to the power consumed by the lamp is
a reflection of energy efficiency of
conversion from electricity to light form
 Colour Rendering Index (RI)

• Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated

by a given light source confirm to those of the same surfaces under a
reference illuminent; suitable allowance having been made for the state
of Chromatic adaptation.

• The "color rendering index" (CRI) measures the effect of light on

the perceived color of objects. To determine the CRI of a lamp, the
color appearances of a set of standard color chips are measured with
special equipment under a reference light source with the same
correlated color temperature as the lamp being evaluated. If the lamp
renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light source, its
CRI is 100. If the color rendering differs from the reference light
source, the CRI is less than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colors
may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
Luminous Performance Characteristics
of Commonly Used Luminaries
Lum / Watt Color Rendering Life
Type of Lamp Typical Application
Range Avg. Index (Hours)
Incandescent 8-18 14 Excellent Homes, restaurants, 1000
general lighting,
emergency lighting
Fluorescent 46-60 50 Good w.r.t. Offices, shops, hospitals, 5000
Lamps coating homes
Compact 40-70 60 Very good Hotels, shops, homes, 8000-
fluorescent lamps offices 10000
(CFL)
High pressure 44-57 50 Fair General lighting in 5000
mercury (HPMV) factories, garages, car
parking, flood lighting
Halogen lamps 18-24 20 Excellent Display, flood lighting, 2000-
stadium exhibition 4000
grounds, construction
areas
High pressure 67-121 90 Fair General lighting in 6000-
sodium (HPSV) factories, ware houses, 12000
SON street lighting
Low pressure 101-175 150 Poor Roadways, tunnels, 6000-
sodium (LPSV) canals, street lighting 12000
SOX
 Recommended Illuminance Levels for
Various Tasks / Activities / Locations
Scale of The minimum illuminance for all non-working interiors, has been
Illuminanc mentioned as 20 Lux (as per IS 3646). A factor of approximately 1.5
e: represents the smallest significant difference in subjective effect of
illuminance. Therefore, the following scale of illuminances is
recommended.

20–30–50–75–100–150–200–300–500–750–1000–1500–2000, … Lux

Illuminance Because circumstances may be significantly different for different

ranges: interiors used for the same application or for different conditions for
the same kind of activity, a range of illuminances is recommended
for each type of interior or activity intended of a single value of
illuminance. Each range consists of three successive steps of the
recommended scale of illuminances. For working interiors the
middle value (R) of each range represents the recommended service
illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors
mentioned below apply.
 Lighting Controls
• On/off flip switches
• Timer control & auto timed switch off
• Presence detection
• Luminary grouping / Group Switching
• Day light linking, blinders, corrugated roof sheets
• Dimmers , Lighting voltage controllers
• Photo sensors
METHODOLOGY OF LIGHTING SYSTEM
ENERGY EFFICIENCY STUDY

Step-1 : Inventorise the Lighting System elements, &

transformers in the facility as per following typical format.

Lighting
Rating in
Device Use / Shifts as I
S. Plant Watts Population
& / II / III shifts /
No. Location Lamp & Numbers
Ballast Day
Ballast
Type
 Energy savings in lighting
System
• Make maximum use of natural light (North roof/translucent
sheets/more windows and openings)
• Switch off when not required
• Modify lighting layout to meet the need
• Select light colours for interiors
• Provide timer switches / PV controls
• Provide lighting Transformer to operate at reduced voltage
• Install energy efficient lamps, luminaries and controls
• Clean North roof glass, translucent sheet and luminaries
regularly
 Energy Saving in Lighting
• Separate lighting Transformer
– To isolate from power feeder
– To avoid voltage fluctuation problem
– Energy saving at optimum voltage

• Install Servo stabilizer if separate transformer is

not feasible
• High frequency electronic ballast's(30khz)
– Energy savings 30 to 35%
– Less heat load into A/C room
• Metal halide in place of Mercury and SVL lamps
• CFT in place of incandescent lamps
End
 DG set system
Syllabus
Diesel Generating system
Factors affecting selection
Energy performance assessment of diesel
conservation avenues
Typical Diesel Cycle
 Specific fuel consumption
z The specific fuel consumption has come
down from a value of 220 g/kWh in the
1970s to a value around 160 g/kWh in
present times.
Slow speed diesel engine, with its flat fuel
consumption curve over a wide load
range (50%-100%), compares very
favourably over other prime movers
such as medium speed diesel engine,
steam turbines and gas turbines.
With the arrival of modern, high efficiency
turbochargers, it is possible to use an
exhaust gas driven turbine generator to
further increase the engine rated output.
The net result – lower fuel consumption
per kWh and further increase in overall
thermal efficiency.
Turbocharger
 Excitation Control

Diesel
DieselEngine
Engine A.C.
A.C.Generator
Generator Controls
Controls Load
Load

Fuel Control
Accessories
Accessories
Foundation

Fig-9.2 DG Set System

 DG Set as a System

A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its

successful operation depends on the well-matched
performance of the components, namely:

a) The diesel engine and its accessories.

b) The AC Generator.
c) The control systems and switchgear.
d) The foundation and power house civil works.
e) The connected load with its own components like heating,
motor drives, lighting etc.
Advantages of adopting Diesel
Power Plants are:
z Low installation cost
z Short delivery periods and installation period
z Higher efficiency (as high as 43 -45 %)
z More efficient plant performance under part loads
z Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur
– heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in case of large capacities.
z Minimum cooling water requirements,
z Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas
z where water is not available
z Short start up time
 Sizing of a Genset
If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire
connected load in HP / kVA should be added. After finding
out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG set can
be found out.

Example :
Connected Load = 650 kW
Diversity Factor = 1.86
(connected load / demand)
Max. Demand = 650/1.86 = 350 kW
% Loading = 70
Set rating = 350/0.7 = 500 kW
At 0.8 PF, rating = 625 kVA
 High Speed Engine or
Slow/Medium Speed Engine
Factor Slow speed engine High speed
engine
Break mean effective pressure - Low High
therefore wear and tear and
consumption of spares
Weight to power ratio- therefore More Less
sturdiness and life
Space High Less

Type of use Continuous use Intermittent use

Period between overhauls* 8000 hours 3200

Direct operating cost (includes Less High

lubricating oils, filters etc.
 Comparison of Various power
generation options
Description Units Combined Conventional Diesel Engine
GT & ST Steam Plant Power Plants
Thermal Efficiency % 40 - 46 33 - 36 43 - 45
Initial Investment of Installed Capacity Rs./kW 8,500 - 10,000 15,000 -18,000 7,500 - 9,000
Cooling water requirement with once (Lt/kWh)
through cooling
Space requirement 125 % (App.) 250 % (App.) 100 % (App.)
Construction time Months 24 - 30 42 - 48 12 - 15
Project period Months 30 - 36 52 - 60 13 - 12
Auxiliary Power Consumption % 2-4 8 - 10 13 - 21
Plant Load Factor kWh/kW 6000 - 7000 5000 - 6000 7200 - 7500
Range of Control of Electrical output on % 0 - 100 42 - 100 25 - 100
Heavy oil
Start up time from cold minutes about 10 120 - 180 15 - 20
Altitude and Intake Temperature Corrections

Correction Factors For Engine Output

Altitude Altitude Correction Temperature Correction

Non Super Correction
Meters over Super Charged Intake oC
Charged Factor
MSL

610 0.980 0.980 32 1.000

915 0.935 0.950 35 0.986

1220 0.895 0.915 38 0.974

1525 0.855 0.882 41 0.962

1830 0.820 0.850 43 0.950

2130 0.780 0.820 46 0.937

2450 0.745 0.790 49 0.925

2750 0.712 0.765 52 0.913

3050 0.680 0.740 54 0.900

3660 0.612 0.685

Derating due to Air Inter Cooler Water
Inlet Temperature

Water
Temperature Flow % Derating %
oC

25 100 0
30 125 3
35 166 5
40 166 8
 Power Factor:

The load power factor is entirely dependent on the

load. The A.C. generator is designed for the power
factor of 0.8 lag as specified by standards. Lower
power factor demands higher excitation currents
and results in increased losses. Over sizing A.C.
generators for operation at lower power factors
results in lower operating efficiency and higher
costs. The economical alternative is to provide
power factor improvement capacitors.
− Unbalanced Load:
Unbalanced loads on A.C. generator leads to unbalanced set of
voltages and additional heating in A.C. generator. When other
connected loads like motor loads are fed with unbalanced set of
voltages additional losses occur in the motors as well. Hence, the
load on the A.C. generators should be balanced as far as possible.

− Transient Loading:
On many occasions to contain transient voltage dip arising due to
transient load application, a specially designed generator may
have to be selected.

− Special Loads:
Special loads like rectifier / thyristor loads, welding loads, furnace
loads need an application check. The manufacturer of diesel
engine and AC generator should be consulted for proper
recommendation so that desired utilisation of DG set is achieved
without any problem.
 Energy Balance
& Waste Heat Recovery in DG Sets

A typical energy balance in a DG set indicates following break-up:

Input : 100% Thermal Energy

Outputs : 35% Electrical Output
: 4% Alternator Losses
: 33% Stack Loss through Flue Gases

: 24% Coolant Losses

: 4% Radiation Losses
Typical Flue Gas Temperature and Flow
Pattern in a 5-MW DG Set at various
Loads

100% Load 11.84 kgs/Sec 370oC

90% Load 10.80 kgs/Sec 350oC

70% Load 9.08 kgs/Sec 330oC

60% Load 7.50 kgs/Sec 325oC

If the normal load is 60%, the flue gas parameters for waste
heat recovery unit would be 320oC inlet temperature, 180oC
outlet temperature and 27180 kgs/Hour gas flow.
At 90% loading, however, values would be 355oC and
32,400 kgs/Hour, respectively.
 Energy Saving Measures for DG
Sets
a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air
at intake
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers’
guidelines/oil company data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives
e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in phases,
harmonic loads.
h) For base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system steam
generation or vapour absorption system adoption.
i) consider partial use of biomass gas for generation. Ensure tar removal from
the gas for improving availability of the engine in the long run.
z j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading .
z Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and maintenance
planning as per requirements.
 Typical Format for DG Set Monitoring

Electricity Derated Average Specific

DG Type of Specific
Generating Electricity Load as % Lube Oil
Set Fuel Fuel Cons.
Capacity Generating of Derated Cons.
No. used Lit/kWh
(Site), kW Capacity, kW Capacity Lit/kWh

1. 480 300 LDO 89 0.335 0.007

2. 480 300 LDO 110 0.334 0.024

3. 292 230 LDO 84 0.356 0.006

4. 200 160 HSD 89 0.325 0.003

5. 200 160 HSD 106 0.338 0.003

18. 880 750 LDO 78 0.345 0.007

19. 800 640 HSD 74 0.324 0.002

Energy Efficient Technologies
Maximum Demand
MD controller
Automatic Power Factor
Controllers
Energy Efficient Motors
 Design changes

Table 10.1 Watt Loss Area and Efficiency Improvement

{PRIVATE}Watts Efficiency Improvement
1. Iron Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current
losses. Longer core adds more steel to the design, which reduces
losses due to lower operating flux densities.
2. Stator I 2 R Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional
area of stator windings. This lowers resistance (R) of the windings
and reduces losses due to current flow (I).
3. Rotor I 2 R Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section,
lowering conductor resistance (R) and losses due to current flow (I).
4. Friction & Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
5. Stray Load Loss Use of optimised design and strict quality control procedures
minimizes stray load losses.
 Technical aspects of Energy
Efficient Motors

• Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At

lower temperatures, bearing grease lasts longer; required time between re-
greasing increases. Lower temperatures translate to long lasting insulation.
Generally, motor life doubles for each 10°C reduction in operating
temperature.
• Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can
affect the operation of energy-efficient motors.
• Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors,
slip is a measure of motor winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the
efficiency. Less slippage in energy efficient motors results in speeds about 1%
faster than in standard counterparts.
• Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors.
Facility managers should be careful when applying efficient motors to high
torque applications.
Soft Starters
Characteristics
 Variable Frequency Drives

Motors connected to VFD provide variable speed

mechanical output with high efficiency. These
devices are capable of up to a 9:1 speed reduction
ratio (11 percent of full speed), and a 3:1 speed
increase (300 percent of full speed).
Variable Torque Vs. Constant Torque

• Variable torque loads include centrifugal

pumps and fans, which make up the
majority of HVAC applications.
• Constant torque loads include vibrating
conveyors, punch presses, rock crushers,
machine tools, and other applications where
the drive follows a constant V/Hz ratio.

Typical full-load efficiencies are 95% and higher

Fluid coupling
Energy Efficient Transformers

1600 kVA Amorphous

Core Transformer
Electronic Ballast
 Energy Efficient Lighting
Controls

• Occupancy Sensors
• Timed Based Control
• Daylight Linked Control
• Localized Switching