BRITISH STANDARD

BS IEC 61865:2001

Overhead lines Calculation of the electrical component of distance between live parts and obstacles Method of calculation

ICS 29.240.20

NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW

BS IEC 61865:2001

National foreword
This British Standard reproduces verbatim IEC 61865:2001 and implements it as the UK national standard. The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical Committee PEL/11, Overhead lines, which has the responsibility to: aid enquirers to understand the text; present to the responsible international/European committee any enquiries on the interpretation, or proposals for change, and keep the UK interests informed; monitor related international and European developments and promulgate them in the UK.

A list of organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on request to its secretary. From 1 January 1997, all IEC publications have the number 60000 added to the old number. For instance, IEC 27 has been renumbered as IEC 60027-1. For a period of time during the change over from one numbering system to the other, publications may contain identifiers from both systems. Cross-references The British Standards which implement international or European publications referred to in this document may be found in the BSI Standards Catalogue under the section entitled International Standards Correspondence Index, or by using the Find facility of the BSI Standards Electronic Catalogue. A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application. Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations.

This British Standard, having been prepared under the direction of the Electrotechnical Sector Policy and Strategy Committee, was published under the authority of the Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 29 March 2002

Summary of pages This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, the IEC title page, pages 2 to 23 and a back cover. The BSI copyright date displayed in this document indicates when the document was last issued.

Amendments issued since publication Amd. No.

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Date

Comments

ISBN 0 580 39248 1

BS IEC 61865:2001

NORME INTERNATIONALE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

CEI IEC 61865

Premire dition First edition 2001-07

Lignes ariennes Calcul de la composante lectrique de la distance entre les parties sous tension et les obstacles Mthode de calcul Overhead lines Calculation of the electrical component of distance between live parts and obstacles Method of calculation

Numro de rfrence Reference number CEI/IEC 61865:2001

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CONTENTS
FOREWORD ......................................................................................................................... 3 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 5 1 2 3 Scope ............................................................................................................................ 6 Normative references ..................................................................................................... 7 Terms, definitions and symbols ...................................................................................... . 7 . 3.1 Definitions ............................................................................................................ 7 3.2 Symbols................................................................................................................ 9 Approach used to derive the electrical distance ............................................................. 10 Overvoltages.................................................................................................................. 11 5.1 Classification of overvoltages ............................................................................... 11 5.2 Temporary overvoltages ....................................................................................... 11 5.3 Slow-front overvoltages ........................................................................................ 12 5.4 Fast-front overvoltages ......................................................................................... 12 Required withstand voltage of the air gap ...................................................................... 13 6.1 General................................................................................................................. 14 6.2 Calculation of the required withstand voltage ........................................................ 16 Calculation of the distance associated with the overvoltages ......................................... 17

4 5

Annex A (informative) Relationship between U 50 and the gap length, d ............................... 18 Annex B (informative) Example of the calculation of the electrical component ..................... 20 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 23 Table 1 Slow-front waves: probability of discharge ............................................................ 14 Table 2 Fast-front waves: probability of discharge ............................................................. 15 Table B.1 Summary of the results...................................................................................... 22

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INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION OVERHEAD LINES CALCULATION OF THE ELECTRICAL COMPONENT OF DISTANCE BETWEEN LIVE PARTS AND OBSTACLES METHOD OF CALCULATION

FOREWORD
1) The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of the IEC is to promote international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To this end and in addition to other activities, the IEC publishes International Standards. Their preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested in the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. The IEC collaborates closely with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by agreement between the two organizations. 2) The formal decisions or agreements of the IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an international consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation from all interested National Committees. 3) The documents produced have the form of recommendations for international use and are published in the form of standards, technical specifications, technical reports or guides and they are accepted by the National Committees in that sense. 4) In order to promote international unification, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC International Standards transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional standards. Any divergence between the IEC Standard and the corresponding national or regional standard shall be clearly indicated in the latter. 5) The IEC provides no marking procedure to indicate its approval and cannot be rendered responsible for any equipment declared to be in conformity with one of its standards. 6) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this International Standard may be the subject of patent rights. The IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.

International Standard IEC 61865 has been prepared by IEC technical committee 11: Overhead lines. The text of this standard is based on the following documents:
FDIS 11/161/FDIS Report on voting 11/162/RVD

Full information on the voting for the approval of this standard can be found in the report on voting indicated in the above table. This publication has been drafted in accordance with the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 3. Annexes A and B are for information only.

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The committee has decided that the contents of this publication will remain unchanged until 2005-11. At this date, the publication will be reconfirmed; withdrawn; replaced by a revised edition, or amended.

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INTRODUCTION
The minimum distances to be maintained between overhead line conductors and objects close to them are usually specified in national standards or regulations. Such minimum distances normally comprise an electrical distance, i.e. an air insulation distance which prevents an electrical discharge between the conductors and other objects, even when there are overvoltages present on the overhead line conductors; an additional distance to account for an extreme range of certain conditions (such as human activities, sizes of objects that may normally come under a line, movement of conductors due to temperature, load or environmental conditions) plus a safety margin to allow for uncertainties.

It is important that the two distances are specified correctly. The method presented in this International Standard for calculating the electrical distance is mainly for use when reviewing or revising existing electrical distances (for example, to add new voltage levels). The method uses the overvoltages which occur on the lines together with the prevailing atmospheric conditions (including the effects of altitude, etc.) to derive the electrical component of the distance. The method is especially suited to the case of slowfronted waves but is extended to cover the case of fast-front waves and temporary overvoltages.

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OVERHEAD LINES CALCULATION OF THE ELECTRICAL COMPONENT OF DISTANCE BETWEEN LIVE PARTS AND OBSTACLES METHOD OF CALCULATION

Scope

This International Standard provides guidance for the calculation of electrical distances between live and earthed parts required to prevent air-gap breakdown which may endanger members of the public who legitimately come close to live parts. It is applicable only to overhead lines designed to operate at more than 45 kV phase-to-phase a.c. It deals with the electrical component of distances between conductors and movable objects vehicles on the ground, vessels on water, persons on top of objects or on the ground, wildlife on the ground (but not airborne), etc. This standard does not deal with the following public and worker safety aspects: stationary objects structures beneath or next to lines, trees, ground contours, etc. These, in general, require consideration as to whether the structure can be climbed on, the extent to which the tree will grow, etc; minimum approach distance for live working, which is dealt with in IEC 61472; capacitive coupling or magnetic induction by overhead lines, such as voltages induced in vehicles under a line, or in pipelines buried alongside it; currents flowing in the ground that originate from lines and result in step and touch voltages around structures during line faults or lightning strikes; flashover of line insulators or spark gaps, or a phase-to-phase discharge, resulting in audible and electrical noise and intense arcs; dielectric breakdown of the air between the conductors and the ground due to large fires beneath conductors; minimum electrical distances required to prevent discharge to adjacent overhead power or communication circuits.

This standard does not give the electrical distance requirements for the design of overhead line structures. Neither does it give the distance requirements for overhead line structures which need to be accessible to workers while the line is energized (for example, distances to line workers or painters). Distances between conductors and the structure of the tower are normally chosen to meet the required operating reliability of the line. It is possible that this distance may not always be adequate to allow live working or, in some cases, access for workers to parts of the structure near to live conductors.

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Normative references

The following normative documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this International Standard. For dated references, subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of these publications do not apply. However, parties to agreements based on this International Standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions of the normative documents indicated below. For undated references, the latest edition of the normative document referred to applies. Members of IEC and ISO maintain registers of currently valid International Standards. IEC 60050(601):1985, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) Chapter 601: Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity General IEC 60050(604):1987, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) Chapter 604: Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity Operation IEC 60060-1:1989, High-voltage test techniques Part 1: General definitions and test requirements lEC 60071-1:1993, Insulation co-ordination Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules lEC 60071-2:1996, Insulation co-ordination Part 2: Application guide IEC 61472:1998, Live working Minimum approach distances Method of calculation

Terms, definitions and symbols

For the purposes of this International Standard, certain definitions from IEC 60050(601) and IEC 60050(604) as well as the following definitions apply. 3.1 Definitions

3.1.1 nominal voltage of a system suitable approximate value of voltage used to designate or identify a system [IEV 601-01-21]
NOTE See also IEV 601-01-29: phase-to-phase voltage.

3.1.2 highest voltage of a system U S highest value of operating voltage which occurs under normal operating conditions at any time and any point in the system [IEV 601-01-23]
NOTE 1 See also IEV 601-01-29: phase-to-phase voltage. NOTE 2 Transient overvoltages due, for example, to switching operations and abnormal operation, as well as abnormal temporary variations of voltage, are not taken into account.

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3.1.3 temporary overvoltage oscillatory overvoltage (at power frequency) at a given location, of relatively long duration and which is undamped or weakly damped [IEV 604-03-12, modified]
NOTE Temporary overvoltages usually originate from switching operations or faults (for example, sudden load rejection, single phase-to-earth faults and/or from non-linearities (ferro-resonance effects, harmonics).

3.1.4 fifty per cent disruptive discharge voltage peak value of an impulse test voltage having a 50 % probability of initiating a disruptive discharge each time the dielectric testing is performed [IEV 604-03-43] 3.1.5 power-frequency withstand voltage r.m.s. value of sinusoidal power frequency voltage that the equipment can withstand during tests made under specified conditions and for a specified time [IEV 604-03-40] 3.1.6 lightning overvoltage transient overvoltage, the shape of which can be regarded for insulation coordination purposes as similar to that of the standard lightning impulse [IEV 604-03-30] 3.1.7 front of a voltage impulse that part of an impulse which occurs prior to the peak [IEV 604-03-16] 3.1.8 electrical distance D el reference distance which ensures that the electrical breakdown between any live part of the electrical installation to the body of a member of the public, or any conductive tool or object which they could reasonably be expected to be in contact with, is effectively avoided 3.1.9 occupancy at electrical distance T occ number of hours, at which the individual or any conductive part to which he/she is in contact, is taken to be at the limit of the electrical distance
NOTE As a reference, T occ is taken to be 1 h per year.

3.1.10 annual probability of breakdown of air gap R a probability of sparkover

NOTE For a reference occupancy of 1 h per year at the electrical distance, D el, the value R a is taken to be 10 7 .

3.1.11 statistical withstand voltage U 90 overvoltage, with the shape of the representative overvoltage, at which the insulation exhibits a 90 % probability of withstand

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3.1.12 two per cent statistical overvoltage U 2 overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded, derived from the statistical distribution of overvoltages generated by the power system 3.1.13 per unit two per cent overvoltage u e2 statistical overvoltage phase-to-earth (expressed in per unit or p.u.) having a 2 % probability of being exceeded 3.1.14 statistical factor K s factor to be applied to the value of the 2 % statistical overvoltage to obtain the 90 % statistical withstand voltage
NOTE This is the statistical coordination factor, K CS , of 3.3.2.2 of IEC 60071-2 and the statistical factor, K s , of 5.3 of IEC 61472.

3.1.15 statistical probability of discharge R s probability that a gap will spark over when an overvoltage with a certain statistical distribution is applied to it 3.1.16 atmospheric correction factor k a factor to be applied to the withstand voltage to account for the difference between the average atmospheric conditions in service and standard atmospheric conditions
NOTE This applies to a specific area and may not be constant for the entire geographical territory of a power system.

3.1.17 mitigating correction factor k m factor that accounts for the fact that, in practice, the actual level of probability is reduced (see 6.1.3) 3.1.18 gap factor k g ratio of the dielectric strength for slow-fronted waves of a given electrode geometry to that of a rod-plane configuration in which the point has positive polarity (see CIGRE Guide No. 72) 3.2 t kg km k mSF k mFF KS ka nt n SF n SFR n FF Symbols (s) () () () () () () (year 1 ) (year 1 ) (year 1 ) (year 1 ) the mean time duration of temporary overvoltages gap factor mitigating correction factor mitigating correction factor for slow-front surges mitigating correction factor for fast-front surges statistical factor or the ratio of U 90 to U 2 atmospheric correction factor number of temporary overvoltages per year number of slow-front overvoltages due to switching operations per year number of slow-front overvoltages due to reclosing operations per year number of fast-front overvoltages per year

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61865 IEC:2001 N RS Ra R aSF R aFF R aT s2 s 2SF s s SF s FF T occ US U 50 U 90 U2 U 2SF U 2FF u 2SF u 2FF UT () () (year 1 ) (year 1 ) (year 1 ) (year 1 ) () () () () () (h) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) () () (kV) 19 number of hours in a year taken to be 8 760 h statistical probability of discharge annual probability of breakdown of air gap annual probability of breakdown of air gap due to a slow-front surge annual probability of breakdown of air gap due to a fast-front surge annual probability of breakdown of air gap due to a transient overvoltage coefficient of variation of the distribution of overvoltages at U 2 coefficient of variation of the distribution of slow-front overvoltages at U 2SF coefficient of variation of the distribution of sparkover voltages as a fraction of U 50 coefficient of variation of the distribution of sparkover voltages for slowfront waves (typically 0,05) coefficient of variation of the distribution of sparkover voltages for fastfront waves (typically 0,03) occupancy at electrical distance fifty per cent disruptive discharge voltage statistical withstand voltage overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded slow-front overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded fast-front overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded slow-front overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded in p.u. fast-front overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded in p.u. peak value of temporary overvoltages

(kV r.m.s.) highest r.m.s. voltage of the system (phase-to-phase)

Approach used to derive the electrical distance

The following approach and assumptions are considered to be representative of power systems, but they are open to review if better information is available. In general an individual does not come to the limit of the electrical distance for long periods in any one year. For the purpose of calculation, the individual is assumed to be at the electrical distance for 1 h per year, but the method allows for other times to be used. The voltages and overvoltages which are generated by the network have to be resisted by the electrical distance such that the probability of an electrical breakdown of the insulation becomes effectively zero during the occupation time. Because the parameters involved are statistical variables it is necessary to calculate a probability of breakdown of the air gap. For the purpose of calculation, this is taken as R a = 10 7 per annum although higher or lower values may be considered.

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Overvoltages

The minimum approach distance for the public is determined by the overvoltages which can occur on the electrical system. The causes of overvoltages include the following: short-term voltage changes on the power system, switching operations, resonance conditions, faults, lightning strikes, etc. 5.1 Classification of overvoltages

The dielectric strength of an air gap depends on the shape of the voltage stress across it. IEC 60071-2 defines the types of overvoltages and their origins, each of which leads, in principle, to a different breakdown voltage for the same air gap. The three types of overvoltage wave shape used in this standard are as follows: temporary overvoltages; slow-front overvoltages; fast-front overvoltages.

In order to make a calculation of electrical distance, the maximum value of the overvoltage, or the values which are exceeded by 2 % of overvoltages, for the three types of overvoltage, are required from tests or studies. If values are not available, clause 2 of IEC 60071-2 can be used for guidance. The 2 % values can be derived from the maximum (i.e. truncated) values (see annex A of IEC 61472). The maximum value of an overvoltage is normally expressed in per unit (p.u.), that is, the 2 value referred to U S , where U S is the highest system voltage. 3 Because of the statistical variability of overvoltages, the maximum overvoltage considered here is the 2 % overvoltage, U 2, (or u 2 when expressed in per unit) i.e. the overvoltage having a 2 % probability of being exceeded. U 2 has an associated coefficient of variation, s 2 (i.e. the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean value). U 2 is then given by the general expression: U 2 = u 2U S 2 3 2 3 2 3

(1)

U 2SF = u 2SFU S U 2FF = u 2FFU S

(2)

(3)

5.2

Temporary overvoltages

There is a statistical variability in the occurrence of temporary overvoltages, both in amplitude and over time. In general, this is not well known for power systems but normally the peak amplitude, the duration and the number of occurrences per year are known or can be estimated. The annual number of occurrences of temporary overvoltages, n t, their mean time duration, t, and the peak voltage, U T, are needed to ensure safety from these overvoltages unless the distance, D el, is sufficiently large for there to be no probability of sparkover. In practice, it is unlikely that temporary overvoltages will be the determining parameter for D el on practical transmission or distribution lines.

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61865 IEC:2001 5.3 Slow-front overvoltages 23

Slow-front overvoltages are statistically distributed according to a function which can frequently be approximated by a normal (Gaussian) distribution in the vicinity of the statistical overvoltage, U 2SF, (and u 2SF expressed on a per unit basis) which has only a 2 % probability of being exceeded. In the vicinity of U 2SF a normal distribution can be fitted with a coefficient of variation, s 2SF. If better information is not available, a suggested value for s 2SF is 20 %. The annual frequency of the occurrence of a slow-front overvoltage due to normal switching operations and to delayed auto-reclosure operations after faults, n SF, will depend upon the operation of the line. A typical value is likely to be 1 to 100 overvoltages per year. In addition to normal switching operations when the line is energized, faults (for example due to lightning and pollution flashover) will occur on the line, and, in these cases, the breaker opening and reclosing will interrupt the passage of current. In the event that delayed auto-reclosure is used (with a dead time of several seconds) the trapped charge on the line will have decayed to some extent and, if the decay is to zero, the overvoltage on re-energization will be essentially that of the line energization. In the event that high-speed reclosure is used, the overvoltages are potentially higher. The annual number of reclose operations is denoted by n SFR. The annual frequency of the occurrence of a slowfront overvoltage due to reclosing is related to the fault rate of the line which will depend upon parameters such as line construction, lightning ground-flash density, pollution levels, conductor clashing incidents, etc. A typical annual fault rate is of the order of 1 to 2 per 100 km of line per year. 5.4 Fast-front overvoltages

The actual probability distribution of fast-front overvoltages occurring on a line is usually not known by utilities or line designers. It is thus not possible to apply completely the procedure set out in clause 6. The following provides guidance for assessing the magnitude and frequency distribution of fast-front overvoltages. The major source of fast-front overvoltages is from lightning and the frequency of occurrence of this (either in the form of ground-flash density or thunderstorm days) is known. Lightning surges can arise due to direct lightning strokes to the line, back flashover of insulator strings, or induction. Their amplitude decreases and their time to peak increases as the surge travels along the line in each direction away from the stroke. This is because the energy in the surge is dissipated by the production of corona discharges. Lightning surges that exceed the insulation level of the line will be largely dissipated to ground at towers adjacent to the lightning stroke, so that any residual fast-front surge will then be relatively small. However, lightning surges which are below the insulation level of the line are able to propagate until they are dissipated by the generation of corona discharges, or result in sparkover at a tower because of the statistical variability of the gaps between conductors and the towers' steelwork. The probability of discharge to earthed parts near the conductor within any span where a direct stroke occurs is not considered here.

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In the absence of other information, it is recommended that the fast-front voltage to be considered is the voltage which can propagate along the line (i.e. that which does not result in sparkover at the nearest tower). This voltage is the U 90 value of the gap between the conductor and the tower for fast-front waves. If the value of U 90 is not known, it can be estimated from the length of the air gap between the live parts and the earthed (grounded) parts of the tower (see clause A.3). For establishing the electrical distance (clause 7) in the absence of other information, it is recommended that the U 90 value of the conductor-to-tower gap is used as U 2FF of the overvoltage distribution to be withstood by the electrical distance, and that all surges have this value. The number of fast-front overvoltages can be estimated from the lightning activity in the vicinity of the line. The number of nearby strikes which will result in an induced overvoltage and the number to the line (earthed parts and live parts together) can be estimated from the keraunic level or the lightning ground-flash density. If an earth wire (ground wire) is installed, most strikes to the line will be conducted to earth without generating significant voltages on the phase conductors. The percentage of strikes, which result in significant overvoltages on the phase conductors, will depend on the construction and design of the line and is likely to be in the range of 5 % to 100 %. The following cases shall be distinguished: a) shielding failure which results in sparkover near to the point of strike this will not lead to overvoltages being propagated along the line; b) shielding failures which do not result in sparkover near to the point of strike these can propagate until sparkover occurs at a nearby tower, to an object near the line, or are dissipated by corona discharges (the range is likely to be limited to under 10 km by corona discharges). This class of overvoltages is thus potentially important for determining the value of D el; c) back flashovers these result in sparkover near to the point of strike but a surge will propagate. Such a surge can propagate until sparkover occurs at a nearby tower, to an object near the line, or are dissipated by corona discharges (the range is likely to be limited to under 10 km by corona discharges). This class of overvoltage is thus potentially important for determining the value of D el. The rate of induced strikes is related to the lightning activity in the vicinity of the line but, as the overvoltage is generally under 200 kV, these are of little concern for the higher transmission voltages. The rate of occurrence of fast-front waves on the line is thus likely to be related to the fault rate of the line rather than to the number of strikes to the line. Those strikes that are within a distance of 10 km of the person result in overvoltages which shall be considered in the determination of D el.

Required withstand voltage of the air gap

This value is defined statistically and known as the statistical withstand voltage, U 90, which is determined by multiplying the 2 % statistical overvoltage, U 2, by a statistical safety factor, K S. The value of K S is chosen to provide a particular level of probability of disruptive discharge of the air gap.

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61865 IEC:2001 6.1 General 27

The electrical distance, D el, is that distance where the probability of discharge from each of the three types of electrical stress is an acceptable level for the time of occupancy. In practical terms, the electrical distance is generally determined by lightning overvoltages for systems where U S does not exceed 245 kV, and by switching overvoltages for systems where U S is above 245 kV. 6.1.1 Probability of disruptive discharge for slow-front waves

The probability of discharge, R S, can then be calculated for each type of overvoltage, generally as described in lEC 60071-2. Knowing the probability density function of the overvoltage, f(U), and the probability function of the discharge voltage, P(U), one can calculate R S from (see 3.3.2.2, equation (8) of lEC 60071-2): RS =

0 f (U )P(U )dU

(4)

Under certain assumptions and for slow-front surges, function f(U) can be determined from the 2 % overvoltage, U 2, and the associated coefficient of variation, s 2. Function P(U) can be derived from the statistical withstand voltage, U 90, and the relevant coefficient of variation, s 90 (which can be taken to be 5 % or 6 % for slow-front waves and 3 % for fast-front waves). Guidance in the application of equation (4) is provided by IEC 60071-2. Since U 90 = K S U 2, the probability of sparkover is related to the statistical safety factor, K S. This probability can be calculated using equation (4) and assuming a Weibull distribution for each function. The resulting values are given elsewhere (see 3.3.2.2, figure 8 of IEC 60071-2), approximate values derived from this figure are shown in table 1. It is recommended that values from overvoltage studies are used, when these are available, otherwise the values from figure 8 of IEC 60071-2 are used.
Table 1 Slow-front waves: probability of discharge
KS 1,0 1,07 1,13 1,2 Probability R S 1 10 2 1 10 3 1 10 4 1 10 5

6.1.2

Probability of disruptive discharge for fast-front waves

The distribution of the lightning overvoltages is taken to be such that all have a voltage of U 90 of the gap between the conductor and the tower. The probability of a disruptive discharge thus depends on the number of standard deviations between U 90 and U 50 of the gap, D el. Approximate values are given in table 2, based on a normal distribution for the gap.

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Table 2 Fast-front waves: probability of discharge
KS 1,0 1,01 1,02 1,03 1,04 1,05 1,06 Probability R S 9,7 10 2 5,3 10 2 2,7 10 2 1,3 10 2 5,7 10 3 2,4 10 3 9,3 10 4

6.1.3

Mitigating factors

In reality, the probability is further reduced by the term k m that defines the reduction resulting from mitigating factors. The reduction in probability is specific to each overvoltage type and for fast-front and temporary overvoltages it is recommended that k m is set to 1,0 in the absence of other information. For slow-front waves, k m can have a value less than unity because about half the slow-front overvoltages are of negative polarity, which is less severe for geometries relevant to the determination of D el; U 2 is calculated on the basis of the highest voltage of the system, U S, which in itself has a statistical variation that is not taken into account in this procedure; the actual time-to-peak of slow-front overvoltages will usually be less stressful than the so-called critical time-to-peak on which the gap discharge formula is based.

Together, these mitigating factors could reduce the probability of disruptive discharge by a factor of more than 3 and in this case k m = 0,33. 6.1.4 Choosing K S

To stay below the annual acceptable probability level, the appropriate statistical safety factor, K S, associated with R S has to be selected. For n overvoltages, the overall annual probability, R a, is then given by the formula: Ra = nTocc k m RS N (5)

The actual probability of sparkover of the electrical distance in a year, R a, is the sum of contributions from slow-front overvoltages, fast-front overvoltages and temporary overvoltages (of duration t). That is: T Ra = occ {(nFF RSFF kmFF ) + ( nSF RSSF kmSF ) + ( nSFR RSSFR kmSF ) + ( nT tRT )} N (6)

If the temporary overvoltages are not significant in determining D el as is normally the case, this reduces to T Ra = occ {( nFF RSFF kmFF ) + ( nSF RSSF kmSF ) + ( nSFR RSSFR kmSF )} N

(7)

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The procedure to derive the electrical distance, D el, recognizes that R S is a function of the length of the gap and is selected to be a small value (for example, R S will be of order 10 3 for R a of 10 7 ). From a practical point of view, it is best to calculate the electrical distance, D el, in clause 7, for fast-front overvoltages, switching overvoltages, reclosing overvoltages and temporary overvoltages. The overall electrical distance, D el, will then be the greater of these distances, in general.
NOTE It is prudent to confirm that the overall risk is not then greater than the specified value for R a (for example, 10 7 ) and if this is the case, D el should be increased accordingly.

If this practical point of view is followed, R SFF, R SSF, R SSFR and R t are derived from the following equations: T Ra = occ ( nFF RSFF kmFF ) N T Ra = occ ( nSF RSSF kmSF ) N T Ra = occ ( nSFR RSSFR kmSF ) N T Ra = occ ( nT tRT ) N 6.2 Calculation of the required withstand voltage

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

From the voltage U 2, the 90 % withstand voltage of the air gap can be determined by multiplying by the appropriate value of K S, the statistical safety factor, to give the desired probability of withstand of the gap (R SFF, R SSF, R SSFR) U 90 = K SU 2 The (50 %) statistical withstand voltage, U 50, is then determined from: U 50 = U 90 (1 1,3 s) K SU 2 (1 1,3 s) (13) (12)

U 50 =

(14)

Hence the 50 % statistical withstand voltages can be determined for each overvoltage by the following formulae: U 50SF = K SSFU 2SF (1 1,3 s SF ) K SSFRU 2SFR (1 1,3 s SFR )

slow-front:

(15)

slow-front reclosing:

U 50SFR =

(16)

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fast-front:

U 50FF =

K SFFU 2FF (1 1,3 sFF )

(17)

where K SSF, K SSFR and K SFF are the statistical safety factors; s SF, s SFR and s FF are the applicable coefficients of variation, in each case.

Calculation of the distance associated with the overvoltages

Once the required U 50 of the gap has been calculated, the length of the air gap can be determined. The U 50 voltage that an air gap of a given length can sustain without discharge depends on three main factors: a) the waveshape of the applied voltage; b) the separation and shape of the electrodes forming the air gap; c) the atmospheric conditions: air density and humidity (air density is markedly affected by altitude above sea-level and by temperature). The effect of these factors has been determined in impulse tests conducted by many laboratories over many decades. In these tests, the 50 % disruptive withstand voltage, U 50, and often also its statistical conventional deviation, s, have normally been determined for a certain air-gap length. A general expression for U 50 of an air gap of length d is :

U 50 = k g k a f ( d )
where

(18)

f(d) is an expression for the variation of U 50 with distance d, depending on voltage shape (usually given in terms of the discharge voltage, U 50RP, of a rod-plane reference gap); k g is the gap factor and can be expressed in terms of k gSF, the slow-front gap factor, and allows for the influence of the electrode geometry. The gap factor for the slow-front overvoltage can be used to determine the effective gap factor for the a.c. and fastfront overvoltages (see annex A). The slow-front gap factor for a conductor over a plane is 1,1 to 1,15 but for many practical objects under a line, the gap is nearer to a rod-conductor gap (for which the gap factor is typically 1.6). It is recommended that the gap factor appropriate to the configuration for which the electrical distance is required be used. In many cases where there is an absence of other information, a gap factor of 1,2 can be used for calculating the electrical distance for many configurations, but it should be borne in mind that higher and lower values can occur; k a is an atmospheric correction factor to allow for non-standard atmospheric conditions (i.e. other than at 20 C, 101 kPa, 325 kPa and a moisture content of 0,011 kgm 3 ). The response of air insulation to the three types of overvoltages is described in annex G of IEC 60071-2, and summarized in annex A of this standard. The relationship between D and U 50 is given in clause A.5. The example in annex B demonstrates the derivation of D el.

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Annex A (informative) Relationship between U50 and the gap length, d

A.1
f(d): gap factor:

Temporary overvoltages
U 50RP = 750 ln (1 + 0,55 d 1,2 )
2 k gA = 1,35 k gSF 0,35 k gSF

see note 1 see note 2

(A.1) (A.2)

the coefficient of variation for temporary overvoltages, s A = 0,03 to 0,04; k gSF is the slow-front gap factor.
NOTE 1 U is in kilovolts r.m.s. and d in metres. For gaps greater than 2 m, the peak value is about 20 % to 30 % higher than the corresponding value for slow-front overvoltage. NOTE 2 For gaps less than 2 m, k gA is generally lower than for slow-front overvoltage, and is quite close to unity for gaps up to about 1 m.

A.2
f(d):

Slow-front overvoltages
U 50RP = 1 080 ln (0,46 d + 1) k gSF = 1,0 to 2,0 see note 1 (A.3)

gap factor:

see note 2 see note 3

s SF is the coefficient of variation for slow-front waves (= 0,05)

NOTE 1 U is in kilovolts and d in metres. Equation (A.3) is valid for positive polarity, critical-front waves and gaps in the range of 1 m to 24 m. The negative polarity strength is 1,8 to 2,4 times higher than positive polarity for gaps from 2 m to 14 m, and can therefore generally be ignored. NOTE 2 NOTE 3 See table G.1 of IEC 60071-2. Five per cent for positive impulses; up to 8 % for negative (CIGRE Guide No 72).

A.3

Fast-front overvoltages

Positive polarity: f(d): gap factor: U 50RP = 530 d k gFF = 0,74 + 0,26 k gSF (A.4) (A.5)

s FF is the coefficient of variation for fast-front waves (= 0,03).

NOTE 1 Equation (A.4) is valid for gaps up to 8 m, d is in metres and U in kilovolts.

The following derivation is of the U 90 of the conductor-to-tower gap (which is taken to have a distance of D LT in metres), an associated slow-front gap factor of k gSF, a fast-front coefficient of variation, s FF, and an atmospheric correction factor, k a.

U 90FF = 530 DLT (0,74 + 0,26 k gSF ) (1 1,3 sFF ) k a

(A.6)

NOTE 2 The distance D LT to be considered is that between the conductor and the structure which discharges when fast-front impulses are applied to the conductor; the discharge occurs either along the insulator string or across the air gap to the tower.

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For example, D LT = 2,8 m, k gSF = 1,4 s FF = 0,03 and an atmospheric correction factor, k a = 1 U 90FF = 1 574 kV (A.7)

A.4

Atmospheric correction factor, k a

For each type of overvoltage, the temperature, pressure and absolute humidity, each of which has variability over time, affect the dielectric strength of an air gap. This can be taken into account by the atmospheric correction factor, k a, which has a value that depends mainly on altitude above sea level. The value of this correction factor can be derived from IEC 60060-1, using the atmospheric pressure and temperature at the point of interest, or by referring to IEC 61472.

A.5

Calculating the electrical distance

The equations given in the previous subclauses can be converted in terms of distance and combined with the values of U 50 for each overvoltage determined in 6.2, to give the following expressions for the electrical distance: a) for temporary overvoltages
2 1,2 U 50 A = 750 (1,35 k gSF 0,35 k gSF ) k a ln (1 + 0,55 Del )

(A.8)

hence:

U Del = 1,65 [exp( 50 ) 1] 0,833 x

2 x = 750 k a (1,35 k gSF 0,35 k gSF )

(A.9)

where:

(A.10)

b) for slow-front overvoltages (positive polarity)

U 50SF = 1 080 k gSF k a ln (0,46 DSF + 1)

U 50 1 080 k gSF k a

(A.11)

hence:

DSF = 2,17 {exp (

) 1}

(A.12)

c) for fast-front overvoltages (positive polarity)

U 50F = 530 {0,74 + 0,26 k gSF } k a DF

DF = U 50F 530 (0,74 + 0,26 k gSF ) k a

(A.13)

hence:

(A.14)

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Annex B (informative) Example of the calculation of the electrical component

The example is for a line with a highest system operating voltage of 420 kV. T occ = 1 h k g is the slow-front gap factor. The slow-front gap factor is taken to be 1,4 and to be 1,2 for this calculation.
NOTE The value to be used depends upon the configuration of the object and the line. Further information is given in CIGRE Guide 72 and IEC 60071-2. A gap factor of 1,4 is taken to be typical of the gap between a line and the outstretched hand of an individual, and 1,1 for a gap between a line and the top of a flat object such as the line to the top of a vehicle.

k a = 1, i.e. the reference altitude is 0 m, the ambient temperature is 20 C and moisture content 11 gm 3 . k m = 0,4 for switching and reclosing waveforms, but 1,0 for lightning overvoltages and temporary overvoltages. It is presumed that there are 20 switching operations per year (n SF = 20) with u 2 = 2,5 p.u. (i.e. 2 , 5 420 2 3 = 857 , 3 kV)

and one reclosing operation per year (n SFR = 1) with u 2 = 2,8 p.u. (i.e. 2,8 420 2 3 = 960,2 kV)

One fast-front overvoltage per year per 100 km (i.e.

1 20 fast-front overvoltage per year of 100 relevance for calculating individual probability of sparkover and of amplitude U 90 of the gap between conductor and tower). The gap between conductor and tower is 2,75 m. The temporary overvoltages can be up to 1,5 p.u. and the duration is not known with certainty.

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B.1

Determination of Del for switching operations

From clause 6, the annual probability, R aSF, has to be less than 10 7 and so the probability of sparkover of the gap, R S, can be calculated: RS = RS ( Del ) = ( Ra nTocc km ) N (B.1)

RS ( Del ) = 1,095 10 4 K S = 1,13 from figure 8 of IEC 60071-2 From 6.2 and U 90 = k S U 2 = 1,13 857 = 968 kV U 50 = U 90 = 1 036 kV (1 1,3 0,05 ) (B.2) (B.3)

hence D el = 2,14 m for k g = 1,4 (and D el = 2,66 m for k g = 1,2)

B.2

Determination of Del for reclosing operations

From clause 6, the annual probability, R a, has to be less than 10 7 and so the probability of sparkover of the gap, R S, can be calculated: Ra RS = RS ( Del ) = n T k ( SFR occ m ) N RS ( Del ) = 2,19 10 3 K S = 1,04 from figure 8 of IEC 60071-2 From 6.2 U 90 = k SU 2 = 1,04 960,2 = 998 kV U 50 = U 90 = 1 068 kV (1 1,3 0,05 ) (B.5) (B.4)

and

(B.6)

hence D el = 2,24 m for k g = 1,4 (and D el = 2,80 m for k g = 1,2)

B.3

Lightning

The fast-front U 50 of the insulator string, U 50FF, is calculated from its dimension (2,75 m) and the assumed gap factor of the insulator string (1,4 for slow-front waves). The altitude correction factor, k a (which equals 1 in this example) is included to show that in general it cancels out. U 50FF = 530 (0,74 + 0,26 1,4) k a 2,75 = 1 609 k a and next U 90FF is derived: U 90FF = U 50FF (1 1,3 0,03 ) = 1 546 k a (B.8) (B.7)

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The probability of sparkover of the gap is given by: 10 7 = 4,4 10 3 0,2 ) ( 8 760

RS ( Del ) =

(B.9)

K S = 1,04 from 6.1.2 U 90 of gap to object = 1 546 K S k a = 1 608 k a U 50 = U 90 (1 1,3 0,03 )

and (from clause A.3)

DelFF =

U 50 530 (0,74 + 0,26 k gSF )

(B.10)

for k g = 1,4, D el = 2,87 m for k g = 1,2, D el = 3,01 m

B.4

Temporary overvoltages

The U 50 of the gap is taken to be four standard deviations above the peak value of the maximum amplitude of the temporary overvoltage (1,5 p.u. in this example) and the coefficient of variation s A is taken to be 0,04. So U 50 = (1 + 0,04 4) 343 1,5 = 597 kV Solving D el in the equation (A.9) D el = 1,56 m for k g = 1,4 and D el = 1,70 m for k g = 1,2
Table B.1 Summary of the results
Wave type Temporary overvoltage Lightning overvoltage Switching overvoltage Reclosing overvoltage Value p.u. 1,5 U 90 of line / tower gap U 2 = 2,5 p.u. U 2 = 2,8 p.u. D el for k g =1,4 1,56 m 2,87 m 2,14 m 2,24 m D el for k g =1,2 1,70 m 3,01 m 2,66 m 2,80 m

The D el will be the greatest of the components for each wave type, i.e. 2,87 m for a gap factor of 1,4 and 3,01 m for a gap factor of 1,2. Because, for k g = 1,2, D el for the lightning overvoltage is close to D el for the reclose overvoltage, it is necessary to check that the overall probability of sparkover does not exceed 10 7 and, if necessary, increase the 3,01 m so that the probability is below the acceptable value. In this case, it is not necessary so D el = 3,01 m for k g =1,2 and D el = 2,87 m for k g =1,4.

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Bibliography

CIGRE No. 72, 1992, Guidelines for the evaluation of the dielectric strength of external insulation , prepared by CIGRE SC 33/WG 07

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