Map Projections

Map Projection
Scientific method of transferring locations on Earths surface to a flat map 3 major families of projection
Cylindrical
Mercator Projection

Conic Projections
Well suited for mid-latitudes

Planar Projections

The Variables in Map Projection

Map Projection Distorts Reality
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A sphere is not a developable solid. Transfer from 3D globe to 2D map must result in loss of one or global characteristics: Shape Area Distance Direction Position

Projection Orientation or Aspect

We will come back to this graphic later in the lecture

Characteristics of a Globe to consider as you evaluate projections

Scale is everywhere the same:
all great circles are the same length the poles are points.

Meridians are spaced evenly along parallels. Meridians and parallels cross at right angles.

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Characteristics of globe to consider as you evaluate projections

Quadrilaterals equal in longitudinal extent formed between two parallels have equal area.

Area of a = area of b

Characteristics of globe to consider as you evaluate projections

Pole e d c b a 0 20 Areas of quadrilaterals formed by any two meridians and sets of evenly spaced parallels decrease poleward.

Classification of Projections:
What global characteristic preserved. Geometric approach to construction.
projection surface light source

Orientation. Interface of projection surface to Earth.

Area of a > b > c > d >e

Global Characteristic Preserved

Conformal Equivalent Equidistant Azimuthal or direction

Conformal Projections
Retain correct angular relations in transfer from globe to map. Angles correct for small areas. Scale same in any direction around a point, but scale changes from point to point. Parallels and meridians cross at right angles. Large areas tend to look more like they do on the globe than is true for other projections. Examples: Mercator and Lambert Conformal Conic

Mercator Projection

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

Equivalent or Equal Area Projections

A map area of a given size, a circle three inches in diameter for instance, represents same amount of Earth space no matter where on the globe the map area is located.

Equivalent or Equal Area Projections

A map area of a given size, a circle three inches in diameter for instance, represents same amount of Earth space no matter where on the globe the map area is located. Maintaining equal area requires: Scale changes in one direction to be offset by scale changes in the other direction. Right angle crossing of meridians and parallels often lost, resulting in shape distortion.

Maintaining Equal Area

Projection
Pole Pole e d c b a 20 0 20

Mollweide Equivalent Projection

Area of a > b > c > d >e

Equivalent & Conformal

OR
Show true size and squish/stretch shapes Preserve true shapes and exaggerate areas

Equidistant Projections
Length of a straight line between two points represents correct great circle distance. Lines to measure distance can originate at only one or two points.

Plane Projection: Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

Azimuthal Projections
Straight line drawn between two points depicts correct:
Great circle route Azimuth
Azimuth = angle between starting point of a line and north

North

Line can originate from only one point on map. = Azimuth of green line

Projections Classified by Projection Surface & Light Source

Developable surface (transfer to 2D surface)
Common surfaces:
Plane Cone Cylinder

Light sources:
Gnomonic Stereographic Orthographic

Earth grid and features projected from sphere to a plane surface.

Azimuthal Projection Centered on Rowan Plane Surface

Plane Projection
Equidistant Azimuthal

Plane Projection: Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

Globe

Projection to plane

Conic Surface
Globe projected onto a cone, which is then flattened. Cone usually fit over pole like a dunce cap.
Meridians are straight lines. Angle between all meridians is identical.

Equidistant Conic Projection

Cylinder Surface
Globe projected onto a cylinder, which is then flattened. Cylinder usually fit around equator.
Meridians are evenly spaced straight lines. Spacing of parallels varies depending on specific projection.

Miller Millers Cylindrical Projection

Light Source Location

Gnomonic: light projected from center of globe to projection surface. Stereographic: light projected from antipode of point of tangency. Orthographic: light projected from infinity.

Gnomonic Projection

Gnomic Projection

Gnomic Projection

Stereographic Projection

Mercator Projection

Stereographic Projection

Stereographic Projection

Orthographic Projection

Projection Orientation
Orientation: the position of the point or line

of tangency with respect to the globe.

Normal orientation or aspect: usual orientation for the developable surface: equator for cylinder, pole for plane, apex of cone over pole for cone [parallel]. Transverse or polar aspect:
point of tangency at equator for plane. line of tangency touches pole as it wraps around earth for cylinder. Hardly done for cone

Oblique aspect: the point or line of tangency is anywhere but the pole or the equator.

Normal Orientation

Mercator Projection

Transverse Orientation

Oblique Orientation

Putting Things Together

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Projection Orientation or Aspect

Projection Surface to Globe Interface

Any of the various possible projection combinations can have either a tangent or a secant interface:
Tangent: projection surface touches globe surface at one point or along one line. Secant: projection surface intersects the globe thereby defining a:
Circle of contact in the case of a plane, Two lines of contact and hence true scale in the case of a cone or cylinder.

Tangent & Secant Projections: Cone

Tangent & Secant Projections: Cylinder

Projection Selection Guidelines

Determine which global feature is most important to preserve [e.g., shape, area]. Where is the place you are mapping:
Equatorial to tropics = consider cylindrical Midlatitudes Polar regions = consider conic = consider azimuthal

Consider use of secant case to provide two lines of zero distortion.

Example Projections & Their Use

Cylindrical Conic Azimuthal Nongeometric or mathematical

Cylindrical Projections

Cylindrical Projections
Equal area:
Cylindrical Equal Area Peters [wet laundry map].

Cylindrical Projections
Cylinder wrapped around globe:
Scale factor = 1 at equator [normal aspect] Meridians are evenly spaced. As one moves poleward, equal longitudinal distance on the map represents less and less distance on the globe. Parallel spacing varies depending on the projection. For instance different light sources result in different spacing.

Conformal:
Mercator Transverse Mercator

Compromise:
Miller

Peters Projection
Cylindrical Equal area

Central Perspective Cylindrical

Light source at center of globe.
Spacing of parallels increases rapidly toward poles. Spacing of meridians stays same.
Increase in north-south scale toward poles. Increase in east-west scale toward poles.

Mercator Projection
Cylindrical like mathematical projection:
Spacing of parallels increases toward poles, but more slowly than with central perspective projection. North-south scale increases at the same rate as the east-west scale: scale is the same around any point. Conformal: meridians and parallels cross at right angles.

Dramatic area distortion toward poles.

Straight lines represent lines of constant compass direction: loxodrome or rhumb lines.

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Mercator Projection

Gnomonic Projection
Geometric azimuthal projection with light source at center of globe.
Parallel spacing increases toward poles. Light source makes depicting entire hemisphere impossible.

Important characteristic: straight lines on map represent great circles on the globe. Used with Mercator for navigation :
Plot great circle route on Gnomonic. Transfer line to Mercator to get plot of required compass directions.

Gnomonic Projection with Great Circle Route

Cylindrical Equal Area

Light source: orthographic.
Mercator Projection with Great Circle Route Transferred

Parallel spacing decreases toward poles. Decrease in N-S spacing of parallels is exactly offset by increase E-W scale of meridians. Result is equivalent projection. Used for world maps.

Millers Cylindrical
Compromise projection near conformal Similar to Mercator, but less distortion of area toward poles. Used for world maps.

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Miller Millers Cylindrical Projection

Conic Projections

Conics
Globe projected onto a cone, which is then opened and flattened. Chief differences among conics result from:
Choice of standard parallel. Variation in spacing of parallels.

Conic Projections
Equal area:
Albers Lambert

Transverse or oblique aspect is possible, but rare. All polar conics have straight meridians. Angle between meridians is identical for a given standard parallel .

Conformal:
Lambert

Conic Projections
Usually drawn secant. Area between standard parallels is projected inward to cone. Areas outside standard parallels projected outward.

Lambert Conformal Conic

Parallels are arcs of concentric circles. Meridians are straight and converge on one point. Parallel spacing is set so that N-S and E-W scale factors are equal around any point. Parallels and meridians cross at right angles. Usually done as secant interface. Used for conformal mapping in mid-latitudes for maps of great east-west extent.

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Lambert Conformal Conic

Albers Equal Area Conic

Parallels are concentric arcs of circles. Meridians are straight lines drawn from center of arcs. Parallel spacing adjusted to offset scale changes that occur between meridians. Usually drawn secant.
Between standard parallels E-W scale too small, so N-S scale increased to offset. Outside standard parallels E-W scale too large, so NS scale is decreased to compensate.

Albers Equal Area Conic

Used for mapping regions of great eastwest extent. Projection is equal area and yet has very small scale and shape error when used for areas of small latitudinal extent.

Albers Equal Area Conic

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Albers Equal Area Conic

Modified Conic Projections

Lambert Conformal Conic

Polyconic:
Place multiple cones over pole. Every parallel is a standard parallel. Parallels intersect central meridian at true spacing. Compromise projection with small distortion near central meridian.

Polyconic

Polyconic

Azimuthal Projections
Equal area:
Lambert

Azimuthal Projections

Conformal:
Sterographic

Equidistant:
Azimuthal Equidistant

Gnomonic:
Compromise, but all straight lines are great circles.

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Azimuthal Projections
Projection to the plane. All aspects: normal, transverse, oblique. Light source can be gnomonic, stereographic, or orthographic. Common characteristics:
great circles passing through point of tangency are straight lines radiating from that point. these lines all have correct compass direction. points equally distant from center of the projection on the globe are equally distant from the center of the map.

Azimuthal Equidistant

Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

Other Projections

Other Projections
Not strictly of a development family Usually compromise projections. Examples:
Van der Griten Robinson Mollweide Sinusodial Goodes Homolosine Briesmeister Fuller

Van der Griten

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Van der Griten

Robinson Projection

Mollweide Equivalent Projection

Sinusoidal Equal Area Projection

Briemeister

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Fuller Projection Projections & Coordinate Systems for Large Scale Mapping

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