Advanced Placement Physics B Temperature:

Thermal Physics

Average KE of the particles. Depends on average speed only of particles (atoms or molecules) A bucket of water at 50o has the same temperature as a cup of water at 50o Average KE and the mass of the particles Depends on speed and the mass of the particles. A bucket of water at 50o has more thermal energy than a cup at 100o (more moles in bucket). Bucket of $50 bills has more money than a cup of $100s. While the particles are going faster in the cup, there are so many more in the bucket. temperature. From hot objects (more energy) to cold objects (less energy).

Thermal Energy:

Heat: Transfer of energy between objects that have different temperatures. The direction of heat flow depends on Thermal Expansion: As objects are heated the molecules move faster and they expand. This is why the liquid in a
thermometer rises when heated. It is how a thermostat works. It is why there are gaps in sidewalks, bridges, & railroad tracks. It is why they dont fill bottles to the top, they might explode if the liquid expands to much.

l = l o T

The equation provides the change in length. The original length l o is multiplied by , the coefficient of

linear expansion, and the change in temperature. How long will a 5 m section of steel railroad track expand ( = 12 10 6 , from table 13-1, p 343) to if it is heated from 15o to 25oC?
l = l o T= ( 5 ) ( 12 10 6 ) (25 15 ) 0.0006m =

so it will be 5m + 0.0006m = 5.0006m

Kinetic Molecular Theory:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Gas molecules collide with each other and their surroundings. Large number of gas molecules (N) moving in random directions and a variety of speeds. They are far apart, with the separation distances being vast compared to the diameter of each particle. Molecules obey laws of mechanics. They attract each other, but we ignore this since the speeds and KE are huge. Collisions with each other and container walls are assumed to be perfectly elastic. Conservation of p and KE. The higher the temperature the faster the molecules move. The particles vary in speed, so we can only measure an average. Half will be going faster and half slower than the average. Average KE allows a calculation of this speed. 3 KE = k BT Average KE = 3/2 (Boltzmans Constant, 1.38x10-23)(Temperature in degrees Kelvin) 2

U T U is total energy of a volume of ideal gas U = 3/2 nRT And U = 3/2 nRT

U = 3/2 KBT

NOT on Ref Table!!

We can calculate the speed of the molecules on average

vrms = 3k BT 3RT = M

The Root Mean Square Velocity = Square root of [(3)(1.38x10-23)(Temp in K)/(mass)]

Gas Laws
Pressure: P = F Area
2 Measured in N m called a Pascal.

Collisions against an object are felt as pressure.

Universal Gas Law:

PV = nRT (Static cases) or

1000 L = 1m 3

PV1 PV2 1 = 2 (Changing cases) n1T1 n2 T2

Pressure is measured in Pascals Volume is measured in meters3 Gas constant

1atm = 101300 Pa = 1105 Pa

8.31 J mol K

1Pa = 1 N m2

Static cases:

One container under a specific set of conditions. What is the temperature of 30 mol of gas at 4 atm of pressure occupying 200 L? Thermal Physics

Study Guide and Review

PV = nRT

( 4 10 Pa ) ( 0.200m ) = ( 30mol ) ( 8.315 J

5 3

mol K ) T

Changing cases:

One container under changing conditions, or gas moved from one container to another.

Boyles Law: Pressure and Volume are inversely proportional. As one goes up the other goes down.
200 L of gas at 4 atm of pressure is moved to a 400 L container, what is its new pressure? (n and T arent mentioned, so they must stay the same, and must cancel)
PV1 PV2 1 = 2 n1T1 n2 T2 PV = PV 1 2

( 4 10 Pa ) ( 0.200m ) = P ( 0.400m )
5 3 3 2

Charles Law: Temperature and Volume are directly proportional. As one goes up the other goes up.
200 L (=0.2 m3) of gas at 273 K are heated to 373 K, what is the new volume? (P and n arent mentioned, so they must stay the same, and must cancel)
PV1 PV2 1 = 2 n1T1 n2 T2 V1 V2 = T1 T2 0.200 m3 V = 2 273 K 373 K

Combined Law: 200 L of gas at 3 atm and 273 K are moved to a 400 L container and heated to 373 K. What is
the pressure? (n isnt mentioned, so they must stay the same, and must cancel)
PV1 PV2 1 = 2 n1T1 n2 T2 PV1 PV2 1 = 2 T1 T2

( 3 10 Pa ) ( 0.200m ) = P ( 0.400m )
5 3 3

( 273K )

( 373K )

or

( 3atm ) ( 2 L ) = P2 ( 4 L ) ( 273K ) ( 373K )

Thermodynamics
System and environment: Think of the amount of energy in universe as constant. But, energy can be added
to or subtracted from a system (engine, etc.). Energy comes from or goes to the greater universe (environment). Energy can transfer between systems. A ball colliding with another can transfer energy to that ball. Energy can change forms. If you calculate potential energy that energy can change into kinetic energy, electrical energy, thermal energy, etc.

Internal Energy All matter has some amount of energy. Objects feel warm to the touch (internal energy: due to
heat content or thermal energy of the object) caused by vibration of atoms that make up the object. If energy is added to an object it can start moving or become hotter. If energy is subtracted it can slow down or become colder. Or it can be a combination of motion and heat. Most of the beginning problems we do are done pretending that no energy is lost to the environment in the form of friction and air resistance. We often assume the energy stays in one form or that 100% is transferred when energy changes form. In real life energy is lost to the environment. Also objects become a little hotter in collisions increasing internal energy. 100% of the energy put into problems will not be available to cause motion, electricity, or power a heat engine. So many of the problems are not realistic. They ask for a theoretical unattainable maximum assuming no energy loss or perfect energy transfer.

Heat Transfer
Conduction: Objects touch transferring energy (molecular collisions) Convection: Fluids (gases & liquids) carry heat as they flow. Hot air or water rise, carrying heat. Convection currents. Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation, as in infrared frequencies of light. Why does a thermos have an inner container separated from the outer by a vacuum? Why is the inside reflective?

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Two objects, each in thermal equilibrium with a third object, are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Internal Energy: It is the sum total of all the energies of the individual molecules that make up a system. U Internal energy is the potential thermal energy that all objects contain.

Study Guide and Review

Thermal Physics

First Law of Thermodynamics: Statement of conservation of energy. U = W + Q U : the change in the systems internal energy. + Q : heat added. W : the work done on system.
+Q means heat is added to the system, while -Q means heat is given out by the system. +W means work is done on the system, while -W means work is performed by the system. Adiabatic: If no heat enters or leaves system, then system is said to be perfectly isolated from its environment. Process that happens so rapidly so that heat does not have time to flow in or out of the system. If a gas filled cylinder is compressed very rapidly, heat wont have time to escape.

Q=0

U = W

Change in internal energy is the negative of work done

Isothermal: If temp of the system does not change during process A good approximation is one that proceeds so slowly that temperature rise is negligible. Compress a gas filled cylinder very slowly so that molecules dont speed up and temperature does not rise.

U = 0 Q = - W
Isobaric: W = -PV

Heat added equals the neg .work done.

If pressure is kept constant during the process. Work to raise a piston in a gas cylinder.

W = Fd W = -P (area of piston x height)

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

First Law is a statement of conservation of energy. A ball with PE falls so energy becomes KE. Then it hits the ground causing the molecules to vibrate. The KE is transferred to internal energy and the ball comes to a stop. Have you ever seen the reverse? If internal energy caused the ball to rise energy would still be conserved, so why isnt it reversible. Heat flows naturally from a hot object to a cold object; heat will not flow spontaneously from a cold to a hot object.

Heat Engines
Mechanical energy can be obtained from thermal energy, only when heat is allowed to flow from a high temperature to a low temperature. Example: steam engines, internal combustion engines, and human respiration. Remember thermal energy is not heat (heat is the transfer of energy because of a temperature difference). A piece of cold wood has high thermal energy (fuel) that can be burned. This is true for gasoline and the food you eat. If this energy can be tapped it can do work. But there is always a by-product: heat rising above a fire, the hot exhaust of a car, and human body heat are the by-products. High Temperature, TH QH W QC Low Temperature, TC

Efficiency: ratio of useful work done to the heat input. W QH QC Q e= = = 1 C QH QH QH Carnot Efficiency: an unattainable maximum theoretical efficiency.
Carnot imagined a gas cylinder moved from hot to cold and expanding and contracting. He also imagined that all the processes could be done reversibly. He imagined this because it happened so slowly that equilibrium was maintained throughout. Real processes happen fast and involve turbulence thus making reversal along the same path impossible. He showed that even under these ideal circumstances 100% efficiency is impossible.

ec =

TH TC TH

= 1

TC TH
High Temperature, TH QH W QC Low Temperature, TC

Second Law Revisited

No device is possible whose sole effect is to transform an amount of heat completely into work.

Refrigerator
(Heat Pump diagrammed to the right) Pumps heat away from one area to another. You do work to make this happen. The work comes from electrical energy. But, whats happening to QH? Its getting bigger. So overall a refrigerators actually produce heat. As an example, in the process of lowering the inside air volume 40 degrees they may raise an equal volume of outside air by 100 degrees. If you fan yourself to keep cool, you do work and generate even more heat. Study Guide and Review Thermal Physics

Entropy
A measure of how much energy or heat is unavailable for conversion to work. This is why heat is sometimes called the graveyard of energy. As Carnot showed not all the heat energy in even a perfect engine can be used to do work. Entropy is thought of as disorganization. As we use more energy we get more heat as a by-product. Look at oil. It is composed of large well organized molecules. When we burn it to produce work, we get smaller less organized molecules and heat. The small gas by-products of combustion, CO2 and H2O, are more difficult to burn and extract further work from. Gases are less organized than liquids, which are less organized than solids. Perhaps all highly organized molecules will turn into small atoms of gas evenly distributed throughout the universe and they may eventually reach an even average temperature. If there is no heat difference there can be no work. So life and machines cant exist. This is called the heat death of the universe.

Second Law Re-Revisited

Natural processes tend to move toward a state of greater disorder (entropy). The entropy of an isolated system never decreases. It can only stay the same or increase. And entropy can only really stay the same for idealized (reversible) processes. So it always increases. The total entropy of any system and the environment increases as a result of any natural process.

PV Diagrams
Boyles Law: Pressure and volume are inversely proportional.
This is a part of the ideal gas law and was derived when the number of moles and the temperature remained constant.

Higher temperature

p1V1 p2V2 = p1V1 = p2V2 n1T1 n2T2 Isothermal: If temperature is constant the process is termed isothermal.
(iso: same, isothermal: same temperature). So a hyperbolic curve is generated under conditions of constant temperature. Pressure and volume are indirectly proportional. Moving up or to the right from the isotherm increases temperature. Moving left or down decreases temperature.

Isothermal Line

Lower temperature

Fig. 1

Isobaric
Same Pressure: generated under conditions of constant pressure.

Temp. Increasing

p=

F F V then If we multiply pressure by a change in volume A A

Isobaric line

F V m3 = F d 2 A m

( )

( )

Work

and since W = F d , then W = -PV.

Work is W = -P(Vf Vi), the area under the pV curve (shaded area Fig.2). Work is the area under any pV curve. But it would require calculus to accurately solve for the area under the isothermal line in Fig 1. So many of the processes in this class will be represented by straight lines to facilitate the computation of work, heat added, and change in internal energy.

Fig. 2

Isovolumetric (Isochoric)
Same Volume. An isovolumetric line is generated under conditions of constant volume (Fig. 3). There is no work done, since there is no area under the curve.

Isovolumetric line P V

Temp. Decreasing

Fig. 3

Study Guide and Review

Thermal Physics

The Full Cycle ABCA A to B: p is constant, so this is an isobaric process. The temperature increases by going to the right, so T is positive. The temperature increase also causes an increase in U . The volume is increasing while the gas expands, so W is negative. W = -PV, W = p2 ( V2 V1 ) . Work is the area under the AB curve. (Shaded
area, Fig. 2) B to C: Isochoric, V is constant. Temperature is decreasing, so T is negative. Q must also be negative to make this step take place. The pressure drops even though volume stays the same. The drop in internal energy means the molecules of gas slow down. And slower molecules exert less pressure. W = 0 . The area under the curve is zero.

P2

Work

P1 V1
Fig. 4

V2

C to B: Isothermal, so T = 0 . The First Law of Thermodynamics U = W + Q simplifies to W = - Q . Work is the area under the CA curve and it is positive, since the gas is compressed. ABCA: The Net Work done is the stripped area bounded by ABCA (Fig. 4). Upon returning to A the temperature is the same as it was at the start, so U = 0 for the cycle. So W = - Q for the whole cycle.

Carnot Engine pV Diagram 2po A QH po D QC Vo 2Vo B

Isothermal Curve at TH

Isothermal Curve at TC

A to B: Isothermal (Done slowly: Heat added has time to perform into work without raising internal energy of the gas) Lies along the TA isotherm. Temperature is constant. U = 0 U = W + Q so WAB = - Q
Work is negative since the gas is expanding. The gas pressure starts out high and this pressure causes the volume to expand. If this process is done slowly the temperature of the gas does not change.

p1V1 p2V2 = T1 T2

( 2 po ) ( Vo ) = ( po ) ( 2Vo )
T T

This process is QH , so WAB = QH .

B to C: Adiabatic (Done rapidly: Short time period prevents heat from being added, so Internal energy turns to work) Drops from the TA isothermal line to the TB . So temperature and internal energy are both decreasing. But no heat is
added.

Q=0

U = W + Q

so WBC = -U. Work is negative since the gas is expanding. All the work comes

from internal energy. If work is decreasing, then internal energy must be decreasing. The gas pressure starts out high and this pressure causes the volume to expand. But while the gas pressure appears to be cut in half to po 2 the volume moves from 2Vo to about 3Vo . Plugging in to the ideal gas law shows that temperature cannot be the same.

( po ) ( 2Vo ) = ( po 2 ) ( 3Vo )
TA isothermal T?????
Thermal Physics

Study Guide and Review

C to D: Isothermal (Logic is similar to AB above, but work will calculate positive, gas is being compressed.) Lies along the TB isotherm. Temperature is constant. U = 0 and WCD = Q . The gas pressure starts out low
and this pressure causes the volume to compress.

This process is QC , so WCD = QC .

D to A:

Adiabatic. (Logic is similar to BC above, but work will calculate positive, gas is being compressed.) Rises from TB isothermal line to the TA . So temperature and internal energy are both increasing. But no heat is added. Q = 0 so WDA = U . All the work goes into increasing the internal energy of the gas.

The Cycle ABCDA: This is a heat engine. The Net Work done in the entire cycle is the sum of the areas under the
AB, BC, CD, and DA curves. AB and BC are negative work since the gas expands doing work by the system. CD and DA are positive work since work is done on the engine and the gas is compressed. In other words, the Net Work is the area enclosed by ABCDA. If it returns to the same temperature at A, then during the entire process U = 0 and W = -Q, the net work must have come from the net heat added

W = QH QC . This would be for a reversible ec = TH TC TH

ideal engine (Carnot ) which does not exist. The ideal efficiency for this reversible, Carnot, engine is

The real efficiency is

e=

W QH QC = with QH being generated during the AB process on the TH isotherm and QH QH

QC being generated during the CD process on the TC . Refrigerators: Run in reverse. Counterclockwise. ADCBA. Follow the steps above backwards and change the
signs.

Isotherms
Higher T

Lower T

Study Guide and Review

Thermal Physics

Review Thermodynamics
isothermal constant property combined-gas law temperature

-Four Gas Processes

isobaric pressure isochoric volume adiabatic none

PV graph

W = area under graph + if compressed - if expanded Q + if temp inc - if temp dec U + if temp inc - if temp dec 1st Law relationships

- nRT [ ln (V2 / V1) ] (we will not calculate under curvy curves)

- P( V2 - V1)

W=0

=0

=0

Qadded = - Wdone As the gas expands, the energy is supplied from the addition of heat

Q = U The internal energy of the gas increases as a result of the addition of heat (T)- no work is done

U = W Any work done by the gas is at the expense of its internal energy adiabatic expansions cause gases to get colder.

isothermal

isobaric

isochoric

adiabatic

Study Guide and Review

Thermal Physics

Study Guide and Review

Thermal Physics