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This Factsheet summarises: Definitions of prejudice and discrimination; Explanations of prejudice and discrimination, including personality theories and environmental/cultural theories.

Number 02

Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

Theories of the origins and maintenance of prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice is an attitude (see glossary), usually negative, towards members of a group based on their membership of that group (e.g., gender, race, religion). It involves a prejudgement of a group and includes feelings, such as contempt. Discrimination is a negative behaviour or action (e.g., aggression) directed at members of a group. These terms are not interchangeable; they refer to different things. Prejudice and discrimination do not always occur together. It is possible to be prejudiced to others without openly behaving in a hostile way.

Introduction
Consider these two statements; The killing of Americans and their civilian and military allies is a religious duty for each and every MuslimWe, with Gods help, call on every Muslim who believes in Godto kill Americans and plunder their money whenever and wherever they find it. Osama Bin Laden, 1998 Every day in Britain there are four incidents of racial harassment or abuse every hour. British Crime Survey, 1998/1999 The first statement is a classic and frightening example of prejudice, whereas the second statement illustrates the prevalence of prejudice and discrimination in Britain. Both statements leave us asking why people are prejudiced. What, for example, caused Hitler and his people to murder six million Jews? Social psychology examines prejudice and discrimination by asking what causes prejudice is it a persons personality, their environment (culture), or both?

Theories of prejudice and discrimination: An Overview

It is possible that both personality and environmental/cultural theories are involved in a prejudiced person. What do these theories propose and are they good explanations? Are they supported by evidence? These questions will be answered by outlining the principles and evaluating each theory.

Fig 2. Theories of Prejudice

What are prejudice and discrimination? Fig 1. Prisoners in Dachau concentration camp. (Photo credit: KZ Gedenksatte Dachau)
frustrationaggression

PREJUDICE& DISCRIMINATION

Personality Theories
authoritarian personality

Environmental/Cultural Theories
realistic conflict

social identity relative deprivation

conformity

Exam hint: Begin an essay on prejudice and discrimination with brief definitions of each.

02 - Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination 1. Personality (psychodynamic) theories (i.e., prejudice is primarily a problem of personality).

Psychology Factsheet

Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Basic principles: Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that frustration within an individual or group causes aggression against other individuals and groups. Frustration produces an unpleasant state of arousal which is released as aggression, either to the source of frustration or displaced to a scapegoat if the person cannot vent their anger on the proper target. A historic example of scapegoating is in 1920s Germany, where there was high inflation and unemployment and a rapid growth of anti-Semitism (anti-Jewish prejudice).
Exam hint: Be careful not to write about the aggressionfrustration hypothesis in terms of just aggression. It must be shown how it relates to the origin of prejudice.

Evaluation: The frustration-aggression hypothesis provides a plausible theory of one factor causing prejudice. There is evidence that, when asked to imagine frustrating and non-frustrating situations, participants felt angry in frustrating situations (Doob and Sears, 1939). It does not explain why aggression is directed to one particular group (e.g., Jews). Frustration can also lead to a resigned attitude, not just aggression.

Authoritarian personality
Basic principles; Adorno et al. (1950) stated that prejudice is the result of an authoritarian personality. An authoritarian personality has certain traits and ways of viewing the social world, in particular being preoccupied with power, and fearing and rejecting groups to which they do not belong (outgroups). Childhood experiences are involved in the development of an authoritarian personality. If a child is treated harshly by its parents, the childs hostility towards them remains repressed and is later directed to innocent groups. In other words, their aggression is displaced. Strict parental regime imposing good behaviour Child develops simplistic view of people and their actions Evaluation; Studies by Adorno et al. (1950) support the validity of the F-Scale. They found that high scorers on the F-Scale were more prejudiced than low scorers. Also, high scorers were treated more harshly in childhood than low scorers. The F- and E-Scales correlated to +0.75. Milgram (1974) found that high scorers gave more powerful electric shocks to another person when urged by an authority figure than low scorers. This suggests that high scorers are more deferential to authority, as expected of an authoritarian personality. This theory cannot explain widespread uniformity of prejudice in certain cultural groups. Billig (1976) states that studying individual personality does not account for the role of group norms and social context on a persons attitudes. Rokeach (1960) states that authoritarian personality can be applied to extreme left-wing views, not just right-wing views. A study by Altemeyer (1981) did not replicate Adorno et als (1950) findings that the type of childhood produced an authoritarian personality. It may be social and cultural experience, not just the pattern of childrearing, which determines prejudice. For example, Pettigrew (1958) found high levels of prejudice in South Africans against blacks, but they did not appear to have particularly high levels of authoritarianism. Despite overtly racist attitudes, their personality types were similar to normal populations.

Hostility to individuals not part of in-group Young adult continues stereotyp e

Adorno et al. (1950) used two questionnaires to examine authoritarian personality the E-scale (Ethnocentrism scale) and the F-Scale (Fascism scale). The E-Scale measured the belief that a persons own ethnic group is superior to all others. The F-Scale measured attitudes of authoritarian personality by agreement/disagreement with statements, such as Homosexuals are hardly better than criminals and should be punished.

02 - Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination 2. Environmental or cultural theories (i.e., prejudice is a consequence of social groups)
Social identity theory (intergroup approach)
Basic principles: Tajfel (1981) proposed that we see ourselves as belonging to categories (e.g., racial group, gender) and compare the groups we are in (ingroups) to other groups that we do not belong to (outgroups). Our self-esteem is increased by regarding our own group as superior to others, which leads to a biased view of in- and outgroup members, causing prejudice. Tajfel proposes that mere identification with a group is enough to cause hostility to other groups. Evaluation: Tajfel supported his theory with evidence from minimal group studies (see box). These experiments showed how social identity can be easily formed. Social identity theory is supported by Locksley et al. (1982) who found that participants still showed strong preferences to their ingroup even when they knew that they were randomly allocated to groups. Lemyre and Smith (1985) found that people who discriminate in favour of the ingroup have higher self-esteem than those unable to discriminate, supporting the role of self-esteem in prejudice. A criticism of social identity theory is that it cannot explain the fact that some groups have low self-esteem because the group is assigned to an inferior role. Social identity theory predicts that such individuals would not identify with the ingroup. Minimal group experiments are artificial and may not generalise to the real world. Social identity theory explains stereotypes and intergroup attitudes but does not explain the hostility that goes along with prejudice. A flaw in this theory is shown when self-interest can outweigh social identity. Rabbie, Schot and Visser (1989) found that participants exhibit outgroup favouritism when they are told that they will receive only what outgroup members give them. Social identity theory is not appropriate for some cultures where beliefs and values vary. Some cultures (e.g., Polynesian) show co-operation to outgroups and little ingroup favouritism (Wetherall, 1982).

Psychology Factsheet

Relative deprivation (intergroup approach) Basic principles:

Relative deprivation refers to the gap between what a person has/has done and what they expect or feel they deserve to have/ have done. Runciman (1966) proposed that prejudice arises when there are feelings of deprivation. Relative deprivation intensifies prejudices about an outgroup, especially when in situations of economic hardship, and is expressed as aggression. He proposed two forms of deprivation egotistic deprivation and fraternalistic deprivation. Egotistic deprivation arises from comparing the self to other individuals. Fraternalistic deprivation arises from comparing our own group to other groups. Evaluation: This theory is supported by Vanneman and Pettigrew (1972) who asked white Americans how well off they felt compared with other white Americans and black Americans. Those who did not feel well off compared to other white Americans showed higher levels of prejudice to black Americans. Realistic conflict theory helps us to understand prejudice. One of its strengths is that it is based on both group norms (fraternalistic deprivation) and individual levels of prejudice (egotistic deprivation). A criticism is that it does not provide much detail of the processes involved in producing fraternalistic deprivation. Conformity Another general theory is that a person may express predjudice to conform to a group norm. We will not deal with this theory here, but it is described in Eysenck and Flanagan (2001) (Psychology for A2 level Psychology)

Realistic conflict theory (intergroup approach)

Basic principles: Muzafer Sherif proposed that prejudice is caused by intergroup conflict. When two groups compete for limited resources or the same goal (e.g., limited number of jobs), it causes frustration and therefore conflict, prejudice and discrimination. Sherif et al. (1961) demonstrated this in the Robbers Cave study (see box). He found that competition between groups was enough to cause hostility. Evaluation: Sherifs theory is supported by Andreeva (1984) who found the same results in a Russian youth camp. Realistic conflict theory explains the hostility part of prejudice but not for the origin of prejudice. This theory is criticised by Tyerman and Spencer (1983) who found that competition did not produce such negative effects when all the individuals already knew each other well. In Sherifs experiment the boys had not previously formed friendships.
Robbers Cave study Sherif et al. (1961) divided boys on a summer camp into two groups (Eagles and Rattlers). Once each group had formed its own social identity, the boys were given competitive activities between the groups to create realistic conflict. A fight broke out between the two groups, with each individual regarding their own group as friendly and brave, and the others as liars etc. The boys were then asked to co-operate on a task and prejudice was reduced. Sherif proposed that competition was sufficient to cause the development of prejudice and discrimination.

Minimal group studies In one of the minimal group studies (Tajfel, 1970), participants (14/15 year old boys) were asked to estimate the number of dots in a briefly seen display. The boys were then randomly assigned to two minimal groups over-estimators and under-estimators. Next, the boys were asked to award points to other individuals who belonged to the same group or the other group. Nearly all the boys awarded more points to their own group members than to other group members. In general, the minimal group studies assigned participants to groups with limited or non-existent justification. It was found that groupings resulted in ingroup favouritism. Mere membership seemed to be sufficient to make participants think that their own group was the best for them.

02 - Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

Summary of Factsheet Prejudice is a (usually negative) attitude towards members of a group. Discrimination is a (usually negative) action or behaviour towards members of a group. Theories of prejudice can be based on personality or on environmental/cultural factors. Theories based on personality factors include the authoritarian personality and the frustration-aggression hypothesis. o The authoritarian personality is where a persons personality type underlies prejudiced behaviour. o The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that frustration within a person or group leads to aggressive behaviour to other people or groups. Theories based on environmental/cultural factors include, relative deprivation (intergroup approach), social identity theory (intergroup approach) and realistic conflict theory (intergroup approach). o Relative deprivation is when people feel they have less than they deserve, which leads to feelings of aggression which is expressed to other groups. o Social identity theory is when our identification with a social group causes prejudice to other groups. o Realistic conflict theory is where competition between groups causes prejudice.

Psychology Factsheet
Glossary Attitude: a relatively stable evaluation of a person, object, situation or issue. It is an organisation of beliefs, emotion or behaviour directed at something or someone. Authoritarian personality: a personality which is rigidly conventional, has high respect for authority and is hostile to those who defy social norms. Correlated: Where factors are linked. A positive correlation is where high values of one factor are associated with high values of another factor. A correlation of +1 is a perfect positive correlation. Displaced: a term used by Freud to describe where one target is substituted with another. Fascism: a type of government characterised by strong, often dictatorial control, warlike nationalism and brutal suppression of ethnic minorities and political dissidents. Minimal group: where the experimental procedure creates impromptu groups. Norm: a pattern of behaviour that is typical of a group (e.g., a culture, a population). Outgroup: a group to which a person does not belong. Repressed: a term used by Freud to describe where painful memories are forced out of the conscious mind. Validity: the extent to which something is true.

1. In part (a), you would need to outline (i.e., give a brief summary) two of the theories mentioned in this factsheet (e.g., frustration-aggression hypothesis and social identity theory).

Outline Answers

Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written by Amanda Albon. The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU. Psychology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136

In part (b), you should evaluate one of these theories. Evaluate means to give an informed analysis of the theory. The evaluation should include experimental evidence that supports and criticises the theory. For example, social identity theory is supported by the minimal group studies but is criticised for not explaining the hostility that goes with prejudice.

To gain high marks, outline/describe theories in detail and accurately. Evaluate them thoroughly by writing about research which both supports and criticises the theory, do not just criticise the theory. Write clearly, with correct spelling and grammar. Include psychological terms (e.g., ingroups, outgroups, norms).

2. The essay should be written as for essay question 1 but only focusing on one theory. As it is only one theory, it would need a more thorough description of the theory than would be done for two theories.

If the exam question asks for theories of prejudice, do not write about the reduction of prejudice.

3. Discuss means to describe and evaluate. You can draw from the range of theories mentioned in the factsheet. The discussion should refer to different viewpoints. For example, some research focuses on prejudice as arising from personality whereas other research views prejudice as having environmental or cultural origins.

You could also relate the theories. For example, the frustrationaggression hypothesis cannot explain why aggression is directed to a particular group whereas realistic conflict theory does by proposing that aggression is directed to other groups that are competing for the same resources.

Numbers! If the exam question asks for two theories of prejudice, make sure that you write about the correct number. Outlining only one theory will automatically reduce your possible marks. If the question asks for one theory, do not waste time writing about more than one, unless it is included when evaluating other theories. For example, relative deprivation theory can be used to evaluate authoritarian personality as it takes into account the effect of group norms whereas authoritarian personality does not.

4. The essay for this question is as for essay question 3, but you would need to focus the discussion on frustration-aggression hypothesis and authoritarian personality theory. Provide a brief description of each and then compare and contrast their strengths and weaknesses.

Exam Hints Which theory? It is best to describe and evaluate one of the six theories mentioned in this Factsheet. Be careful not to get confused with using social learning theory or deindividuation. Social learning theory describes how aggression is learnt. It describes how attitudes and behaviours (e.g., prejudice) may be learnt from others (e.g., parents, peers). It should not be discussed (or only very briefly) in a theory on prejudice. Deindividuation is often illustrated by the behaviour of the Ku Klux Klan but it is not a theory of prejudice.

Example Exam Questions 1. (a) Outline two theories of the origins of prejudice. (b) Evaluate one of these theories. 2. Describe and evaluate one theory of the origin of prejudice. 3. Discuss research into the origins of prejudice. 4. Discuss theories which view personality as underlying prejudice.

02 - Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

Psychology Factsheet

Worksheet: Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

Name
1. What do psychologists mean by prejudice and discrimination? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. How might frustration cause people to be prejudiced? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Outline two characteristics of an authoritarian personality. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Give two criticisms of the authoritarian personality theory. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. Briefly describe one theory of prejudice which views it as a product of social groups. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Which theory of prejudice is supported by minimal group studies? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Which theory proposes that competition between groups is enough to cause prejudice? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. Give one strength and one weakness of realistic conflict theory. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------