Delta-Hedging Vega Risk?: ST Ephane CR Epey August 24, 2004

Delta-hedging Vega Risk?
Stphane Crpey e e August 24, 2004
Abstract In this article we compare the Prot and Loss arising from the delta-neutral dynamic hedging of options, using two possible values for the delta of the option. The rst one is the Black Scholes implied delta, while the second one is the local delta, namely the delta of the option in a generalized BlackScholes model with a local volatility, recalibrated to the market smile every day. We explain why in negatively skewed markets the local delta should provide a better hedge than the implied delta during slow rallies or fast sell-os, and a worse hedge, though to a lesser extent, during fast rallies or slow sell-os. Since slow rallies and fast sell-os are more likely to occur than fast rallies or slow sell-os in negatively skewed markets (provided we have physical as well as implied negative skewness), we conclude that on average the local delta provides a better hedge than the implied delta in negatively skewed markets. We obtain the same conclusion in the case of positively skewed markets. We illustrate these results by using both simulated and real time-series of equity-index data, that have had a large negative implied skew since the stock market crash of October 1987. Moreover we check numerically that the conclusions we draw are true when transaction costs are taken into account. In the last section we discuss the case of barrier options.
Key words. Option, BlackScholes model, implied volatility, smile, skew, local volatility, stochastic volatility, volatility regimes, model calibration, delta-hedging, transaction costs, barrier options.
Introduction
In option markets, using the basic BlackScholes model for hedging may prove to be very misleading. For example, it is not unusual for traders that are delta-neutral and gamma positive in the BlackScholes model to see their position damaged when the market moves. This is a consequence of the misspecication of the BlackScholes model. This misspecication is most clearly visible in the volatility smile, namely the fact that the options implied volatility depends in practice upon the options moneyness and time-to-maturity. Recall that the BlackScholes implied volatility means the constant value of the volatility parameter that, injected into the BlackScholes formula for that option price, makes the BlackScholes price of the option equal to its market value. Therefore if the market prices behaved as in the BlackScholes world then the options smile would be at and constant. It is neither at nor constant. Typical implied volatility patterns at xed time-to-maturity include (i) the skew, i.e. an upwards slope or a downwards slope, as persistently seen on equities and equity-indices since the October 1987 stock market crash, and (ii) the smile, that is convex in the option strike, as it is often the case on foreign exchange markets. The term smile is also used for denoting the whole of the implied volatility surface of options with variable moneyness and time-to-maturity.
Universit dEvry, Laboratoire dAnalyse et Probabilit, Dpartement de Mathmatiques, Bd Franois Mitterrand, e e e e c 91025 Evry Cedex, France ([email protected]).
DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?
In order to take the smile into account, traders often use the BlackScholes model with the implied volatility of the option as volatility parameter. However, this is a purely ad hoc procedure to nd a better and more elaborate model consistent with the market smile. On equity, index or currency markets, there are at least three classes of models: a. The standard BlackScholes model [12, 49]; b. The Dupire or tted BlackScholes model, that is a generalized BlackScholes model with a local volatility, and is often referred to as the implied tree model [29] or the local volatility model [34]; c. Stochastic volatility models, that further subdivide into spot stochastic volatility models [40, 42, 37], stochastic implied trees [30] and market models of implied volatility [52, 17, 16, 21]. These can be regarded as the counterparts in the equity-world of the short-rate models [56, 22], term structure models [39] and market models [15, 50] on xed-incomes. Other improvements include jumps or stochastic interest rates in order to better handle very shortdated or long-dated options [4, 33]. The classes of models mentioned above are successive steps to better manage the volatility risk that arises from the fact that volatility is not constant, but is actually randomly time-varying. In fact, the only class of models in which this volatility risk can be consistently taken into account is class c (see above), that consists in dynamic models of volatility. Complexity and incompleteness are drawbacks. In class b, the volatility risk is inconsistently taken into account by daily recalibration of the model to the market smile. We refer the reader to Hull & Suo [41] for a description of the way the model is used by traders. On the one hand, the model is popular among traders because it contains a sucient number of degrees of freedom to provide, using appropriate calibration methods, a perfect t to the market smile. This ensures that the model does not generate any arbitrage, at least when the date is set. Moreover the model is complete. Traders on the other hand dislike local volatility models for the bad dynamics they often predict for the volatility smile, notably their unrealistic forecast of rapidly attening forward smiles. As a matter of fact it is well known that one-dimensional diusions are misspecied. So call option prices are increasing in the underlyer in one-dimensional diusion models [9, 23], which is often violated in real markets [5]. Recalibrating the model to the market smile every day is the way in which traders overcome the misspecication of the model. Other studies have compared the performances of the standard BlackScholes model with those of spot stochastic volatility models [4, 6, 46, 53], and those of models including jumps and/or stochastic interest rates [4]. So, working on 19881991 S&P 500 options data, Bakshi et al [4] found that stochastic volatility modelling improved the single-instrument delta-hedging performances over the standard BlackScholes model, especially for out-of-the-money (OTM) calls. As for market models of implied volatility, the problem of specifying the risk-neutral dynamics of the implied volatility in these models is still open. Consequently, they are mainly used for statistical and risk management purposes (VaR calculations) rather than for hedging options. In this paper we shall concentrate upon the comparison between the standard and the tted Black Scholes models. Since the Dupire or tted BlackScholes model is used by traders in the inconsistent dynamic mode consisting in recalibrating the model to the market smile every day, it is important to evaluate the performances of this use of the model for hedging vanillas or dealing with more exotic kinds of options. Relying upon analytical as well as empirical considerations, we shall compare the performances of delta-hedging strategies that use two possible values for the delta of the option. The rst one is the BlackScholes implied delta, while the second one is the so-called local delta, i.e. the delta of the option in a generalized BlackScholes model with a local volatility, recalibrated to the market smile every day.
Review of other articles and overview of the paper
Empirical comparisons have already been made before by Dumas et al [32], Coleman et al [20, 19] and Vhmaa [55]. Their results are controversial. Dumas et al [32] concluded that the implied a a delta provided a better hedge than the local delta, while Coleman et al [20, 19] and Vhmaa [55] a a found that the reverse was true. Moreover, following the theoretical considerations in Derman [26], Vhmaa [55] found that the superiority of the local delta was more signicant in jumpy market a a regimes, such as the jumpy market regime that followed the terrorist attacks of September 2001.
2.1
Hedging horizon
Dumas et al [32] concluded that the implied delta outperformed the local delta as far as hedging is concerned. However, what Dumas et al [32] actually put to the test, under the name hedging performances, consisted in fact of prices prediction performances. More precisely, using June 1988 December 1993 S&P 500 European option prices as input data, they calibrated local volatility models with the data of xed days. Then they used the calibrated models for computing new option prices one week later. Alternatively, they expressed the option prices of xed days in terms of BlackScholes implied volatilities that they used for computing new option prices one week later. Comparing either set of predicted prices with the actual market prices one week later, they found rst that the predictions of both models undervalued the true market prices, and secondly that the local volatility model undervalued them to a greater extent. Coleman et al [20, 19] performed actual dynamic hedging experiments such as those we shall present in this article, based on 1993 European S&P 500 index options data and on 19971998 American S&P 500 futures options data. Analyzing their results in terms of the standard deviations of the nal P&L (Prot and Loss), they found that the local delta outperformed the implied delta, provided the hedging horizon (time interval between the start and the end of the hedge) was long enough, and longer than one or two weeks.
2.2
Regimes of volatility
According to other research, the crucial point would lie not in the hedging horizon, but in the so-called regime of volatility. Introduced by Derman [26] and further considered by Alexander [1, 2.3 and 6.3], this concept is at the root of the approach that led to the market models of implied volatility [52, 17, 16, 21]. Derman [26] draws a distinction between three types of market conditions, or regimes of volatility: stable, trending and jumpy. In the stable regime, the options implied volatilities are essentially stable. Considered in isolation, each option behaves as if it lived in its own BlackScholes world, with the BlackScholes implied volatility of the option as volatility parameter. The market is referred to as being sticky strike. In this regime it is expected that the implied delta provides a reasonably good hedge. In a trending market it would be reasonable to expect that the smile tends to follow the underlyer. The smile would then be referred to as being sticky delta, i.e. time-invariant as a function of the options moneyness, rather than time-invariant as a function of the options strike. However, it seems that the market keeps being sticky strike in trending regimes (applying corrections after a while), so that once again the use of the implied delta seems relevant. Thus, as far as the dynamics of the smile is concerned, the stable and trending regimes are very similar. From now on we shall refer to both of them as being slow markets. In contrast, in the jumpy regime, that we shall call fast regime, the underlyer as well as the options smile exhibit a high level of volatility. In such fast markets with high levels of volatility of volatility, hedging with the BlackScholes implied delta of the option is insucient: one should also control the Vega Risk of the option, i.e. the risk arising from the volatility sensitivity of the option. In equity and equity-index markets, changes in implied volatilities (as well as in historical volatility, though
to a lesser extent) happen to be strongly negatively correlated with the returns in the underlyer. This is a quite general phenomenon, especially in jumpy markets [1]. It has received numerous explanations in the economico-nancial literature, such as the leverage eect (see, for instance, JackwerthRubinstein [43]). So Figure 1 displays the FTSE 100 index and the corresponding atthe-money (ATM) 3 months rolling implied volatility, as well as the implied volatility of a xed FTSE 100 option, between October 1 1999 and March 1 2000 (yet this was a slow market, as we shall assess by a denite backtesting criterion in section 4). Given this correlation, we shall see in
7000 stock 6800 6600 Stock 6400 6200 6000 5800 01/09/19 0.32 3months implied vol 0.3 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.2 0.18 01/09/19 01/10/19 01/11/19 01/12/19 Date 01/01/20 01/02/20 01/03/20 01/04/20 ATM FixedStrike
01/10/19
01/11/19
01/12/19
01/01/20
01/02/20
01/03/20
01/04/20
Figure 1: Inverted mirror picture on the FTSE 100, October 1 1999March 1 2000. section 3 that a natural way of managing the Vega Risk in jumpy equity markets consists in adding a correction term to the implied delta, which is tantamount to using the local delta instead of the implied delta for hedging the option. This theory of the regimes of volatility implies that, in negatively skewed markets, the implied delta should not be worse or could even be better on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime, whereas the local delta should be better on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime. Using a suitable proxy for the local delta (see 3.3), Vhmaa a a [55] studied the P&L of delta hedged option positions on 2001 European FTSE options data, with an emphasis on the months of May (trending regime) and September (jumpy regime following the World Trade Center attacks). He found rst that the standard deviation of the P&L increments over all the options in the sample at his disposal was smaller with the local delta than it was with the implied delta in both months, and secondly that the dierence between the standard deviations was more signicant in September1 . Thirdly he found that the local delta outperformed the implied delta during the year 2001 as a whole.
1 Vhmaa a a
[55] assesses the signicance of the dierences by a bootstrapping method with 1000 resamplings.
2.3
Overview
The previous results may seem rather puzzling, sometimes even contradictory. In this article we try to understand how the delta-hedging strategies in either delta compare in dierent regimes and in general. In section 3 we propose a theoretical analysis. The main results of the paper are propositions 3.5 to 3.7: due to the discreteness of the hedge and to the reversion of implied volatilities towards realized volatilities, the better delta of the two depends not only on the market regime, slow or fast, but also on the direction of the market, upwards or downwards. So, in the case of negatively skewed markets, the local delta should provide a better hedge than the implied delta during slow rallies or fast sell-os, and a worse hedge (though to a lesser extent) during fast rallies or slow sell-os. Since slow rallies and fast sell-os are more likely to occur than fast rallies or slow sell-os in negatively skewed markets (provided we have physical as well as implied negative skewness), we conclude that the local delta is better on average, as well as on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime or on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime 2 . We draw the same conclusions in the case of positively skewed markets. In section 4 we present numerical results, using simulated as well as real time-series of equity-index nancial data. Equityindex markets have had a large negative implied skew since the stock market crash of October 1987. We shall see that the numerical results are fully consistent with the theoretical analysis of section 3, and also, that the transaction costs do not blur the results. In the last section we consider the case of barrier options. Appendices A and B recall the mathematical denition of the Dupire model and detail the pricing and calibration procedures used in the body of the article.
Denition and analysis of the delta-hedging strategies
Given a stock, index or currency S, a European vanilla call (or, respectively, put) option with maturity date T and strike K, on the underlying asset S, corresponds to a right to buy (or, respectively, sell), at price K, a unit of S at time T . In the body of this article, we shall assume that the riskless interest rate r in the economy and the dividend yield q on S are both equal to zero, in order to simplify the notation. We refer the reader to Appendix A for the mathematical denition of the Dupire model [34, 1994], with arbitrary constant r and q.
3.1
Implied delta versus local delta
Consider an agent who is short of one European vanilla option struck at K and expiring at T . Delta-hedging the option consists in rebalancing a complementary position in the underlyer every time step 3 , in order to minimize the overall exposure to small moves of the underlyer. In this article, we shall be primarily concerned with the comparison between two delta-hedging strategies, with positions in the underlyer at date t given by (see Appendix A): the implied delta of the option, that is BS = S BS (t, S; T,K ) T,K where BS and T,K denote the BlackScholes price and implied volatility of the option; T,K or, alternatively, the local delta of the option, that is loc = S T,K (t, S; ) where represents the local volatility function calibrated with the implied volatility surface observed at date t and T,K means the price of the option in the Dupire model thus calibrated.
2 Note 3 We
the dierence between these conclusions and the implications of 2.2 (see also the discussion in 3.5). shall take as being equal to one market day in the numerical experiments of sections 4 and 5.
We compare the P&L trajectories that we obtain by adding up the following increments comprised from the setting up of the hedge until its closure: P&L = + S (1)
where is the market price of the option and BS or loc . More precisely, we aim at determining which BS or loc maintains the P&L trajectory closest to 0 throughout the hedging period. Unless otherwise stated, the hedge will be closed the rst time (if any before T ) the options moneyness K/S leaves the range used for calibrating the local volatility every day (namely 0.8 to 1.2 for European calibration problems and 0.9 to 1.1 for American calibration problems, see Appendices A and B). Outside this range, the calibrated local volatility model price of the option is no longer marked-to-market; moreover the option has a low vega (sensitivity to volatility), so that the implied and the local delta get closer and closer to each other and the choice between them is no longer relevant. Let us add that such elementary hedging schemes, using either the implied delta or the local delta, could be diversied and enhanced in several ways. So we could incorporate additional instruments like liquid options in the hedging portfolio in order to statically reduce the variance of the P&L and limit the volatility risk (see [54, 18, 27, 35]). As we shall see in section 5, this is particularly important for hedging exotic options.
3.2
Analysis in the standard BlackScholes model
Let us recall well-known facts in an idealized BlackScholes world with constant volatility [44, 6, 10, 48, 13, 14, 36, 38]. By using a Taylor expansion for and by applying the BlackScholes equation (12) with constant volatility to , we obtain: P&L = + S = 1 2 S 2 S 2 ( ) 2 S + o( )
2 where , S and S 2 represent the options price, delta and gamma in the BlackScholes model. Hence, the distribution of the Prot and Loss
P&L =
P&L
(where the sum is extended over the lifetime of the option) is asymptotically symmetric and centered as tends to 0. Moreover, P&L converges in probability to 0 as tends to 0. The convergence rate depends on the regularity of the options payo. In the case of a European vanilla call or put option, the standard deviation of P&L is dominated by .
3.3
Analysis in a local volatility model
Let us now operate in the framework of a xed local volatility model (see Appendix A). By using a Taylor expansion for and by applying the BlackScholes equation (12) with local volatility (t, S) to , we obtain: P&Lloc = + loc S = S 2 1 2 loc S (t, S)2 ( ) 2 S + o( ) (2)
where , loc and loc are the options price and its Greeks in the model. Since the local volatility model price of a vanilla call or put option is convex in the spot price of the underlyer (see, for instance, Crpey [23, theorem 4.3]), then loc is positive. Therefore: e Proposition 3.1 In a local volatility model, whether P&Lloc is negative or positive depends, up 2 to the order o( ), on whether ( S ) is larger or smaller than (t, S)2 or, equivalently, on the S |S| relative position of the so-called realized volatility S with respect to the local volatility (t, S).
Up to the order o( ), the (physical as well as risk-neutral) expectation of the square of the realized volatility (the so-called realized variance [25]) is equal to the square of the local variance (t, S)2 . Consequently: Proposition 3.2 In a local volatility model, the distribution of P&Lloc is asymptotically centered as 0. Since we deduce that P&L term in S. And so:
BS
P&LBS P&Lloc = (BS loc ) S , is directional, unlike P&L

loc
(3)
loc
. This means that P&L
is driven by a
Proposition 3.3 In a local volatility model, asymptotically as 0: a. P&Lloc is driven by terms in and (S)2 ; b. P&LBS remains directional; c. Consequently the uctuations (such as measured by the standard deviation) of P&LBS are one order of magnitude greater than those of P&Lloc . Moreover, we have: T,K (t, S; ) = BS (t, S; T,K ) . T,K Denoting by BS the BlackScholes implied vega of the option (that is positive, for a European vanilla option), this implies that loc = BS + BS S . (4) In local volatility models, it is well known that the implied volatility can be interpreted as an average of the local volatilities on the most likely paths between (t, S) and (T, K) (see Derman et al [31, Appendix] and Berestycki et al [11]). Therefore, in the case of a monotonic implied skew, one may expect the local volatility to be skewed in the same direction. Assuming that the dividend and interest rates are suciently close to each other, Coleman et al [19, p. 9] proved that S has the same sign as the skew, by using the call-put parity relation. Moreover, in the case where the value of local volatility is independent of time and varies linearly with underlyer level, Derman et al [31, Appendix] showed that the implied skew gives an approximation for S , i.e. S K . (5)
For example, the previous linearity assumption is legitimate in the case of equity-index market skews of options of xed maturity (see Derman et al [28]). Real skews also exhibit a signicant term structure. Omitting this aspect and applying rule (5) maturity by maturity in (4), we obtain the following proxy for the local delta: loc BS + BS K . (6)
Assuming furthermore that is negatively skewed, then (6) implies that loc BS , hence the following statement. Proposition 3.4 In a negatively skewed local volatility model, given a xed rebalancing time interval : a. loc BS ;
The implied skew K can be read straightaway in the market. Therefore this proxy allows some people to estimate the local delta without having to calibrate the model. It is used, for instance, in Vhmaa [55] (see 2.2). a a
b. P&LBS is larger or smaller than P&Lloc according to whether S is positive or negative. Table 1 illustrates the results of propositions 3.1 and 3.4 in a negatively skewed local volatility model. During slow rallies and fast sell-os (highlighted in red in Table 1), the local delta provides a better hedge (|P&Lloc | |P&LBS |). In contrast, during fast rallies or slow sell-os (in blue) the implied delta might provide a better hedge (|P&LBS | |P&Lloc |), though to a lesser extent. By to a lesser extent we mean that as a whole the situation seems more favourable to the local delta since the red cases in Table 1 are necessarily in its favour while the blue ones are indeterminate in general. Moreover there is no reason to think that the cases that are favourable to the implied delta would be more favourable to the implied delta than the cases favourable to the local delta are favourable to the local delta. So the dierence between the two P&Ls is always equal to (BS loc ) S, an a priori unbiased quantity from this point of view. In practice let us try to see which delta is better in the blue cases. It is natural to expect that this depends on the rebalancing time interval . For moderately small (such as one day, as we shall see numerically in sections 4 and 5), the dispersion of the realized volatility along the sampled trajectories is the dominant factor. This dispersion is caused by the discreteness of the hedge, enhanced by the local nature of the volatility in the model. Therefore the implied delta is likely to be better in the blue cases, for moderately small . But keep in mind that we are currently operating under the assumption of a local volatility model, in which the local delta would become a perfect hedge along any trajectory of the underlyer if the rebalancing frequency went to innity (see proposition 3.3).
Slow 0 P&Lloc P&LBS (P&LBS )+ P&Lloc Fast P&Lloc (P&LBS ) P&LBS P&Lloc 0
Rally Sell-O
Table 1: Market regimes in a negatively skewed local volatility model. In a negatively skewed model, slow rallies and fast sell-os are more likely to occur than fast rallies or slow sell-os (slow rallies and fast sell-os are the dominant regimes under negative skewness). Therefore, from the above considerations, it is reasonable to expect that the local delta is better on average, as well as on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime or on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime This seems reasonable, except for one point, and that might be an important practical issue. The increments S in the P&Ls are issued from the physical stock process (9), which can be very dierent from the risk-neutral stock process (11). As shown in Bakshi et al [7], negatively skewed risk-neutral distributions are possible even when the physical returns distribution is symmetric. This leads us to the following statement. Proposition 3.5 In a negatively skewed local volatility model, given a moderately small rebalancing time interval (such as one day): a. the local delta provides a better hedge in a slow rally or a fast sell-o, while the implied delta may provide a better hedge, though to a lesser extent, in a fast rally or a slow sell-o; b. provided we have physical as well as implied negative skewness, the local delta is better on average, as well as on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime, or on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime. In a positively skewed local volatility model (Table 2), we must reverse the order of the lines in Table 1, and the dominant regimes are also reversed (provided we have physical as well as implied positive skewness), hence the following statement. Proposition 3.6 In a positively skewed local volatility model, given a moderately small rebalancing time interval (such as one day):
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Fast P&LBS P&Lloc 0 P&Lloc (P&LBS )
Rally Sell-O
Slow (P&LBS )+ P&Lloc 0 P&Lloc P&LBS
Table 2: Market regimes in a positively skewed local volatility model.
a. the local delta provides a better hedge in a fast rally or a slow sell-o, while the implied delta may provide a better hedge, though to a lesser extent, in a slow rally or a fast sell-o; b. provided we have physical as well as implied positive skewness, the local delta is better on average, as well as on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime, or on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime.
3.4
Analysis in real markets
In real markets, we can decompose the P&L increments in the following way: P&Lloc P&LBS = = (loc + loc S) + (loc ) (loc + BS S) + (loc ) (7)
where denotes the increment of the market price of the option between the dates t and t + while loc represents the price increment predicted by the local volatility model calibrated at date t, given the new value of the underlyer at date t + . In the right-hand side of (7), the rst terms behave as in the analysis of 3.3, while the second terms are due to the misspecication at date t + of the local volatility model calibrated at date t. This misspecication arises from the fact that the market-makers have revised their anticipations between date t and date t + , according to the new value of the underlyer observed at date t + (and also, from time to time, according to more punctual economico-political macro news or events). It seems reasonable to expect that (i) at fast market regimes with high levels of realized volatility, the market-makers will have a tendency to push the options implied volatility upwards compared to those predicted by the model calibrated at date t, whereas (ii) at slow market regimes, the market-makers will have a tendency to push the options implied volatility downwards compared to those predicted by the model calibrated at date t. Provided we deal with vanilla options, that are vega positive, this implies that (i) loc at fast market regimes and (ii) loc at slow market regimes. Let us assume that the market is negatively skewed. By comparison with the situation in a negatively skewed local volatility model, P&LBS and P&Lloc are pushed away from 0 by the same amount in Table 1. So the situation depicted in Table 1 still holds true in the real market. In the dominant market regimes in particular (in red in Table 1), the revision of their anticipations by the market-makers merely worsens the two P&Ls by the same amount. It is easy to see that the conclusions are the same in a positively skewed market. Thus: Proposition 3.7 Assuming that the main explanation of the movement of the market smile between t and t + , beyond the movement predictable in the date t-calibrated model knowing the new value of the underlyer at date t + , is a reversion towards the most recent realized volatilities (including the volatility realized between t and t + ), then propositions 3.5 and 3.6 apply not only in local volatility models, but also in real markets.
3.5
Overall recommendation
If the assumption in proposition 3.7 holds true and provided we have physical as well as implied negative skewness, then the local delta provides a better hedge on average, as well as on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime, or on average conditionally on the
10
fact that the market is in a slow regime. Then our overall recommendation is to use the local delta rather than the implied delta. We make the same recommendation in a persistently positively skewed market. By comparison, Derman [26] implies that, in negatively skewed markets, the implied delta should not be worse or could even be better on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime, while the local delta should be better on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime. In this analysis one needs to know what is or will be the actual market regime, fast or slow, for making ones choice of a delta. The question of knowing which delta is better on average is left unanswered. However it is rather natural to think that the physical market skewness may be correlated with the market regime (there should be more physical negative skewness at fast regimes), conditionally on the assumption of an implied negative skew. In this case the outperformance of the local delta on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime would be larger than its outperformance on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime or on average in general. In this respect, the statistical studies about the hedging performances of either delta are of particular interest. You should remember that if we exclude the rst paper by Dumas et al [32], most subsequent papers in the eld, such as Coleman et al [20, 19] or Vhmaa [55], conclude a a that on average the local delta provides a better hedge than the implied delta, especially in jumpy markets.
Report on numerical experiments
We are going to put the theory of section 3 to the test in order to assess which delta of the two provides a better hedge in practice. First we shall examine numerical results obtained by simulation within a xed calibrated local volatility model. Then we shall present real-life hedging experiments using only the trajectory eectively followed by the underlyer in the data set.
4.1
Description of the data
Local volatility models are applicable to any equity, index or currency asset. However, since the calibration of such models requires a liquid market of vanilla options quoted on a suciently broad range of strikes distributed on several maturities, we shall concentrate on major equity-indices. Equity-index markets have been exhibiting a large negative implied skew since the stock market crash of October 1987. A common interpretation of the skew is that nal investors tend to overprice OTM puts with respect to OTM calls because of a portfolio insurance premium on OTM puts. As a consequence (see proposition 3.4.a), the gap between the implied and the local delta of at-themoney vanilla options usually lies between 5% and 20%. However note that the physical negative skewness on these markets is much smaller, when there is any, than the implicit skewness. Thus, it is questionable whether or not we are in the preconditions of proposition 3.5.b (or the similar proposition in real markets, see proposition 3.7). Since similar experiments involving several indices (S&P 500, DAX, FTSE 100, SMI and Dow Jones) always led to the same qualitative conclusions, we present the results obtained with two of them, namely the FTSE 100 and the DAX. On the FTSE index both European and American vanilla options are available. We used real settlement option prices quoted on the LIFFE4 and on the DTB5 during 19992000 for the FTSE 100 and during 2001 for the DAX. These data sets as well as an Excel spreadsheet with further results on these and other indices (S&P 500, SMI and Dow Jones) are available on request. The historical skewness of the returns over the mentioned years are 1.04 for the DAX and -0.06 for FTSE 100, which amounts to much less negative skewness than in
4 International 5 Deutsche
Financial Futures and Options Exchange, http://www.lie-data.com. Terminbrse, http://deutsche-boerse.com/INTERNET/EXCHANGE/index e.htm. o
11
the risk-neutral distributions of these indices over the same periods.
4.2
Numerical experiments in a calibrated local volatility model
First we present hedging experiments in the framework of a xed local volatility model. Yet in order to keep as close as possible to the market we do not use an exogenously and arbitrarily xed local volatility model, but we resort to a model calibrated with one of our real option prices data sets. Thus we calibrated a local volatility function, using the European vanilla option prices observed on the DAX index on 24 August 2001 and the associated zero-coupon curve as input instruments (see Appendices A and B). Then we simulated 1000 trajectories of the underlyer between August 24 and September 10 2001, in the physical local volatility model dened by the local volatility thus calibrated and by a physical drift arbitrarily taken as zero in (9). Along each simulated trajectory of the index, we delta-hedged the European vanilla call option with maturity T = 0.556 and strike K = 5400, by using either the local delta or the implied delta for rebalancing the position every market day. We chose this particular option as nearest-to-the-money among those traded on the DAX index on August 24, 2001. The average absolute nal P&L was found to be 3.65% of the initial option premium with the implied delta, versus 1.36% with the local delta. Figure 2 displays the histograms of (i) the increments P&L aggregated over the 1000 simulations and (ii) the nal P&L on September 10 2001, using the implied delta or the local delta for hedging. Further descriptive statistics are given in Table 3. The local nal P&L exhibits much less standard deviation (yet slightly more negative skewness and excess kurtosis) than the implied nal P&L. By using either a variance equality F-test or a shuing procedure with 5000 resamplings, the dierence between these standard deviations was found to be signicant at any condence level. The correlation that appears in Table 3 is the empirical correlation between the nal P&Ls and the realized volatility (annualized historical volatility) along the simulated trajectories. In accordance with the analysis in 3.3, this correlation is highly negative and signicant in the case of the local delta, and much less so in the case of the implied delta. Thus, the uctuations of the realized volatility account for 72.85% of the variance of the local nal P&L, versus 36.73% of the variance of the implied nal P&L. We also computed statistics concerning the relative value of the absolute areas enclosed by the P&L trajectories. These absolute areas are natural indicators of how well either delta managed in its task of keeping the P&L trajectory as close as possible to zero over the hedging period. The absolute nal P&L would be another indicator of the same kind, but the enclosed absolute area indicator is a smoother one. Concretely, for every simulated trajectory of the index, we computed the logdierence between the local and the implied enclosed absolute area (the sum of the absolute values of the P&L over the hedging period). The average value for this log-dierence was -0.68 and the extrema were -2.98 and 1.92. In other words on average the local enclosed absolute area was 1.97 times smaller than the implied enclosed absolute area. However, in many cases, the local enclosed absolute area was greater than (and up to 6.84 times greater than) the implied enclosed absolute area. In such cases the implied delta provided a better hedge than the local delta, though this concerns a local volatility model, in which the local delta would become a perfect hedge along any underlying trajectory if the rebalancing frequency went to innity. As explained in the previous section, this is due to the dispersion of the realized volatility along the sampled trajectories. This dispersion is caused by the discreteness of the hedge and enhanced by the local nature of the volatility in the model. For a similar phenomenon in the standard BlackScholes framework, the reader is referred to Kamal [44].
4.3
Real-life hedging experiments on market data
Now we are going to consider real-life hedging experiments on market data, using only the trajectory eectively followed by the underlyer in the data set. Our analysis relies upon individual P&L trajectories and basic statistics for the P&L increments. For further statistical evidence, the reader
12
mean = -0.433701 stdev = 7.661668 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 -70 P&LIncrements / implied
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
mean = -0.108099 stdev = 3.868329 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 -70 P&LIncrements / local
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
mean = -4.337010 stdev = 20.290147 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -120 P&LFinal / implied
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
mean = -1.080989 stdev = 7.789742 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 P&LFinal / local
20
40
Figure 2: Delta-hedge of a European vanilla call option in a local volatility model calibrated with real option prices, using the implied delta or the local delta for hedging; P&L histograms (aggregated over 1000 simulations).
Average nal P&L implied nal P&L local Realized volatility -4.33 -1.08 22.81%
Stdev 20.29 7.78 7.33%
Skewn. -1.10 -1.27 0.71
Exc. Kurt. 1.87 2.28 0.88
Min -110.45 -35.71 6.19%
Max 27.30 12.34 54.72%
Correl -60.60% -85.35% 100%
R2 36.73% 72.85% 100%
Table 3: Descriptive statistics (experiments on simulated trajectories, 1000 simulations).
13
is referred to Coleman et al [20, 19] or Vhmaa [55]. a a Figure 3 shows the results of the daily delta-hedging of a European vanilla call option with maturity T = 3/4 (nine months) on the DAX index. The option hedged was nearest-to-the-money among those that were traded on the index at the beginning of the hedging period on May 2, 2001. The curves labelled tree/implied and tree/local illustrate respectively the results of the hedge with the implied delta and the local delta. The initial values of the implied and local deltas lie around 60% and 50%. The dierence between the two deltas narrows as time goes on, as the option is further and further from the money. On the upper graph in Figure 3, the curves labelled current and forward, respectively, represent the trajectories of the index St and of the lagged index St1 . So the relative position of the two curves controls the sign of S. Provided that the dynamics of the underlyer is locally approximated by a local volatility model, it also controls the relative position of P&LBS and P&Lloc , by proposition 3.4.b. The fact that the relative position of St and St1 controls the relative position of P&LBS and P&Lloc can be checked directly in Figure 3. The curves labelled Gauss/local illustrate the results of the hedge of the option, using the real trajectory of the index and the daily price of the option in the local volatility model calibrated on the rst day of the hedging period6 . The curves labelled Gauss/implied illustrate the results of the hedge of the option by using the BlackScholes implied prices and Greeks extracted from the model prices derived in the Gauss/local experiment. So the option prices used in the Gauss experiments are not the market prices of the option, but the prices of the option in a xed local volatility model. The Gauss curves allow us to put the theory of 3.3 to the test and to quantify the discretization error, i.e. the part of the P&Ls due to the discreteness of the hedge in the tree curves. The residual part of the P&Ls is due to the misspecication of the model. According to Coleman et al, the results of Dumas et al arose from the fact that the latter hedged their options over too short a period, namely one week (see 2.1). Yet in this experiment we see that the implied delta outperforms the local delta by far, not only during the rst days or weeks of hedging, but also during the whole period. Moreover, this occurs not only in the marked-to-market framework (tree experiments), but also in the xed local volatility model framework (Gauss experiments). We have already encountered the fact that such a phenomenon is possible within a xed local volatility model, both theoretically in 3.3 and numerically in 4.2. We now consider other experiments where the local delta outperforms the implied delta. Figure 4 illustrates the delta-hedging of a European vanilla call option with maturity T = 0.556 and strike K = 5400 on the DAX index, starting on August 24, 2001. For clarity, Figure 4 only shows the curves in the marked-to-market framework (curves labelled tree in the previous experiment), and no longer those corresponding to a xed local volatility model (curves previously labelled Gauss). The local delta (curves labelled local in Figure 4) outperforms the implied delta by far (curves labelled implied). Figure 5 illustrates the delta-hedging of the European vanilla call option with maturity T = 0.46 and strike K = 6025 on the FTSE index, starting on October 1, 1999 (this option is the one whose implied volatility trajectory was displayed in Figure 1, labelled FixedStrike therein). European vanilla option prices on the index were used for calibrating the model every day. The local delta provides a better hedge than the implied delta. Figure 6 illustrates the delta-hedging of the European vanilla call option with maturity T = 0.309 and strike K = 5950 on the FTSE index, starting on October 1, 1999. American vanilla option prices were used for calibrating the model every day (see Appendices A and B). Once again the local delta outperforms the implied delta. As we shall see below, the last two experiments do not unfold in jumpy market conditions. So the
6 As explained in Appendix B, these prices are computed by an implicit nite dierence scheme which is exactly solved by the Gauss algorithm, hence the label Gauss for these curves.
14
6400 6200 current 6000 forward 5800 5600 5400 5200 5000 25/04/20 09/05/20 23/05/20 06/06/20 20/06/20 04/07/20 18/07/20 01/08/20 15/08/20 29/08/20 12/09/20 160 140 tree / implied 120 tree / local 100 Gauss / implied 80 Gauss / local 60 40 20 0 -20 25/04/20 09/05/20 23/05/20 06/06/20 20/06/20 04/07/20 18/07/20 01/08/20 15/08/20 29/08/20 12/09/20 30 tree / implied 20 tree / local 10 Gauss / implied 0 Gauss / local -10 -20 -30 25/04/20 09/05/20 23/05/20 06/06/20 20/06/20 04/07/20 18/07/20 01/08/20 15/08/20 29/08/20 12/09/20 Date
P&LIncrements Price Delta Gamma
P&LDeltaHedging
Stock
600 tree 500 400 Gauss 300 200 100 0 25/04/20 09/05/20 23/05/20 06/06/20 20/06/20 04/07/20 18/07/20 01/08/20 15/08/20 29/08/20 12/09/20 0.7 tree / implied 0.6 tree / local 0.5 Gauss / implied 0.4 Gauss / local 0.3 0.2 0.1 25/04/20 09/05/20 23/05/20 06/06/20 20/06/20 04/07/20 18/07/20 01/08/20 15/08/20 29/08/20 12/09/20 0.00065 0.0006 tree / implied 0.00055 tree / local 0.0005 0.00045 Gauss / implied 0.0004 Gauss / local 0.00035 0.0003 0.00025 0.0002 25/04/20 09/05/20 23/05/20 06/06/20 20/06/20 04/07/20 18/07/20 01/08/20 15/08/20 29/08/20 12/09/20 Date
Figure 3: Delta-hedge on the DAX index, 02/05/0131/08/01. (Top) P&L (Bottom) Greeks.
15
5600 5400 5200 5000 4800 4600 4400 4200 4000 3800 3600 22/08/20 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 22/08/20 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 22/08/20
current forward
Stock
29/08/20
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03/10/20
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P&LIncrements
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450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 22/08/20 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 22/08/20 0.0005 0.00045 0.0004 0.00035 0.0003 0.00025 0.0002 0.00015 0.0001 5e-05 22/08/20
Price
29/08/20
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Delta
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19/09/20
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Gamma
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20 Date
19/09/20
26/09/20
03/10/20
Figure 4: Delta-hedge on the DAX index, 24/08/0127/09/01. (Top) P&L (Bottom) Greeks.
16
7000 6800 6600 6400 6200 6000 5800 01/09/19 200 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 01/09/19 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 01/09/19
current forward
Stock
01/10/19
01/11/19
01/12/19
01/01/20
01/03/20
P&LDeltaHedging
01/10/19
01/11/19
01/12/19
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01/03/20
P&LIncrements
01/10/19
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01/12/19 Date
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01/02/20
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1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 01/09/19 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 01/09/19 0.0011 0.001 0.0009 0.0008 0.0007 0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 01/09/19
Price
01/10/19
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01/01/20
01/03/20
Delta
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01/01/20
01/03/20
Gamma
01/10/19
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01/12/19 Date
01/01/20
01/02/20
01/03/20
Figure 5: Delta-hedge on the FTSE index using European option prices for the calibration of the model, 01/10/9901/03/00. (Top) P&L (Bottom) Greeks.
17
corresponding results do not tally with the analysis of Derman [26], according to which the implied delta should work as well or better than the local delta, in stable or trending market regimes. Table 4 sums up descriptive statistics about the previous experiments7 . The results are divided into three horizontal parts. The rst part gives performance measures of the hedges. The second part gives elements of volatility analysis. In the third part we draw conclusions as to the market regime, the better delta of the two and the consistency with the theory of section 3, in each of the considered cases. In order to identify the market regime in a given sequence of data, we resort to the following backtesting criterion: the market is said to be fast or slow over a given hedging period according to whether the (annualized daily historical) realized volatility is larger or smaller than the initial implied volatility of the option hedged. Among the previous experiments, only one corresponds to a fast market according to the criterion mentioned above, namely the experiment on the DAX index 24/08/0127/09/01 (fast regime following the WTC attacks of September 11 2001). As we can see in Table 4, it is the experiment with the largest realized volatility (by far, 53.99%) as well as the highest volatility of implied volatility (by far, 66.33%). If we omit the Gauss experiment that occurs in the framework of a xed local volatility model, it is also the experiment with the largest negative correlation between the returns and the options implied volatility changes. Yet we think that this is less signicant: our experience on more sequences and indices shows that fast markets according to the criterion mentioned above exhibit more realized volatility and more volatility of volatility than slow markets, but not necessarily more negative correlation (results available on request, see also 2.2). Pairing the market regime fast or slow with the sign of the average return of the index over each hedging period, we nally obtain the market regimes such as they are displayed in Table 4. As a backtesting criterion to assess which delta provides a better hedge in a given experiment, we resort to the sign of the log-dierence between the absolute areas enclosed by the P&L trajectories (see 4.2). The correspondence between the market regimes and the better delta of the two is exactly as it is predicted by the theory of section 3 (see Table 1). Note that during the slow sell-o on the DAX index 02/05/0131/08/01, which corresponds to one of the a priori indeterminate blue cases in Table 1, the implied delta provides a better hedge, either in the Gauss framework of a xed local volatility model, or in the marked-to-market tree framework. This conforms to the discussion in 3.3. We also remark that the absolute log-dierence between the local and the implied P&L enclosed absolute areas is essentially of the same order of magnitude in the cases that are favourable to the implied delta as in the cases that are favourable to the local delta. Consistently with the conclusions of proposition 3.7, all our numerical results on market data conform to the statements in proposition 3.5 (point a, at least; we dot not have enough data to validate b). In Figure 3 in particular, observe how the tree trajectories look like the Gauss trajectories, but with more momentum (the tree trajectories are pushed away further from the time axis). Except for the case of the Gauss experiment, also note that (i) the initial implied volatilities of the options are larger than the average implied volatilities over the corresponding hedging periods in the slow markets, whereas (ii) in the fast market the initial implied volatility of the option is smaller than the corresponding average implied volatility. So the implied volatilities of the options tend to increase in fast markets and decrease in slow markets. This is quite in line with the reversion of implied volatilities towards realized volatilities that is postulated in proposition 3.7. By contrast, in the case of the Gauss experiment that occurs in the framework of a xed local volatility model, the implied volatility of the option tends to rise over the hedging period, under the single eect of the negative correlation with the returns in the index. As an alternative hedging performance criterion, we could have resorted to the standard deviation of the P&Ls. These are also displayed in Table 4. The standard deviations seem to display an overall bias in favour of the local delta. But rst, the standard deviation of the P&Ls is a less straightforward hedging performance measure than the absolute area enclosed by the P&L
7 The
last column in Table 4 illustrates results concerning a barrier option that will be considered in section 5.
18
7000 6800 6600 6400 6200 6000 5800 28/09/19 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 28/09/19 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 28/09/19
current forward
Stock
12/10/19
26/10/19
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1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 28/09/19 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 28/09/19
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0.0008 0.0007 0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 28/09/19
Gamma
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Figure 6: Delta-hedge on the FTSE index using American option prices for the calibration of the model, 01/10/9907/01/00. (Top) P&L (Bottom) Greeks.
19
DAX 02/05 31/08 Gauss nal |P &LBS | (% initial option premium) nal |P &Lloc | (% initial option premium) Enclosed abs. area (log-dierence localimplied) stdev P&LBS stdev P&Lloc relative dierence Signicance of the dierence (F-Test p-values) Signicance of the dierence (Shuing p-values) Trans. volumes implied Trans. volumes local Trans. costs implied (% initial option premium) Trans. costs local (% initial option premium) Realized volatility (annualized) Initial implied volatility Average implied volatility Volatility of implied volatility Correl implied vol changes / index returns Average daily return Market regime better delta of the two Consistency with the analysis of 3 1.82%
DAX 02/05 31/08 tree 7.63%
FTSE 01/10 01/03 Europ. 33.02%
FTSE 01/10 07/01 Amer. 20.89%
DAX 24/08 27/09 22.09%
DAX 24/08 27/09 Barrier 90.53%
9.52%
23.99%
12.97%
9.80%
1.38%
36.64%
1.38 5.76 2.13 -63.04% 100.00%
0.73 9.06 8.68 -4.12% 64.87%
-1.02 13.67 13.95 2.09% 58.29%
-0.62 8.63 7.48 -13.34% 87.62%
-1.44 23.26 17.46 -24.95% 90.11%
-0.93 87.89 46.88 -46.66% 99.77%
100.00% 2.51 2.27 4.13%
60.86% 2.66 2.48 4.38%
53.66% 4.70 5.08 9.28%
65.98% 2.83 2.93 5.74%
70.60% 1.39 1.20 2.62%
95.92% 2.35 2.24 7.45%
3.75%
4.09%
10.05%
5.94%
2.27%
7.12%
18.96%
22.00%
17.31%
53.99%
21.82%
28.19%
28.65%
22.67%
23.11%
21.24%
27.44%
26.22%
28.64%
13.82%
10.11%
25.83%
31.21%
66.33%
-88.52%.
-63.52%
-57.23% 0.07% Slow rally Local Yes
-44.43% 0.13% Slow rally Local Yes
-85.11% -1.15% Fast sell-o Local Yes Local Yes
-0.22% Slow sell-o Implied Yes Implied Yes
Table 4: Descriptive statistics (real-life hedging experiments on market data).
20
trajectories. Secondly, the condence levels as to the signicance of the dierences between the implied and the local standard deviations are quite low (except for the Gauss case, which corresponds to computations in a local volatility model). In Table 4, these condence levels are assessed by pvalues computed in two ways: either by variance equality F-tests, or by a shuing procedure with 5000 resamplings, which is more relevant on non-Gaussian data (see the histograms and descriptive statistics in Figure 2 and Table 3).
4.4
Analysis of the transaction costs
The next question we wish to consider is whether the transaction costs caused by the dynamic rebalancing of the positions are biased in favour of either delta. In Table 4, the lines Trans. volumes indicate the number of units in the underlyer sold or purchased during each hedging experiment, including the setting up and the closure of the position (since the latter occurs before the maturity of the option, see 3.1). Multiplying these volumes by 15 basis points (bps) the initial value of the underlyer gives a rough estimate of the transaction costs incurred in each case. These are also given in Table 4, expressed as a percentage of the initial premium of the option. The 15 bps correspond to 10 bps of commission costs for the execution of the orders plus 5 bps of half bid-ask spreads on each sale or purchase (on major equity-index markets the bid-ask spread does not amount to more than 10 bps). The transaction costs are quite close in either delta, and are one order of magnitude closer than the nal absolute P&Ls in either delta (also expressed in Table 4 as a percentage of the initial premia of the options). Moreover these transaction costs would be lower if the position was rebalanced whenever it is required by the gamma of the option, instead of rebalancing it every market day.
Barrier options
Up to this point we have only considered the hedging of vanilla options. In practice, people are also interested in more exotic products, like barrier options, that become active (barriers in) or inactive (barriers out) if the underlyer reaches pre-established levels. For instance, down-and-out puts are used by directional traders in order to get low cost exposure to a market move where the trader has a view on the size of the expected move within a particular time frame.
5.1
Pricing
For dealing with barrier options, a common practice consists in using the BlackScholes implied volatility of the vanilla part of the option, i.e. the structure without the barrier, to compute the corresponding BlackScholes price and Greeks of the barrier option. Thus, Figures 7 and 8 display the prices and Greeks of two barrier options, computed in two alternative ways: (Curves labelled implied) As the BlackScholes price and Greeks of the barrier options, where the implied volatility that is used corresponds to the price of the vanilla part of the structure computed with a trinomial tree; (Curves labelled local) With a trinomial tree truncated at the barriers level (see Appendix B). In both cases the trinomial tree that is used has a local volatility calibrated with the DAX option prices of May 2 2001. The barriers are set at level (1+barriersMoneyness)*underlyer (barriers up) or (1-barriersMoneyness)*underlyer (barriers down). The options are also endowed with a rebate equal to 5% of the initial value of the underlyer. In the case of Figure 8 corresponding to an American put option endowed with a down-and-in barrier, we resorted to a trinomial tree with 200
21
time steps to compute the implied volatility of the American vanilla part of the structure and the associated prices and Greeks of the barrier option. Notice the substantial discrepancy between the implied prices and Greeks of the barrier options and their local prices and Greeks, especially in the case of the American option in Figure 8. These results illustrate the model risk inherent to barrier options [41].
230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 0.05 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 0.05 0.0018 0.0016 0.0014 0.0012 0.001 0.0008 0.0006 0.05
implied local
Price
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35 implied local
0.4
Delta
0.1
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0.3
0.35 implied local
0.4
Gamma
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
barriersMoneyness
Figure 7: ATM European double-knock-out call with 5%-rebate and one month time-to-maturity.
5.2
Hedging
It is customary to make a distinction between regular barriers that are triggered when the option is out-of-the-money and reverse barriers that are triggered when the option is in-the-money. Regular barrier options are not much harder to hedge than vanilla options. In contrast, reverse barriers may be very dangerous because of a mixed Gamma/Vega exposure, i.e. the fact that the Greeks of the option may change of sign in the neighbourhood of the barrier. Let us redo the analysis of section 3 in the case where the gamma and the vega of the option are negative. We rst operate in the framework of a negatively skewed local volatility model as in 3.3. By applying (6) with a negative vega, we expect the implied delta to be smaller than the local delta. Then, by using (2) with a negative gamma, we obtain the results displayed in Table 5. The dominant market regimes (the red cases, provided we have physical as well as implied negative skewness) are still favourable to the local delta. Hence the local delta provides a better hedge than the implied delta, on average as well as on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a fast regime or on average conditionally on the fact that the market is in a slow regime. Now we are going to extend the analysis to the case of real markets as in 3.4. Since the option is vega negative, the reversion of implied volatilities towards realized volatilities implies that (i) loc at slow market regimes and (ii) loc at fast market regimes. Let us assume that the market is negatively skewed. By
22
480 460 440 420 400 380 360 340 320 300 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.25 -0.3 -0.35 -0.4 0.05 0.0007 0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 0.05
implied local
Price
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35 implied local
0.4
Delta
0.1
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0.35 implied local
0.4
Gamma
0.1
0.15
0.2
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0.3
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0.4
barriersMoneyness
Figure 8: ATM American down-and-in put with 5%-rebate and half-year time-to-maturity.
Rally Sell-O
Slow P&LBS P&Lloc 0 P&Lloc (P&LBS )
Fast (P&LBS )+ P&Lloc 0 P&Lloc P&LBS
Table 5: Negative Gamma/Vega exposure in a negatively skewed local volatility model.
23
comparison with the case of a local volatility model, P&LBS and P&Lloc are pushed away from 0 by the same amount in Table 5. So the situation depicted in Table 5 still holds true in the real market. Moreover, we can draw similar conclusions in the case of a positively skewed market. We conclude that propositions 3.5 to 3.7 are valid and applicable not only to vanilla options, but also to options with a mixed Gamma/Vega exposure. However, we should have some reservations. First, the previous analysis simplies the problem by assuming that the option is always either in a positive gamma/vega phase, or in a negative gamma/vega phase. Secondly, this analysis cannot be automatically extended to all situations and to all types of barriers; every new case must be considered separately. Thirdly, the fact that the local delta provides a hedge better than the implied delta does not guarantee that it provides a good hedge. When one deals with exotic options, hedging the spot exposure is generally not enough. As we explained in 3.1, multi-instrument hedging schemes should be used.
Figure 9 illustrates the delta-hedging of a European put option on the DAX index with maturity T = 0.556 and strike K = 5400, endowed with a down-and-out reverse barrier at level H = 3500 (no rebate). The hedge starts on August 24, 2001. We have already considered the hedge of the corresponding vanilla call option, illustrated in Figure 4. Since we do not know market prices for this barrier option, we use the implied price or the local price of the barrier option (see 5.1) according to whether the implied delta or the local delta is used for the hedge. Notice that in Figure 9 the option gamma is negative in the time frame of the hedge. Accordingly, as expected, the local delta is larger than the implied delta. Descriptive statistics concerning the results are displayed in the last column of Table 4. Since European vanilla call and put options having the same characteristics have the same implied volatility, we have already done the volatility analysis of the vanilla part of the structure when we considered the vanilla call option in 4.3. The market is in a fast sell-o and the P&L trajectories behave as it is predicted by the theory (see cell in the lower right-hand corner of Table 5). However, regarding the absolute hedging performances, you should note in Table 4 that the nal absolute P&Ls, as well as the standard deviations of the P&Ls, either implied or local, are one order of magnitude greater than they were in the vanilla case. This may be partly due to the high leverage of barrier options, namely the low cost of barrier options in comparison with vanilla options, but it more generally emphasizes the need to resort to more elaborate multi-instrument hedging schemes for dealing with exotic options.
Conclusion
There is analytical as well as empirical support for the view that the local delta of an option, namely its delta in a generalized BlackScholes model with a local volatility function recalibrated to the market smile every day, should be preferred to the BlackScholes implied delta for rebalancing an options delta-hedge in negatively skewed markets, provided that the physical underlying process as well as the risk-neutral process are negatively skewed. This view is supported by numerical tests on equity-index market data and is also in line with the statistical evidence in Coleman et al [20, 19] or Vhmaa [55]. The fact that fast markets may exhibit more physical negative skewness a a than slow markets might be an explanation for the results in Vhmaa [55] according to which the a a outperformance of the local delta compared to the implied delta is more signicant in fast markets. So Dermans intuition may be right [26]. Moreover, we draw the same conclusions in the case of positively skewed markets, and we show that our conclusions are true when transaction costs are taken into account. When barrier options are considered we nd that the local delta outperforms the implied delta but there is a need to resort to more elaborate multi-instrument hedging schemes in order to obtain acceptable absolute hedging performances. This last point will be dealt with in the future.
24
5600 5400 5200 5000 4800 4600 4400 4200 4000 3800 3600 22/08/20 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -50 22/08/20 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 22/08/20
current forward
Stock
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20
19/09/20
03/10/20
P&LDeltaHedging
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20
19/09/20
03/10/20
P&LIncrements
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20 Date
19/09/20
26/09/20
03/10/20
550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 22/08/20 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 22/08/20 0.0004 0.0002 0 -0.0002 -0.0004 -0.0006 -0.0008 -0.001 -0.0012 -0.0014 22/08/20
implied local
Price
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20
19/09/20
03/10/20
Delta
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20
19/09/20
03/10/20
Gamma
29/08/20
05/09/20
12/09/20 Date
19/09/20
26/09/20
03/10/20
Figure 9: Delta-hedge of a European down-and-out put option on the DAX index, 24/08/01 27/09/01. (Top) P&L (Bottom) Greeks.
25
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Rama Cont and Paul Besson for helpful discussions, Ekaterina Voltchkova for her assistance in programming the codes for the barrier options, and Christian Boely for a thorough revision of the manuscript.
The Dupire model
Since the treatment for put options is entirely similar to that for call options, we shall focus on call options in the following paragraphs. Let us assume that the riskless interest rate r in the economy and the dividend yield q on S are both constant. Then, given a European vanilla call option on S with maturity date T and strike K, we have the following arbitrage bounds on the market price T,K of the call at date t: (Seq(T t) Ker(T t) )+ T,K Seq(T t) . (8) The Dupire or generalized BlackScholes model [34, 1994] assumes that the spot price of the underlying follows a diusion of the type dSt = St ((t, St )dt + (t, St )dWt ) , t > t0 ; St0 = S0 (9)
Let us suppose that the market is liquid, non arbitrable and perfect. Then one can show that European vanilla call options on S have a theoretical fair price in the Dupire model, which we shall denote by T,K (t0 , S0 ; ), where T,K (t0 , S0 ; ) = er(T t0 ) Et0 ,S0 (ST K)+ . P The symbol P represents the so-called risk-neutral probability, under which dSt = St ((r q)dt + (t, St )dWt ) , t > t0 ; St0 = S0 . (11) (10)
where W denotes a standard Brownian motion W under the physical probability. The local volatility, (t, S), is a denite deterministic (though not directly observable) time-space function. In the particular case where the function actually is a constant , we obtain the standard Black Scholes model [12, 1973] with volatility parameter . The physical drift, (t, S), may itself be a function of time and space. We shall see below that this drift does not impact the price of the options in the model. Yet it plays a part in the discussion on hedging performances in 3.3.
So the fair value of the option in the model does not depend on the physical drift , though may be co-responsible, with the local volatility , for fat tails or skewness in the physical stock returns. This is because the options risk is entirely market diversiable in this model. The Dupire model is complete. Alternatively to the probabilistic representation (10) for the option model price , this price can be given as the solution to the BlackScholes backward parabolic equation in the variables (t0 , S0 ), namely 1 2 t (r q)SS (t, S)2 S 2 S 2 + r = 0, t < T 2 |T (S K)+ . (12)
Thus (10) can be seen as the FeynmanKac representation for the solution of (12). The fact that (12) is a well-posed characterization of the option price in a suitable Sobolev space, for any measurable and positively bounded local volatility , was established in Crpey [23, theorem 4.3]. e In the standard BlackScholes model where the local volatility actually is a constant , the call option price and delta are given by the well-known BlackScholes formulas: BS (t, S; ) = Seq(T t) N (d+ ) Ker(T t) N (d ) T,K BS (t, S; ) T,K S BS (t, S; ) T,K =e
q(T t)
(13)
N (d+ )
26
where N is the standard Gaussian distribution and d

S ln( K ) + (r q)(T t) 1 T t. 2 T t
As grows from 0 to innity, the BlackScholes price (13) strictly increases from one to the other arbitrage bound in (8). So we dene the BlackScholes implied volatility T,K of the call as the unique constant volatility for which the market price T,K of the call equals its price in the associated standard BlackScholes model. The implied volatility surface is the map of the implied volatilities for all T t and K > 0, or (T, K) in a suitable discretization. In the Dupire model, the local volatility, , is an unknown function of time and stock. The calibration problem is the inverse problem that consists in inferring this function from the market-quoted prices of liquid options, typically European vanilla call and put options with various strikes and maturities. Subsequently, the local volatility function thus calibrated can be used to price exotic (non vanilla) options or value hedge-ratios consistently with the market. Since the local volatility has an innity of degrees of freedom while the set of input instruments is nite, the calibration problem is under-determined and ill-posed. To overcome this ill-posedness, several stabilizing procedures can be used [34, 29, 3, 45, 24, 11] (see Appendix B). A variant of the calibration problem, also considered in this article and documented in Appendix B, consists in the calibration of a local volatility with American option prices. American options may be exercised at any date by (and not only at) the maturity T . The arbitrage bounds on the American call option with market price T,K are
[t,T ]
max (Seq(T ) Keq(T ) )+ T,K S .
(14)
Even in the standard BlackScholes model, there are no closed pricing formulas for American options: only numerical procedures are available. Yet it is known that the standard BlackScholes price of an American vanilla call option is non-decreasing from one to the other arbitrage bound in (14) as the volatility parameter grows from 0 to innity. We thus dene the BlackScholes implied volatility T,K of the American call as the largest constant volatility for which the market price T,K of the call equals its price in the associated standard BlackScholes model, computed thanks to an accurate numerical scheme. The American calibration problem consists in inferring a local volatility function from the implied volatility surface of all quoted American vanilla option prices.
Pricing and calibration procedures
The solutions of the generalized BlackScholes equation with local volatility (12) are computed numerically by using trinomial trees (that is, explicit nite dierence schemes) or fully implicit nite dierence schemes. The latter are solved by the Gauss algorithm, that is an exact method of resolution of tridiagonal linear systems in linear time. In the case of American options, we resort to the so-called splitting algorithm consisting in having each step of backward diusion (explicit or implicit) followed by the application of a threshold at the level of the options payo. The reader is referred to Crpey [24, Appendix] for further details. To deal with barriers we use the same e schemes except that (i) the domain of resolution is truncated at the barriers level and (ii) the scheme is modied at the barriers in order to take into account their exact nature and location. These modications are standard and described, for instance, in Morton & Mayers [51]. Regarding the calibration methods, Coleman et al [19] have already noted, and it has been conrmed by our experience, that the dynamic hedging performances of the calibrated models are quite robust with respect to the reasonable procedure that is used. By reasonable procedure, we mean a
27
procedure suitably stabilized for overcoming the ill-posedness of the calibration problem [34, 29, 3, 45, 24, 11]. In this article, we use either the entropic regularization method of Avellaneda et al [3] (an implementation using weighted least squares as described in Avellaneda et al [2, section 4] or Martini et al [47]), or the variant in Crpey [24] of the Tikhonov variational regularization method e of Lagnado & Osher [45], according to whether European or American options are considered as input instruments. The point is that the entropic regularization method is faster when it is available, and suciently accurate and stable for our purposes, but it only works with European options as input instruments. Both algorithms calibrate a local volatility function in a trinomial tree setting. The previous references provide a full explanation and numerical benchmarks. A state-of-the-art implementation of these algorithms, developed by Claude Martini, Rama Cont, Pierre Cohort, Steven Farcy, Jos da Fonseca and Stphane Crpey, is embedded in the Calibration Engine e e e (Artabel SA, http://www.artabel.net). As a preprocessing stage of all the European calibration procedures, we discard the options with prices outside the arbitrage bounds (8), as well as the less liquid options with moneyness K/S0 smaller than 0.8 or larger than 1.2. In fact, in the implementation, we do not use constant interest rates and dividend yields, but rather deterministic term structures of interest rates and dividend yields. The term structures of the interest rates are extracted from the relevant zero-coupon curves. Moreover, to match the issue of asynchronous data, we resort to articial term structures of dividend yields. These are computed in order to minimize the sum of the squares of the dierences between the two terms of the theoretical call-put parity relation. These squares are summed up over all the available pairs of call and put options with the same strike and maturity in the input data. As a preprocessing stage of the American calibration procedures, we discard the options with prices outside the American arbitrage bounds (14), as well as the less liquid options with moneyness smaller than 0.9 or larger than 1.1. Since we lack a suitable call-put parity relation that would allow us to gauge dividends, we do not use any dividends in the models calibrated with American option prices.
References
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Delta-hedging Vega Risk?

Stphane Crpey e e August 24, 2004

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

Review of other articles and overview of the paper

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

Denition and analysis of the delta-hedging strategies

Implied delta versus local delta

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

Analysis in the standard BlackScholes model

Analysis in a local volatility model

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

P&LBS P&Lloc = (BS loc ) S , is directional, unlike P&L

. This means that P&L

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

Slow (P&LBS )+ P&Lloc 0 P&Lloc P&LBS

Table 2: Market regimes in a positively skewed local volatility model.

Analysis in real markets

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

Report on numerical experiments

Description of the data

Financial Futures and Options Exchange, http://www.lie-data.com. Terminbrse, http://deutsche-boerse.com/INTERNET/EXCHANGE/index e.htm. o

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

the risk-neutral distributions of these indices over the same periods.

Numerical experiments in a calibrated local volatility model

Real-life hedging experiments on market data

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

Stdev 20.29 7.78 7.33%

Skewn. -1.10 -1.27 0.71

Exc. Kurt. 1.87 2.28 0.88

Min -110.45 -35.71 6.19%

Max 27.30 12.34 54.72%

Correl -60.60% -85.35% 100%

R2 36.73% 72.85% 100%

Table 3: Descriptive statistics (experiments on simulated trajectories, 1000 simulations).

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

P&LIncrements Price Delta Gamma

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

26/09/20 implied local

26/09/20 implied local

26/09/20 implied local

26/09/20 implied local

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

01/02/20 implied local

01/02/20 implied local

01/02/20 implied local

01/02/20 implied local

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?

04/01/20 implied local

04/01/20 implied local

04/01/20 implied local

04/01/20 implied local

0.0008 0.0007 0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0 28/09/19

DELTA HEDGING VEGA RISK?