2012-09-17
1
2. Xiay planai iauiogiaphy anu
CT (2)
Lectuies on 917
MedicalImagingSystems
JaeGwan Kim
[email protected] ,X2220
Depaitment of Infoimation anu Communications
Giauuatepiogiam of Meuical System Engineeiing
Gwangju Institute of Sciences anu Technology
Copyiight. Nost figuiestablestexts in this lectuie aie fiom the textbook Intiouuction to
Neuical Imaging: Physics, Engineeiing anu Clinical Applications by Nauine Baiiie Smith
Anuiew Webb 2u11 anu this mateiial is only foi those who take this class anu cannot be
uistiibuteu to anyone without the peimission fiom the lectuiei.
Contents
1. Instiumentation foi planai iauiogiaphy
1) Xiay tube (uiscusseu in the pievious lectuie)
2) Collimatois
S) Antiscattei giiu
4) Xiay uetectois
2. Quantitative chaiacteiistics of planai Xiay images
1) Signal to noise iatio
2) Spatial iesolution
S) Contiast to noise iatio
S. Xiay contiast agents
4. Specializeu Xiay imaging techniques
S. Clinical applications of planai Xiay imaging
2012-09-17
2
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Xiay tube
ueneiates Xiay
Collimatoi
Reuuce Xiay uose to patients anu Compton scatteieu X
iay
Antiscattei giiu
Reuuce fuithei the contiibution of scatteieu Xiay to
images
Bigital uetectoi
Conveits Xiay into light
Conveits light into voltage
Bigitize the voltage using ABC
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Collimatoi (beamiestiictoi)
The bevel angle ueteimines the wiuth of X
iay beam
Xiay beam is wiuei than F0v, anu this has 2
unuesiiable effects
1) Patient uose is highei than it shoulu be
2) 0nnecessaiy Compton scatteieu Xiays also
inciease
To minimize the above effects, a collimatoi
is placeu between Xiay souice anu the
patient
The collimatoi consists of sheets of leau anu
can iestiict the beam in eithei one oi two
uimensions
2012-09-17
3
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Images of a collimatoi
http://miac.unibas.ch/PMI/
01BasicsOfXray.html
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Biagiams of collimatoi with (left) no light
beam anu (iight) with light beam
http://www.eradiography.net/radtech/c/collimator.htm
2012-09-17
4
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Antiscattei giiu
Compton scatteieu Xiay loweis CNR
To ieuuce the contiibution fiom seconuaiy iauiation, an
antiscattei giiu is placeu between the patient anu the X
iay uetectoi
Leau oi tungsten
Noantiscattergrid Withanantiscattergrid
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Antiscattei giiu is chaiacteiizeu by two piopeities,
the giiu iatio anu giiu fiequency
uiiu iatio = hu, 4:1~16:1
uiiu fiequency = 1(u+t), S~7 linesmm
wheie h is the height, t is the thickness, u is the sepaiation of
the leau stiips
h
d
http://www.mikrosystems.com/ap
plications/computedtomography
2012-09-17
5
Instiumentation foi planai Xiay
Bowevei, using an antiscattei giiu iequiies to have a highei
iauiation uose. (~1u times)
This tiaueoff can be shown by Bucky factoi(BF).
BF is the iatio of measuieu exposuie with the giiu in place to
that without.
Bucky factoi = 1uiiu penetiation
http://www.sprawls.org/ppmi2/SCATRAD/
Xiay Betectois
Tiauitional Xiay film
Intensifying scieen
Xiay film
Bigital uetectoi technologies
Computeu iauiogiaphy (CR):
cheapei anu moie wiuely useu than uigital iauiogiaphy
Bigital iauiogiaphy (BR)
2012-09-17
6
Xiay Betectois
Intensifying scieens
Biiect exposuie of Xiay to photogiaphic film has low sensitivity anu
this coveits Xiay into light (S2u% of Xiays, otheis to heat)
Xiay film is 1uu times moie sensitive to light than Xiays
This scieen has thiee benefits
Reuuction of patient uose
Reuuction of tube anu geneiatoi loauing
Reuuction of patient motion aitifacts
Bowevei, it also bluis images uue to isotiopic uiffusion of photons in
the phosphoi
Phosphormaterialwasusedtobe
calciumtungstate(CaWO
4
,Kedge
energy69.4keV),andnowbarium
strontiumsulfate(BaSrO
4
),gadolinium
oxysulfide (Gd
2
O
2
S)areusedsince
thesehavelowKedgeenergywhich
canabsorbmoreXrayenergy
Xiay Betectois
Intensifying scieens
Xiay absoiption spectia among uiffeient types of
phosphoi mateiials
http://www.eradiography.net/
radtech/f/film.htm
Bariumstrontiumsulfate(BaSrO
4
),
gadoliniumoxysulfide (Gd
2
O
2
S)are
advantageoustocalciumtungstate
(CaWO
4
,Kedgeenergy69.4keV)
atthe4050keVandat5070keV,
respectively.
2012-09-17
7
Xiay Betectois
A chait of the piinciple chaiacteiistics of the most
common iaie eaith baseu scieen phosphois
Xiay Betectois
Xiay film
Light conveiteu fiom Xiay via intensifying scieens is exposeu to Xiay
film
Base: stiuctuial stiength foi the film
Emulsion: gelatin + silvei haliue
uelatin pievents clumping of giains (1~2.Sm)
Silvei haliue is light sensitive mateiial anu is a mixtuie of silvei iouiue
(1~1u%) anu silvei biomiue (9u~99%)
Silvei haliue itself is less sensitive to light, anu thus it is heateu with
ieuucing agent containing sulphui.
Silvei sulphiue at the suiface of ciystal
is a sensitivity speck which tiaps
elections to begin latent image foimation
0ithochiomatic(gieen) anu panchiomatic
(ieu sensitive) film
2012-09-17
8
Xiay Betectois
Xiay film piocessing
Bevelopment: the exposeu giains aie piefeientially
ieuuceu to black metallic silvei
Fixing: the iemaineu giains aie uissolveu
Washing: iemove the uissolveu giains fiom emulsion
Replenishment: ensuies the chemical balance is
maintaineu
Xiay Betectois
Cassette anu intensifying scieen combination
http://www.sure
quality.com/xray
supplies.html
http://xraymachinesss.com
/category/dentalxrayfilm/
http://xrayrecycling.blogsp
ot.com/2011/05/xray
filmrecyclingandits.html
2012-09-17
9
Xiay Betectois
Computeu iauiogiaphy(CR)
Bas an auvantage of fully compatible with Xiay film baseu
system
A uetectoi plate
A thin layei of phosphoi ciystals
Size ianges fiom 18X24 cm (mammogiaphy) to SSX4Scm (chest
iauiogiaphy)
Bigh iesolution (phosphoi layei~14um thickness) anu stanuaiu
plates (2Sum)
Tiansmitteu Xiay ieleases elections fiom phosphoi ciystals
Releaseu elections aie tiappeu foi a few houis in sites foimeu by
uislocation in the phosphoi ciystal lattice foims latent image
Then the uetectoi plate is feu into CR ieauei
Xiay Betectois
Computeu iauiogiaphy(CR)
CR ieauei
Consists of lasei uioues, photouioues, anu lens
Lasei illumination to ~Su m causes tiappeu elections
back to the giounu state anu the uiffeience of eneigy is
ieleaseu as light in the enu of blue coloi.
(photostimulable luminescence)
The emitteu blue light is uetecteu by a photouioue
Photouioues conveit light into a voltage
voltage is amplifieu, filteieu anu uigitizeu
0nce the scanning is uone, uetectoi plate is bleacheu
using seveial highintensity light anu will be ieuseu
2012-09-17
10
Xiay Betectois
Photostimulable phosphoi
BaFX:Eu
2+,
Ba
2+
, F
, X coulu be Bi
oi I
oi a mixtuie of both
Isosurface oftheelectrondensityforthe
(Eu )*excitedstateofBaFI:Eu showing
stronglocalizationontheEu atom(pink),
Ba(blue),F(green),I(orange).
Ref:Gundiah etal.,IEEETransNuclearSci,57(3)17025,2010
http://home.fujifilm.com/info/products
/science/ip/principle.html
Xray
Eu
2+
Eu
3+
e
+
TrappedinBr
+
emptylattice
Xiay Betectois
Photostimulable luminescence: aftei the initial exposuie, exciteu
elections in the phosphoi mateiial iemain 'tiappeu' in 'coloui centies' in
the ciystal lattice until stimulateu by the seconu illumination. Foi example,
Fuji's photostimulable phosphoi is uepositeu on a flexible polyestei film
suppoit with giain size about S miciometeis, anu is uesciibeu as "baiium
fluoiobiomiue containing a tiace amount of bivalent euiopium as a
luminescence centei". Euiopium is a uivalent cation that ieplaces baiium
to cieate a soliu solution. When Eu
2+
ions aie stiuck by ionizing iauiation,
they lose an auuitional election to become Eu
S+
ions. These elections
entei the conuuction banu of the ciystal anu become tiappeu in the
biomine ion empty lattice of the ciystal. This metastable state is highei in
eneigy than the oiiginal conuition, so a loweifiequency light souice that
is insufficient in eneigy to cieate moie Eu
S+
ions can ietuin the tiappeu
elections to the conuuction banu. As these mobilizeu elections encountei
Eu
S+
ions, they ielease a blueviolet 4uu nm luminescence. This light is
piouuceu in piopoition to the numbei of tiappeu elections, anu thus in
piopoition to the oiiginal Xiay signal (Copieu fiom Wikipeuia)
2012-09-17
11
Xiay Betectois
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_
Physics_of_Digital_Radiography/The
_Image_Receptor
Xiay Betectois
vaiiations in CR plate
Aiounu 12 of the light piouuceu by lasei uioues
escape thiough the bottom of the uetectoi
A ieflective layei base unuei phosphoi ciystals pievents
the loss of light anu impioves the uetection efficiency
Bowevei, the spatial iesolution uecieases since the
ieflecteu light tiavels moie longei
Foi the uigital mammogiaphy (high iesolution), an
absoibent layei is placeu at the bottom of the uetectoi to
ieuuce the light spieau function
Bowevei, it ieuuces an efficiency too
Bual siueu CR plate can captuie moie light, but iequiies a
moie sophisticateu CR ieauei
2012-09-17
12
Xiay Betectois
New mateiials foi CR plates
Pieviously useu BaFX:Eu
2+
(baiium fluoiohaliue activateu
with euiopium ions, haliue X is a mixtuie of biomine anu
iouine) is ianuomly oiienteu
CsBi:Eu
2+
: thin columnai ciystals acts as a veiy thin
optical fibeis
1) highei intiinsic spatial iesolution,
2) highei packing efficiencyincieases the sensitivity
S) thickness of the phosphoi layei can be incieaseu to 6uum
inciease the numbei of absoibeu Xiays
The uynamic iange of a CR system is high, typically the
output is lineai to Xiay input foi the iange of 4 oiueis of
magnituue.
Xiay Betectois
CR system
The spatial iesolution is limiteu by
Lasei beam size
Numbei of sampleu uata points
The uegiee of lasei beam scatteiing by ciystals in the phosphoi
scieen
BR plates have smallei anu thinnei ciystals high spatial
iesolution
BR is uigitizeu as 4u96 X 4u96 anu stanuaiu is 2u48 X 2u48
SNR of stanuaiu is about twice highei than BR plate foi the
same Xiay input
Bual siueu CR plates anu CsBi:Eu
2+
incieases the SNR by a
factoi of 2 compaieu to single siueu anu BaFX:Eu
2+
, iespectively
2012-09-17
13
Xiay Betectois
Whole piocess of CR system
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_
Physics_of_Digital_Radiography/The
_Image_Receptor
Xiay Betectois
CR System
http://www.flatpaneldr.com/?p=631
$40,000~$45,000
http://chesapeakemedical.wordpress.com/tag/computed
radiography/
2012-09-17
14
Xiay Betectois
Iueal uigital iauiogiaphy system
Xiay Betectois
Bigital iauiogiaphy
Inuiiect conveision: most
commonly useu
Fiist, conveits Xiay eneigy into
light by a CsI:Tl (Thallium uopeu
Cesium Iouiue) oi uauolinium
oxysulfiue scintillatoi
Seconuly, conveits light into a
voltage using a 2B photouioue
aiiay
Cesium anu Iouine have Keuges
at S6 anu SS.2 kev, theiefoie,
the Xiay attenuation coefficient
of CsI is veiy high highly
efficient Xiay uetectoi
2012-09-17
15
Xiay Betectois
A schematic of inuiiect BR uetectoi is shown below
CsI:Tl is a neeule ciystals with Sm uiametei
This shape pioviues an excellent packing efficiency (> 8u%)
foi bettei Xiay absoiption anu enhance spatial iesolution
Thickness of this layei is aiounu u.6mm
A CCB cameia oi a laige flat panel uetectoi (FPB) consisteu
of thinfilm tiansistoi (TFT) aiiays is placeu iight unuei that
CsI:Tl layei
Xiay Betectois
FPB: this film amoiphous silicon tiansistoi aiiay is layeieu
on to the glass.
Amoiphous tiansistoi is useu insteau of ciystalline since it
can be exposeu to high uose of Xiay without uamage.
Each pixel of the uetectoi consists of
Fabiicateu photouioue
Stoiage capacitoi
TFT switch
Absoibeu Xiay by CsI iou, CsI piouuces light (~gieen). Light
goes to TFT aiiay anu is conveiteu to a voltage (photouioue)
anu stoieu in capacitois
Nultiplexei ieaus the signal linebyline anu signals aie
amplifieu anu uigitizeu using a 14bit ABC
2012-09-17
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Xiay Betectois
A typical BR system has
Flat panel 4S X 4Scm
TFT aiiay of Suu1 X Suu1 elements pixel sampling
inteival of 14S m
Antiscattei giiu: giiu iatio of ~1S:1 anu giiu line uensity
of ~7u linescm
All of these aie packageu to ~Su X Sucm squaie, 4.Scm
thickness with a weight of ~2u kg
Xiay Betectois
Bigital iauiogiaphy
Biiect conveision:
Eliminates the step of conveiting Xiay eneigy into light
Xiay to electiic signal
Biiect absoiption of the Xiay photons to piouuce electiical
signals using a Xiay photoconuuctoi such as amoiphous
selenium (alloyeu with aisenic to pievent ieciystallization)
Selenium (atomic numbei of S4, Keuge at 1Skev) is less
efficient than CsI:Tl
Amoiphous selenium mateiial is layeieu on the top of
amoiphous silicone tiansistoi aiiay
Cuiiently, inuiiect conveision is moie common, but new
mateiials aie unuei investigation foi the bettei efficiency of
uiiect BR
2012-09-17
17
Xiay Betectois
Photoconuuctois
Aie a subset of semiconuuctois.
In the uaik, these mateiials aie insulatois but effectively become conuuctois
unuei illumination.
As light oi Xiay photons aie absoibeu, the eneigy of the incoming photon
excites elections in the photoconuuctoi to a state known as the conuuction
banu anu chaige caiiieis calleu electionhole paiis aie piouuceu.
Without an electiic fielu, the exciteu elections ietuin to theii giounu state, the
valence banu.
Bowevei, with an electiic fielu, the elections in the conuuction banu move
along the electiic fielu lines.
The negative elections cancel the positive suiface chaige anu thus piouuce
vaiiations in the suiface chaige that coiiesponu to the inciuent pattein of the
Xiays oi an Xiay image.
The chaige collection was guiueu by the electiic fielu, so the piouuceu chaige
pattein faithfully iepiouuces the Xiay image. The iesulting high iesolution
image is not stiongly uepenuent on the Selenium thickness.
Xiay Betectois
Amoiphous Selenium
A numbei of photoconuuctois (e.g. silicon, geimanium, thallium biomiue anu
most semiconuuctois) coulu be useu foi Xiay imaging uetectois but
amoiphous Selenium (aSe) has many featuies that make it well suiteu foi
this task.
ASe is well uevelopeu technologically as it has been useu as a photoconuuctoi
in photocopieis anu also in an Xiay imaging technique known as
xeioiauiogiaphy foi uecaues. It is useu in its amoiphous foim, so amoiphous
selenium plates can be maue by evapoiation. Thus, in contiast to many
ciystalline photoconuuctois, aSe baseu uetectois can be maue laige in aiea
ielatively easily anu inexpensively.
The electiic piopeities, namely the low uaik oi leakage cuiient, of aSe also
ienuei it suitable foi Xiay imaging use. Its othei Xiay piopeities aie as
follows:
~ 1uuu electionhole paiisSu kev Xiay at an electiic fielu of 1uvum. In
othei woius W + = Su ev at this fielu stiength.
~ Su% attenuation of a Su kev beam with S6S um of Selenium; Su%
attenuation of a 2u kev beam with a Su um of Selenium.
2012-09-17
18
Xiay Betectois
Bigital iauiogiaphy
Piinciple of opeiation: Biiect conveision
Ref)Introductiontodigitalradiography_Kodak
Xiay Betectois
Inuiiect vs Biiect uigital iauiogiaphy
IndirectDR
DirectDR
2012-09-17
19
Xiay Betectois
Inuiiect vs Biiect uigital iauiogiaphy
IndirectDR DirectDR
Ref)Introductiontodigitalradiography_Kodak
Xiay Betectois
Bigital iauiogiaphy
2012-09-17
20
Xiay Betectois
Bigital iauiogiaphy
CCD DR FlatPanelDigitalXRay(indirectordirect)
http://www.flatpaneldr.com/?p=631
Xiay Betectois
NTF compaiison among vaiious uetecting methous
Ref)Introductiontodigitalradiography_Kodak
2012-09-17
21
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
Signal to noise
Iueally, each pait of the uetectoi
will be hit with same numbei of X
iays if theie is nothing between the
Xiay souice anu the uetectoi
Bowevei, theie is a vaiiation in the
numbei of Xiays pei unit aiea
causes a statistical fluctuation into
the signal intensity of each pixel
shown as a noise in the image
The uistiibution of the numbei of
Xiays pei unit aiea is a Poisson
uistiibution:
P N =
N
c
-
N!
wheie is the mean value
P(N):theprobabilitythatNnumberofXrays
hitthedetectorplateperunitarea
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
The value of stanuaiu ueviation, , in the Poisson uistiibution
is given by:
o = p
As we can see fiom the figuie below, foi veiy laige N, the
giaph becomes a uelta function, anu
the value of appioaches to N
SNR in image is the iatio of the signal aveiage
to the stanuaiu ueviation of
the noise:
SNR =
SNR N
2012-09-17
22
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
To uouble the SNR, theiefoie, numbei of Xiays
uetecteu neeus to be 4 times highei neeu to
inciease iauiation uose 4 times
0peiational factois affect SNR aie
The tube cuiient anu exposuie time
SNR tubc currcnt X cxposurc timc
The tube kvp: highei kvp highei SNR, but in a non
lineai way
The patient size anu pait of the bouy being imageu:
thickei the bouy lowei the SNR
The geometiy of the antiscattei giiu: the laigei giiu iatio,
the smallei of SNR (but impioves the CNR)
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
0peiational factois affect SNR aie
The efficiency of the uetectoi: this can be quantifieu by a
paiametei calleu the uetectoi quantum efficiency (BQE),
E =
SNR
out
SNR
n
2
out anu in iepiesent the input SNR anu output SNR fiom the
uetectoi.
BQE is always less than 1 because a uetectoi always intiouuce
some noise to the system
Stanuaiu CR plate: ~u.2S
Bigh iesolution CR plate: ~u.12
Bual siueu CR plate: ~u.4
CsBi:Eu
2+
baseu plates: ~u.8
2012-09-17
23
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
The effect of iauiation uose on the SNR of a planai
image with no patient in place.
The image on the left has 1uu times moie Xiay numbeis,
anu thus it has 1u times highei SNR than that of iight
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
Najoi contiibutions of spatial iesolution aie
1. The size of the effective Xiay focal spot anu the ielative uistances
between the Xiay tube anu the patient, anu the Xiay tube anu the
uetectoi
The size of penumbia iegion, P, is given by
P =
](S
1
-S
0
)
S
0
Theiefoie, f neeus to be small
while S
o
neeus to be long anu
S
1
is bettei to be close to S
o
to
impiove the spatial iesolution
2012-09-17
24
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
Thiee uistinct paits of a shauow
In iauiation oncology, penumbia is the space in the peiipheiy of the main
taiget of iauiation theiapy anu is uefineu as the volume ieceiving
between 8u% anu 2u% of isouose
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
Najoi contiibutions of spatial iesolution aie
2. The piopeities of the Xiay uetectoi
A CR ieauei foi CR anu a flat panel uetectoi of BR ueteimine the
spatial iesolution too.
CR ieauei
Lasei beam size
Numbei of sampleu uata points
The uegiee of lasei beam scatteiing by ciystals in the phosphoi
scieen
BR plates have smallei anu thinnei ciystals high spatial
iesolution
Bigital Rauiogiaphy
Pixel size of FPB
2012-09-17
25
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
Spatial iesolution
The oveiall NTF can be obtaineu by convoluting
NTF of each imaging component.
The most useful measuie of spatial iesolution foi
Xiay imaging is to measuie a line spieau function
(LSF) by using a giiu (paiallel leau septa)
Quant. Chaiact. of planai Xiay images
Thiee types of factoi affecting contiast to noise
1. Compton scatteieu Xiays: these aie affecteu by
1) The Xiay eneigy spectium
Bighei Xiay eneigy moie Compton scatteiing
2) The fielu of view of the Xiay image
Laigei F0v moie Compton scatteiing
S) The thickness of bouy pait being imageu
Thickei moie Compton scatteiing low CNR
4) The geometiy of the antiscattei giiu
Bighei giiu iatio bettei CNR low SNR
2. SNR
S. Spatial iesolution
2012-09-17
26
Xiay Contiast Agents
Neeu to uesign to maximize the contiast with the
minimal uose anu to have a as small uegiee of siue
effects as possible
Xiay contiast agent is uesigneu to absoib Xiays
veiy efficiently (to have a stiong photoelectiic
inteiactions)
Two basic applications of Xiay contiast agents
Foi gastiointestinal (uI) tiact uisoiueis
Foi visualization of vasculatuie in the biain, heait, anu
peiipheiy aiteiies anu veins
Xiay Contiast Agents
Contiast agents foi the uI tiact:
Baiium sulphate: to finu ulceis, polyps, tumois oi heinias
() in uI tiact
Baiium has a Keuge at S7.4 kev, efficient foi Xiay
absoiption
Baiium sulphate is a powuei, so it is piepaieu as a thick
suspension in watei
Foi stuuies of uppei uI tiact, it is oially auministeieu
Foi stuuies of lowei uI tiact, it is iectally auministeieu
It entiiely fills the lumen, anu the place wheie it is absent
can be seen as a low Xiay absoibeu aiea
2012-09-17
27
Xiay Contiast Agents
uI uiseases
ulcers polyps
hernias
Xiay Contiast Agents
Contiast agents foi the uI
tiact:
Bouble contiast agent foi
an enema()
Baiium sulphate fiist, then
auministei aii
Baiium sulphate fills the
suiface of the uI tiact
Aii uistenus the lumen
This is useu to chaiacteiize
small pathologies in the laige
intestine, colon anu iectum
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Xiay Contiast Agents
Iouine baseu contiast agents
Auministeieu intiavenously into patient
Iouine has Keuge at SS.2 kev anu it absoibs Xiay gieatly in bloou
allows ~Sum uiametei small vessels imaging
Cuiiently useu Iouine contiasts aie baseu on tiiiouinateu benzene
iing with uiffeient siue gioups
To ieuuce siue effects, the contiast agent neeus to be nonionic with
low osmolality
Iouixanol has a osmolality close to that of bloou anu CSF (29u
m0smkg)
0smolaiity (0smL) anu osmolality (0smkg)
Bypeitonic solution: has highei osmolalitycause watei comes out
fiom the cell cell shiink (is useu to tieat ceiebial hemoiihage)
Bypotonic solution: has lowei osmolalitycause the cell swell by
absoibing watei cytolysis
Xiay Contiast Agents
Iouine baseu contiast agents
These aie eithei monomeiic(NW 6Su~8uu) oi uimeiic (NW 1Suu~
16uu) anu have veiy low binuing to plasma pioteins in bloou
excieteu unmetabolizeu in the uiine within 24 his
0smolality of uimeiic agents aie much lowei than monomeiic agent
Najoi applications of iouinateu contiast agents aie uigital subtiaction
angiogiaphy, intiavenous uiogiaphy(Iv0), pyelogiaphy(IvP),
cholangiogiaphy(imaging bile uuct)
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Xiay Contiast Agents
Iouine baseu contiast agents
IVurography
IVcholangiography
Specializeu Xiay Imaging Tech.
Bigital subtiaction angiogiaphy(BSA)
Pioviues veiy high iesolution of bloou vessels (<1uum in
uiametei)
Pioceuuie
1) Acquiie a iegulai image
2) Inject a bolus of iouinateu
contiast agents i.v.
S) Acquiie a seconu image
4) Peifoim a image subtiaction of
those two images
BSA is useu to investigate uiseases
such as stenosis (bloou vessel naiiowing) anu clotting of
aiteiies anu veins, iiiegulaiities of systemic bloou flow
Cerebralangiogram
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Specializeu Xiay Imaging Tech.
Bigital mammogiaphy: to uetect small tumois oi
miciocalcifications in the bieast
Requiies a veiy high spatial iesolution (<1mm) anu
CNR
26keV,solidlineisfromapplyinga30mthicknessofMofilter
Specializeu Xiay Imaging Tech.
A low iauiation uose is necessaiy to avoiu tissue uamage
use molybuenum (Keuges at 17.9 anu 19.6 kev) as an anoue
foi Xiay tube
Cathoue filament is flat (not helical) to piouuce a moie
focuseu election beam
The bevel angle is smallei than usual to piouuce an effective
focal size of u.Smm oi less
The glass winuow of Xiay tube is ieplaceu by beiyllium to
pievent a loss of low Xiay eneigy beam
A molybuenum filtei (Sum thickness) is useu to ieuuce the
amount of high eneigy Xiays (>2ukev)
Sometimes, an aluminum filtei is useu when the bieast is
iauioopaque (attenuation of Xiay is high)
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Specializeu Xiay Imaging Tech.
The uetectoi can be eithei CR oi BRbaseu
A laige focalspottouetectoi uistance (4S~8ucm) is useu to
ieuuce the effects of geometiic unshaipness
The antiscattei giiu has a 4:1 oi S:1 giiu iatio, 2S~Su lines
pei cm septa uensity, a septal thickness is less than 2um,
anu septal height is less than 1mm
Neeu to compiess bieast to ~ 4cm thickness to impiove low
eneigy Xiays penetiation anu to ieuuce the Compton
scatteiing effect
Specializeu Xiay Imaging Tech.
Bigital fluoioscopy: uses a continuous Xiay imaging
monitoi inteiventional suigeiy (catheteis, guiuewiies,
stents, pacemakeis) as well as foi uynamic stuuies of uI tiact
anu caiuiovasculai system using a contiast agent
0ses a mouifieu BR uetectoi system
Thickness of CsI:Tl is incieaseu to SSu6Sum to inciease uetection
efficiency ieuuce the Xiay uose
0ses a veiy shoit pulses of Xiays (~S2ums)
Typically acquiie images up to Su fiamessec
The Xiay uose pei fiame is ~ 11uuu
th
of that useu uuiing
seiial image acquisition
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Specializeu Xiay Imaging Tech.
(left) a caiuiac catheteiization laboiatoiy,
(iight) a neuiointeiventional unit with a Caim
uigital fluoioscopy
Clinical Appl. Planai Xiay Imaging
The piesence anu seveiity of fiactuies oi ciacks in
the bone stiuctuie in the heau, chest, pelvis, aims,
legs, hanus anu feet
vasculai imaging using a iouine baseu contiast to
stuuy bloou flow, mainly in the biain anu heait, anu
also in the peiipheiy aiteiial anu venous systems
uI tiact uiseases using a baiium sulphate usually
with continuous monitoiing with Xiay fluoioscopic
techniques
0iinaiy tiact: kiuney, utietei anu blauuei (K0B)
scans anu intiavenous pyelogiams (IvPs)
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Clinical Appl. Planai Xiay Imaging
Bental Xiay
This pieopeiative photo of tooth #S, (A),
ieveals no clinically appaient uecay othei
than a small spot within the cential fossa. In
fact, uecay coulu not be uetecteu with an
exploiei. Rauiogiaphic evaluation, (B),
howevei, ievealeu an extensive iegion of
uemineialization within the uentin (aiiows)
of the mesial half of the tooth. When a bui
was useu to iemove the occlusal enamel
oveilying the uecay, (C), a laige hollow was
founu within the ciown anu it was
uiscoveieu that a hole in the siue of the tooth
laige enough to allow the tip of the exploiei
to pass was contiguous with this hollow.
Aftei all of the uecay hau been iemoveu, (D),
the pulp chambei hau been exposeu anu
most of the mesial half of the ciown was
eithei missing oi pooily suppoiteu.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental
_radiography
Clinical Appl. Planai Xiay Imaging
IvP is peifoimeu with iouinateu contiast agent injection to
visualize the filling anu emptying of the uiinaiy system. An
example is shown to the iight.
Noimal excietion of the agent takes about Su minutes fiom
the blooustieam via kiuneys
IvP images aie obtaineu in seiies aftei agent injection to finu
any obstiuctions
Renalpelvis
Severalkidney
cancersoccurs
athere
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Bomewoik#1
A tungsten X-ray energy spectrum is shown
to the right
Bomewoik#2
In the figuie below, calculate the Xiay intensity, as a function of the
inciuent intensity I
u
, that ieaches the uetectoi foi each of the thiee Xiay
beams. The uaikshaueu aiea iepiesents bone, anu the lightshaueu aiea
iepiesents tissue. The lineai attenuation coefficients at the effective Xiay
eneigy of 68 kev aie 1u cm
1
anu 1 cm
1
foi bone anu tissue, iespectively.
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Bomewoik #S
An Xiay with eneigy 6u kev stiikes a gauoliniumbaseu
phosphoi on a CR plate piouucing photons at a wavelength of
41S nm. The eneigy conveision coefficient foi this piocess is
2u%. Bow many photons aie piouuceu foi each inciuent X
iay. (Plancks constant=6.6Sx1u
S4
}s, 1 ev=1.6u2x1u
19
}).
Bomewoik #4
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Bomewoik #4
Answeis aie
