Chapter 11 Cengal

Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift
Solutions Manual for Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications by engel & Cimbala
CHAPTER 11 FLOW OVER BODIES: DRAG AND LIFT
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11-1
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Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift Drag, Lift, and Drag Coefficients of Common Geometries
11-1C Solution
We are to explain when a flow is 2-D, 3-D, and axisymmetric.
Analysis The flow over a body is said to be two-dimensional when the body is very long and of constant crosssection, and the flow is normal to the body (such as the wind blowing over a long pipe perpendicular to its axis). There is no significant flow along the axis of the body. The flow along a body that possesses symmetry along an axis in the flow direction is said to be axisymmetric (such as a bullet piercing through air). Flow over a body that cannot be modeled as two-dimensional or axisymmetric is three-dimensional. The flow over a car is three-dimensional. Discussion As you might expect, 3-D flows are much more difficult to analyze than 2-D or axisymmetric flows.
11-2C Solution
We are to discuss the difference between upstream and free-stream velocity.
Analysis The velocity of the fluid relative to the immersed solid body sufficiently far away from a body is called the free-stream velocity, V. The upstream (or approach) velocity V is the velocity of the approaching fluid far ahead of the body. These two velocities are equal if the flow is uniform and the body is small relative to the scale of the free-stream flow. Discussion This is a subtle difference, and the two terms are often used interchangeably.
11-3C Solution
We are to discuss the difference between streamlined and blunt bodies.
Analysis A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to align its shape with the anticipated streamlines in the flow. Otherwise, a body tends to block the flow, and is said to be blunt. A tennis ball is a blunt body (unless the velocity is very low and we have creeping flow). Discussion In creeping flow, the streamlines align themselves with the shape of any body this is a much different regime than our normal experiences with flows in air and water. A low-drag body shape in creeping flow looks much different than a low-drag shape in high Reynolds number flow.
11-4C Solution Analysis
We are to discuss applications in which a large drag is desired. Some applications in which a large drag is desirable: parachuting, sailing, and the transport of pollens.
Discussion When sailing efficiently, however, the lift force on the sail is more important than the drag force in propelling the boat.
11-5C Solution
We are to define drag and discuss why we usually try to minimize it.
Analysis The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag. Drag is caused by friction between the fluid and the solid surface, and the pressure difference between the front and back of the body. We try to minimize drag in order to reduce fuel consumption in vehicles, improve safety and durability of structures subjected to high winds, and to reduce noise and vibration. Discussion In some applications, such as parachuting, high drag rather than low drag is desired.
11-2
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-6C Solution We are to define lift, and discuss its cause and the contribution of wall shear to lift.
Analysis The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the normal direction to flow that tends to move the body in that direction is called lift. It is caused by the components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the direction normal to the flow. The wall shear contributes to lift (unless the body is very slim), but its contribution is usually small. Discussion Typically the nonsymmetrical shape of the body is what causes the lift force to be produced.
11-7C Solution
We are to explain how to calculate the drag coefficient, and discuss the appropriate area.
Analysis When the drag force FD, the upstream velocity V, and the fluid density are measured during flow over a body, the drag coefficient is determined from FD CD = 1 V 2 A 2 where A is ordinarily the frontal area (the area projected on a plane normal to the direction of flow) of the body. Discussion In some cases, however, such as flat plates aligned with the flow or airplane wings, the planform area is used instead of the frontal area. Planform area is the area projected on a plane parallel to the direction of flow and normal to the lift force.
11-8C Solution
We are to explain how to calculate the lift coefficient, and discuss the appropriate area.
Analysis When the lift force FL, the upstream velocity V, and the fluid density are measured during flow over a body, the lift coefficient can be determined from FL CL = 2 1 2 V A where A is ordinarily the planform area, which is the area that would be seen by a person looking at the body from above in a direction normal to the body. Discussion In some cases, however, such as flat plates aligned with the flow or airplane wings, the planform area is used instead of the frontal area. Planform area is the area projected on a plane parallel to the direction of flow and normal to the lift force.
11-9C Solution
We are to define the frontal area of a body and discuss its applications.
Analysis The frontal area of a body is the area seen by a person when looking from upstream (the area projected on a plane normal to the direction of flow of the body). The frontal area is appropriate to use in drag and lift calculations for blunt bodies such as cars, cylinders, and spheres. Discussion The drag force on a body is proportional to both the drag coefficient and the frontal area. Thus, one is able to reduce drag by reducing the drag coefficient or the frontal area (or both).
11-3
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-10C Solution We are to define the planform area of a body and discuss its applications.
Analysis The planform area of a body is the area that would be seen by a person looking at the body from above in a direction normal to flow. The planform area is the area projected on a plane parallel to the direction of flow and normal to the lift force. The planform area is appropriate to use in drag and lift calculations for slender bodies such as flat plate and airfoils when the frontal area is very small. Discussion Consider for example an extremely thin flat plate aligned with the flow. The frontal area is nearly zero, and is therefore not appropriate to use for calculation of drag or lift coefficient.
11-11C Solution
We are to define and discuss terminal velocity.
Analysis The maximum velocity a free falling body can attain is called the terminal velocity. It is determined by setting the weight of the body equal to the drag and buoyancy forces, W = FD + FB. Discussion When discussing the settling of small dust particles, terminal velocity is also called terminal settling speed or settling velocity.
11-12C Solution We are to discuss the difference between skin friction drag and pressure drag, and which is more significant for slender bodies. Analysis The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress w is called the skin friction drag FD, friction since it is caused by frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure P and depends strongly on the shape of the body is called the pressure drag FD, pressure. For slender bodies such as airfoils, the friction drag is usually more significant. Discussion For blunt bodies, on the other hand, pressure drag is usually more significant than skin friction drag.
11-13C Solution
We are to discuss the effect of surface roughness on drag coefficient.
Analysis The friction drag coefficient is independent of surface roughness in laminar flow, but is a strong function of surface roughness in turbulent flow due to surface roughness elements protruding farther into the viscous sublayer. Discussion If the roughness is very large, however, the drag on bodies is increased even for laminar flow, due to pressure effects on the roughness elements.
11-14C Solution
We are to discuss how drag coefficient varies with Reynolds number.
Analysis (a) In general, the drag coefficient decreases with Reynolds number at low and moderate Reynolds numbers. (b) The drag coefficient is nearly independent of Reynolds number at high Reynolds numbers (Re > 104). Discussion When the drag coefficient is independent of Re at high values of Re, we call this Reynolds number independence.
11-4
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-15C Solution We are to discuss the effect of adding a fairing to a circular cylinder.
Analysis As a result of attaching fairings to the front and back of a cylindrical body at high Reynolds numbers, (a) friction drag increases, (b) pressure drag decreases, and (c) total drag decreases. Discussion In creeping flow (very low Reynolds numbers), however, adding a fairing like this would actually increase the overall drag, since the surface area and therefore the skin friction drag would increase significantly.
11-16C Solution
We are to discuss the effect of streamlining, and its effect on friction drag and pressure drag.
Analysis As a result of streamlining, (a) friction drag increases, (b) pressure drag decreases, and (c) total drag decreases at high Reynolds numbers (the general case), but increases at very low Reynolds numbers (creeping flow) since the friction drag dominates at low Reynolds numbers. Discussion Streamlining can significantly reduce the overall drag on a body at high Reynolds number.
11-17C Solution
We are to define and discuss flow separation.
Analysis At sufficiently high velocities, the fluid stream detaches itself from the surface of the body. This is called separation. It is caused by a fluid flowing over a curved surface at a high velocity (or technically, by adverse pressure gradient). Separation increases the drag coefficient drastically. Discussion A boundary layer has a hard time resisting an adverse pressure gradient, and is likely to separate. A turbulent boundary layer is in general more resilient to flow separation than a laminar flow.
11-18C Solution
We are to define and discuss drafting.
Analysis Drafting is when a moving body follows another moving body by staying close behind in order to reduce drag. It reduces the pressure drag and thus the drag coefficient for the drafted body by taking advantage of the low pressure wake region of the moving body in front. Discussion We often see drafting in automobile and bicycle racing.
11-19C Solution
We are to compare the fuel efficiency of two cars.
Analysis The car that is contoured to resemble an ellipse has a smaller drag coefficient and thus smaller air resistance, and thus the elliptical car is more likely to be more fuel efficient than a car with sharp corners. Discussion However, sharp corners promote a fixed flow separation location, whereas rounded corners can lead to unsteadiness in the flow. For this reason, rounding is usually, but not always the best solution.
11-20C Solution
We are to compare the speed of two bicyclists.
Analysis The bicyclist who leans down and brings his body closer to his knees goes faster since the frontal area and thus the drag force is less in that position. The drag coefficient also goes down somewhat, but this is a secondary effect. Discussion This is easily experienced when riding a bicycle down a long hill.
11-5
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-21 Solution The drag force acting on a car is measured in a wind tunnel. The drag coefficient of the car at the test conditions is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The cross-section of the tunnel is large enough to simulate free flow over the car. 3 The bottom of the tunnel is also moving at the speed of air to approximate actual driving conditions or this effect is negligible. 4 Air is an ideal gas. Properties 1.164 kg/m3. The density of air at 1 atm and 25C is =
Wind tunnel 90 km/h
Analysis The drag force acting on a body and the drag coefficient are given by
FD = C D A
V 2
2
and
CD =
2 FD
AV 2
FD
where A is the frontal area. Substituting and noting that 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the drag coefficient of the car is determined to be
CD = 1 kg m/s 2 1N (1.164 kg/m 3 )(1.40 1.65 m 2 )(90 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2 (350 N) = 0.42
Discussion Note that the drag coefficient depends on the design conditions, and its value will be different at different conditions. Therefore, the published drag coefficients of different vehicles can be compared meaningfully only if they are determined under identical conditions. This shows the importance of developing standard testing procedures in industry.
11-22 Solution A car is moving at a constant velocity. The upstream velocity to be used in fluid flow analysis is to be determined for the cases of calm air, wind blowing against the direction of motion of the car, and wind blowing in the same direction of motion of the car. Analysis In fluid flow analysis, the velocity used is the relative velocity between the fluid and the solid body. Therefore: (a) Calm air: V = Vcar = 80 km/h (b) Wind blowing against the direction of motion: V = Vcar + Vwind = 80 + 30 = 110 km/h (c) Wind blowing in the same direction of motion: V = Vcar - Vwind = 80 - 50 = 30 km/h Discussion Note that the wind and car velocities are added when they are in opposite directions, and subtracted when they are in the same direction.
Wind 80 km/h
11-23 Solution The resultant of the pressure and wall shear forces acting on a body is given. The drag and the lift forces acting on the body are to be determined. Analysis The drag and lift forces are determined by decomposing the resultant force into its components in the flow direction and the normal direction to flow, Drag force: Lift force: Discussion
FD = FR cos = (700 N) cos 35 = 573 N FL = FR sin = (700 N) sin 35 = 402 N
V FR=700 N 35
Note that the greater the angle between the resultant force and the flow direction, the greater the lift.
11-6
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-24 Solution The total drag force acting on a spherical body is measured, and the pressure drag acting on the body is calculated by integrating the pressure distribution. The friction drag coefficient is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The surface of the sphere is smooth. 3 The flow over the sphere is turbulent (to be verified). Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 5C are = 1.269 kg/m3 and = 1.38210-5 m2/s. The drag coefficient of sphere in turbulent flow is CD = 0.2, and its frontal area is A = D2/4 (Table 11-2). Analysis The total drag force is the sum of the friction and pressure drag forces. Therefore,
FD ,friction = FD FD , pressure = 5.2 4.9 = 0.3 N
Air V D = 12 cm
2 2 Taking the ratio of the two relations above gives FD ,friction 0.3 N C D ,friction = CD = (0.2) = 0.0115 FD 5.2 N Now we need to verify that the flow is turbulent. This is done by calculating the flow velocity from the drag force relation, and then the Reynolds number:
FD = C D A
Re = VD =
where FD = C D A
V 2
and
FD ,friction = C D,friction A
V 2
V 2
2
V=
2 FD = C D A
= 5.23 10 5
1 kg m/s 2 1N (1.269 kg/m 3 )(0.2)[ (0.12 m) 2 / 4] 2(5.2 N)
= 60.2 m/s
(60.2 m/s)(0.12 m) 1.382 10

5
-5
m /s
which is greater than 210 . Therefore, the flow is turbulent as assumed.

Discussion Note that knowing the flow regime is important in the solution of this problem since the total drag coefficient for a sphere is 0.5 in laminar flow and 0.2 in turbulent flow.
11-7
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-25E Solution The frontal area of a car is reduced by redesigning. The amount of fuel and money saved per year as a result are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The car is driven 12,000 miles a year at an average speed of 55 km/h. 2 The effect of reduction of the frontal area on the drag coefficient is negligible. Properties The densities of air and gasoline are given to be 0.075 lbm/ft3 3 and 50 lbm/ft , respectively. The heating value of gasoline is given to be 20,000 Btu/lbm. The drag coefficient is CD = 0.3 for a passenger car (Table 11-2).
The drag force acting on a body is determined from V 2 FD = C D A 2 where A is the frontal area of the body. The drag force acting on the car before redesigning is
Analysis
1.4667 ft/s 1 lbf = 40.9 lbf 1 mph 2 32.2 lbm ft/s Noting that work is force times distance, the amount of work done to overcome this drag force and the required energy input for a distance of 12,000 miles are 1 Btu 5280 ft 6 Wdrag = FD L = (40.9 lbf)(12,000 miles/year) = 3.33 10 Btu/year 1 mile 778.169 lbf ft (0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(55 mph) 2 FD = 0.3(18 ft ) 2
2 2
3.33 10 6 Btu/year = 1.041 10 7 Btu/year car 0.32 Then the amount and costs of the fuel that supplies this much energy are E in = Wdrag =
Amont of fuel =
m fuel
fuel
E in /HV
fuel
(1.041 10 7 Btu/year) /( 20,000 Btu/lbm) 50 lbm/ft

3
= 10.41 ft 3 /year
7.4804 gal Cost = (Amount of fuel)(Unit cost) = (10.41 ft 3 /year)($2.20/gal) = $171.3/year 1 ft 3 That is, the car uses 10.41 ft3 = 77.9 gallons of gasoline at a cost of $171.3 per year to overcome the drag. The drag force and the work done to overcome it are directly proportional to the frontal area. Then the percent reduction in the fuel consumption due to reducing frontal area is equal to the percent reduction in the frontal area:
A Anew 18 15 = = 0.167 18 A Amount reduction = (Reduction ratio)(Amount) Reduction ratio = = 0.167(77.9 gal/year) = 13.0 gal/year Cost reduction = (Reduction ratio)(Cost) = 0.167($171.3/year) = $28.6/year
Therefore, reducing the frontal area reduces the fuel consumption due to drag by 16.7%.
Discussion Note from this example that significant reductions in drag and fuel consumption can be achieved by reducing the frontal area of a vehicle.
11-8
11-26E Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of frontal area on the annual fuel consumption of the car as the frontal area varied from 10 to 30 ft2 in increments of 2 ft2 are to be investigated. Analysis
The EES Equations window is printed below, along with the tabulated and plotted results.
300
CD=0.3 rho=0.075 "lbm/ft3" V=55*1.4667 "ft/s" Eff=0.32 Price=2.20 "$/gal" efuel=20000 "Btu/lbm" rho_gas=50 "lbm/ft3" L=12000*5280 "ft" FD=CD*A*(rho*V^2)/2/32.2 "lbf" Wdrag=FD*L/778.169 "Btu" Ein=Wdrag/Eff m=Ein/efuel "lbm" Vol=(m/rho_gas)*7.4804 "gal" Cost=Vol*Price
255
Cost, $
210
165
120
75 10
14
18
A, ft
A, ft2 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Discussion
22
26
30
Fdrag lbf 22.74 27.28 31.83 36.38 40.92 45.47 50.02 54.57 59.11 63.66 68.21
Amount, gal 43.27 51.93 60.58 69.24 77.89 86.55 95.2 103.9 112.5 121.2 129.8
Cost, $ 95.2 114.2 133.3 152.3 171.4 190.4 209.4 228.5 247.5 266.6 285.6
As you might expect, the cost goes up linearly with area, since drag force goes up linearly with area.
11-9
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-27 [Also solved using EES on enclosed DVD] Solution A circular sign is subjected to high winds. The drag force acting on the sign and the bending moment at the bottom of its pole are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The drag force on the pole is negligible. 3 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. Properties The drag coefficient for a thin circular disk is CD = 1.1 (Table 112). The density of air at 100 kPa and 10C = 283 K is
P 100 kPa = = = 1.231 kg/m 3 3 RT (0.287 kPa m /kg.K)(283 K) Analysis The frontal area of a circular plate subjected to normal flow is A = D2/4. Then the drag force acting on the sign is FD = C D A
150 km/h
SIGN 50 cm
V 2
2 (1.231 kg/m 3 )(150 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2 1N 1 kg m/s 2 = 231 N
1.5 m
= (1.1)[ (0.5 m) 2 / 4]
Noting that the resultant force passes through the center of the stop sign, the bending moment at the bottom of the pole becomes
M bottom = FD L = (231 N)(1.5 + 0.25) m = 404 Nm
Discussion Note that the drag force is equivalent to the weight of over 23 kg of mass. Therefore, the pole must be strong enough to withstand the weight of 23 kg hanged at one of its end when it is held from the other end horizontally.
11-28E Solution determined.
A rectangular billboard is subjected to high winds. The drag force acting on the billboard is to be
20 ft 90 mph 8 ft BILLBOARD
Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The drag force on the supporting poles are negligible. 3 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. Properties The drag coefficient for a thin rectangular plate for normal flow is CD = 2.0 (Table 11-2). The density of air at 14.3 psia and 40F = 500 R is
14.3 psia P = = 0.0772 lbm/ft 3 RT (0.3704 psia ft 3 /lbm.R)(500 R) Analysis The drag force acting on the billboard is determined from
FD = CD A
V 2
2
= ( 2.0 ) ( 8 20 ft
( 0.0772 lbm/ft ) ( 90 1.4667 ft/s )

3
1 lbf = 6684 lbf 6680 lbf 2 32.2 lbm ft/s
Discussion Note that the drag force is equivalent to the weight of about 6680 lbm of mass. Therefore, the support bars must be strong enough to withstand the weight of 6680 lbm hanged at one of their ends when they are held from the other end horizontally.
11-10
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-29 Solution An advertisement sign in the form of a rectangular block that has the same frontal area from all four sides is mounted on top of a taxicab. The increase in the annual fuel cost due to this sign is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The car is driven 60,000 km a year at an average speed of 50 km/h. 3 The overall efficiency of the engine is 28%. 4 The effect of the sign and the taxicab on the drag coefficient of each other is negligible (no interference), and the edge effects of the sign are negligible (a crude approximation). 5 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. Properties The densities of air and gasoline are given to be 1.25 kg/m3 and 0.75 kg/L, respectively. The heating value of gasoline is given to be 42,000 kJ/kg. The drag coefficient for a square rod for normal flow is CD = 2.2 (Table 11-1). Analysis
AD
TAXI
Noting that 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the drag force acting on the sign is (1.25 kg/m 3 )(50 / 3.6 m/s) 2 V 2 1N = 71.61 N FD = C D A = (2.2)(0.9 0.3 m 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2 2 2 Noting that work is force times distance, the amount of work done to overcome this drag force and the required energy input for a distance of 60,000 km are
Wdrag = FD L = (71.61 N)(60,000 km/year) = 4.30 10 6 kJ/year E in = Wdrag
car
4.30 10 6 kJ/year = 1.54 10 7 kJ/year 0.28
Then the amount and cost of the fuel that supplies this much energy are
Amont of fuel = m fuel
fuel
E in /HV
fuel
(1.54 10 7 kJ/year) /( 42,000 kJ/kg) = 489 L/year 0.75 kg/L
Cost = (Amount of fuel)(Unit cost) = (489 L/year)($0.50/L) = $245/year
That is, the taxicab will use 489 L of gasoline at a cost of $245 per year to overcome the drag generated by the advertisement sign.
Discussion Note that the advertisement sign increases the fuel cost of the taxicab significantly. The taxicab operator may end up losing money by installing the sign if he/she is not aware of the major increase in the fuel cost, and negotiate accordingly.
11-11
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-30 Solution The water needs of a recreational vehicle (RV) are to be met by installing a cylindrical tank on top of the vehicle. The additional power requirements of the RV at a specified speed for two orientations of the tank are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The effect of the tank and the RV on the drag coefficient of each other is negligible (no interference). 3 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. Properties The drag coefficient for a cylinder corresponding to L/D = 2/0.5 = 4 is CD = 0.9 when the circular surfaces of the tank face the front and back, and CD = 0.8 when the circular surfaces of the tank face the sides of the RV (Table 11-2). The density of air at the specified conditions is
2m 0.5 m
RV
=
Analysis
P 87 kPa = = 1.028 kg/m 3 RT (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg.K)(295 K)
(a) The drag force acting on the tank when the circular surfaces face the front and back is (1.028 kg/m 3 )(95 km/h) 2 1 m/s 2 1N V 2 = (0.9)[ (0.5 m) 2 / 4] FD = C D A 1 kg m/s 2 = 63.3 N 2 2 3.6 km/h Noting that power is force times velocity, the amount of additional power needed to overcome this drag force is 1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (63.3 N)(95/3.6 m/s) = 1.67 kW 1000 N m/s (b) The drag force acting on the tank when the circular surfaces face the sides of the RV is (1.028 kg/m 3 )(95 km/h) 2 1 m/s 2 1N V 2 FD = C D A = (0.8)[0.5 2 m 2 ] 1 kg m/s 2 2 2 3.6 km/h Then the additional power needed to overcome this drag force is 1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (286 N)(95/3.6 m/s) = 7.55 kW 1000 N m/s
= 286 N
Therefore, the additional power needed to overcome the drag caused by the tank is 1.67 kW and 7.55 W for the two orientations indicated.
Discussion Note that the additional power requirement is the lowest when the tank is installed such that its circular surfaces face the front and back of the RV. This is because the frontal area of the tank is minimum in this orientation.
11-12
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-31E Solution A person who normally drives at 55 mph now starts driving at 75 mph. The percentage increase in fuel consumption of the car is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The fuel consumption is approximately proportional to the drag force on a level road (as stated). 2 The drag coefficient remains the same.
The drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity, and power is force times velocity. Therefore, V 2 V 3 and Wdrag = FDV = CD A FD = CD A 2 2 V Then the ratio of the drag force at V2 = 75 mph to the drag force at V1 = 55 mph becomes FD 2 V 22 75 2 = = = 1.86 , an increase of 86%. FD1 V12 55 2
Analysis
Therefore, the power to overcome the drag force and thus fuel consumption per unit time nearly doubles as a result of increasing the velocity from 55 to 75 mph.
Discussion This increase appears to be large. This is because all the engine power is assumed to be used entirely to overcome drag. Still, the simple analysis above shows the strong dependence of the fuel consumption on the cruising speed of a vehicle. A better measure of fuel consumption is the amount of fuel used per unit distance (rather than per unit time). A car cruising at 55 mph will travel a distance of 55 miles in 1 hour. But a car cruising at 75 mph will travel the same distance at 55/75 = 0.733 h or 73.3% of the time. Therefore, for a given distance, the increase in fuel consumption is 1.860.733 = 1.36 an increase of 36%. This is still large, especially with the high cost of gasoline these days.
11-32 Solution Assumptions
A plastic sphere is dropped into water. The terminal velocity of the sphere in water is to be determined.
1 The fluid flow over the sphere is laminar (to be verified). 2 The drag coefficient remains constant.
Properties The density of plastic sphere is 1150 kg/m3. The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 20C are = 3 998 kg/m and = 1.00210-3 kg/ms, respectively. The drag coefficient for a sphere in laminar flow is CD = 0.5. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid,
F D = W FB
where
FD = C D A
fV 2
2
W = s gV , and FB = f gV
Here A = D2/4 is the frontal area and V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Substituting and simplifying,
CD A
fV 2
2
= s gV f gV
CD
2 D 2 f V
= ( s f )g
D 3
6
CD
gD V 2 s = 1 6 f 8
Solving for V and substituting,

V= 4 gD ( s / f 1) 3CD = 4 ( 9.81 m/s 2 ) ( 0.004 m )(1150/998-1) 3 0.5 = 0.126 m/s
4 mm
The Reynolds number is Re =
VD (998 kg/m 3 )(0.126 m/s)(4 10 -3 m) = = 503 1.002 10 -3 kg m/s
Water
which is less than 2105. Therefore, the flow is laminar as assumed.

Discussion This problem can be solved more accurately using a trial-and-error approach by using CD data from Fig. 1134 (the CD value corresponding to Re = 503 is about 0.6. Repeating the calculations for this value gives 0.115 m/s for the terminal velocity.
11-13
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-33 Solution A semi truck is exposed to winds from its side surface. The wind velocity that will tip the truck over to its side is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air in the wind is steady and incompressible. 2 The edge effects on the semi truck are negligible (a crude approximation), and the resultant drag force acts through the center of the side surface. 3 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. 4 The distance between the wheels on the same axle is also 2 m. 5 The semi truck is loaded uniformly so that its weight acts through its center. Properties The density of air is given to be = 1.10 kg/m3. The drag coefficient for a body of rectangular cross-section corresponding to L/D = 2/2 = 1 is CD = 2.2 when the wind is normal to the side surface (Table 11-2). Analysis When the truck is first tipped, the wheels on the wind-loaded side of the truck will be off the ground, and thus all the reaction forces from the ground will act on wheels on the other side. Taking the moment about an axis passing through these wheels and setting it equal to zero gives the required drag force to be
wheels
= 0 FD (1 m) W (1 m) = 0
FD = W
V
8m 5,000 kg
1.8 m
Substituting, the required drag force is determined to be

1N FD = mg = (5000 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2 = 49,050 N
2m
The wind velocity that will cause this drag force is determined to be
FD = C D A
0.75 m
V 2
2
49,050 N = (2.2)(2 8 m 2 )
(1.10 kg/m 3 )V 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
V = 50.3 m/s
which is equivalent to a wind velocity of V = 50.33.6 = 181 km/h. This is very high velocity, and it can be verified easily by calculating the Reynolds number that the flow is Discussion turbulent as assumed.
11-14
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-34 Solution A bicyclist is riding his bicycle downhill on a road with a specified slope without pedaling or breaking. The terminal velocity of the bicyclist is to be determined for the upright and racing positions. Assumptions 1 The rolling resistance and bearing friction are negligible. 2 The drag coefficient remains constant. 3 The buoyancy of air is negligible. Properties The density of air is given to be = 1.25 kg/m3. The frontal area and the drag coefficient are given to be 2 0.45 m and 1.1 in the upright position, and 0.4 m2 and 0.9 on the racing position. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the component of the total weight (bicyclist + bicycle) in the flow direction, V 2 FD = W total sin CD A = m total g sin 2 2 gm total sin V= Solving for V gives C D A
The terminal velocities for both positions are obtained by substituting the given values: Upright position:
V= 2(9.81 m/s 2 )(80 + 15 kg)sin12 1.1(0.45 m 2 )(1.25 kg/m 3 ) V= = 25.0 m/s = 90 km/h
Racing position:
2(9.81 m/s 2 )(80 + 15 kg)sin12 0.9(0.4 m 2 )(1.25 kg/m 3 )
= 29.3 m/s = 106 km/h
Discussion Note that the position of the bicyclist has a significant effect on the drag force, and thus the terminal velocity. So it is no surprise that the bicyclists maintain the racing position during a race.
11-35 Solution The pivot of a wind turbine with two hollow hemispherical cups is stuck as a result of some malfunction. For a given wind speed, the maximum torque applied on the pivot is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air in the wind is steady and incompressible. 2 The air flow is turbulent so that the tabulated values of the drag coefficients can be used. Properties The density of air is given to be = 1.25 kg/m3. The drag coefficient for a hemispherical cup is 0.4 and 1.2 when the hemispherical and plain surfaces are exposed to wind flow, respectively. Analysis The maximum torque occurs when the cups are normal to the wind since the length of the moment arm is maximum in this case. Noting that the frontal area is D2/4 for both cups, the drag force acting on each cup is determined to be (1.25 kg/m 3 )(15 m/s) 2 V 2 1N = 0.283 N FD1 = C D1 A Convex side: = (0.4)[ (0.08 m) 2 / 4] 1 kg m/s 2 2 2
1N = 0.848 N 1 kg m/s 2 2 The moment arm for both forces is 12.5 cm since the distance between the centers of the two cups is given to be 25 cm. Taking the moment about the pivot, the net torque applied on the pivot is determined to be
25 cm
Concave side:
FD 2 = C D 2 A
V 2
= (1.2)[ (0.08 m) 2 / 4]
(1.25 kg/m 3 )(15 m/s) 2 2
M max = FD 2 L FD1 L = ( FD 2 FD1 ) L = (0.848 0.283 N)(0.125 m) = 0.0706 Nm
Discussion Note that the torque varies between zero when both cups are aligned with the wind to the maximum value calculated above.
11-15
11-36
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of wind speed on the torque applied on the pivot as the wind speed varies from 0 to 50 m/s in increments of 5 m/s is to be investigated. The EES Equations window is Analysis printed below, along with the tabulated and plotted results.
CD1=0.40 "Curved bottom" CD2=1.2 "Plain frontal area" "rho=density(Air, T=T, P=P)" "kg/m^3" rho=1.25 "kg/m3" D=0.08 "m" L=0.25 "m" A=pi*D^2/4 "m^2" FD1=CD1*A*(rho*V^2)/2 "N" FD2=CD2*A*(rho*V^2)/2 "N" FD_net=FD2-FD1 Torque=(FD2-FD1)*L/2
0.8 0.7 0.6
Torque, Nm
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50
V, m/s
V, m/s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Discussion
Fdrag, net, N 0.00 0.06 0.25 0.57 1.01 1.57 2.26 3.08 4.02 5.09 6.28
Torque, Nm 0.000 0.008 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.196 0.283 0.385 0.503 0.636 0.785
Since drag force grows as velocity squared, the torque also grows as velocity squared.
11-16
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-37E Solution A spherical tank completely submerged in fresh water is being towed by a ship at a specified velocity. The required towing power is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. 2 The drag of the towing bar is negligible. Properties The drag coefficient for a sphere is CD = 0.2 in turbulent flow (it is 0.5 for laminar flow). We take the density of water to be 62.4 lbm/ft3. Analysis The frontal area of a sphere is A = D2/4. Then the drag force acting on the spherical tank is
(62.4 lbm/ft 3 )(12 ft/s) 2 1 lbf = 548 lbf 2 2 2 32.2 lbm ft/s Since power is force times velocity, the power needed to overcome this drag force during towing is 1 kW WTowing = Wdrag = FD V = (548 lbf)(12 ft/s) = 8.92 kW = 12.0 hp 737.56 lbf ft/s Therefore, the additional power needed to tow the tank is 12.0 hp. FD = C D A = (0.2)[ (5 ft) 2 / 4]
Water 12 ft/s 5 ft
V 2
Discussion Note that the towing power is proportional the cube of the velocity. Therefore, the towing power can be reduced to one-eight (which is 1.5 hp) by reducing the towing velocity by half to 6 ft/s. But the towing time will double this time for a given distance.
11-38 Solution The power delivered to the wheels of a car is used to overcome aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance. For a given power, the speed at which the rolling resistance is equal to the aerodynamic drag and the maximum speed of the car are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The air flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The bearing friction is negligible. 3 The drag and rolling resistance coefficients of the car are constant. 4 The car moves horizontally on a level road. Properties The density of air is given to be = 1.20 kg/m3. The drag and rolling resistance coefficients are given to be CD = 0.32 and CRR = 0.04, respectively. Analysis
(a) The rolling resistance of the car is

= 372.8 N
1N FRR = C RR W = 0.04(950 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2
The velocity at which the rolling resistance equals the aerodynamic drag force is determined by setting these two forces equal to each other,
1N V = 32.8 m/s (or 118 km/h) 1 kg m/s 2 2 (b) Power is force times speed, and thus the power needed to overcome drag and rolling resistance is the product of the sum of the drag force and the rolling resistance and the velocity of the car, FD = C D A
V 2
372.8 N = (0.32)(1.8 m 2 )
(1.20 kg/m 3 )V 2 2
+ FRRV 2 Substituting the known quantities, the maximum speed corresponding to a wheel power of 80 kW is determined to be 1N 1 N m/s 1 kg m/s 2 + 372.8V = 80,000 W 1 W or, whose solution is V = 55.56 m/s = 200 km/h. (0.32)(1.8 m 2 ) (1.20 kg/m 3 )V 3 2
W total = Wdrag + W RR = ( FD + FRR )V = C D A
V 3
0.3456V 3 + 372.8V = 80,000
Discussion A net power input of 80 kW is needed to overcome rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag at a velocity of 200 km/h. About 75% of this power is used to overcome drag and the remaining 25% to overcome the rolling resistance. At much higher velocities, the fraction of drag becomes even higher as it is proportional to the cube of car velocity.
11-17
11-39
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of car speed on the required power to overcome (a) rolling resistance, (b) the aerodynamic drag, and (c) their combined effect as the car speed varies from 0 to 150 km/h in increments of 15 km/h is to be investigated.
Drag, Rolling, and Total Power, kW
The EES Equations window is Analysis printed below, along with the tabulated and plotted results.
rho=1.20 "kg/m3" C_roll=0.04 m=950 "kg" g=9.81 "m/s2" V=Vel/3.6 "m/s" W=m*g F_roll=C_roll*W A=1.8 "m2" C_D=0.32 F_D=C_D*A*(rho*V^2)/2 "N" Power_RR=F_roll*V/1000 "W" Power_Drag=F_D*V/1000 "W" Power_Total=Power_RR+Power_Drag
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Rolling power Total power Drag power
V, km/h
Wdrag kW 0.00 0.03 0.20 0.68 1.60 3.13 5.40 8.58 12.80 18.23 25.00 Wrolling, kW 0.00 1.55 3.11 4.66 6.21 7.77 9.32 10.87 12.43 13.98 15.53 Wtotal, kW 0.00 1.58 3.31 5.33 7.81 10.89 14.72 19.45 25.23 32.20 40.53
V, m/s 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
Discussion Notice that the rolling power curve and drag power curve intersect at about 118 km/h (73.3 mph). So, near highway speeds, the overall power is split nearly 50% between rolling drag and aerodynamic drag.
11-18
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-40 Solution A submarine is treated as an ellipsoid at a specified length and diameter. The powers required for this submarine to cruise horizontally in seawater and to tow it in air are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The submarine can be treated as an ellipsoid. 2 The flow is turbulent. 3 The drag of the towing rope is negligible. 4 The motion of submarine is steady and horizontal. Properties The drag coefficient for an ellipsoid with L/D = 25/5 = 5 is CD = 0.1 in turbulent flow (Table 11-2). The density of sea water is given to be 1025 kg/m3. The density of air is given to be 1.30 kg/m3.
40 km/h Submarine
Analysis Noting that 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the velocity of the submarine is equivalent to V = 40/3.6 = 11.11 m/s. The frontal area of an ellipsoid is A = D2/4. Then the drag force acting on the submarine becomes
In water: FD = C D A
V 2
2
= (0.1)[ (5 m) 2 / 4]
(1025 kg/m 3 )(11.11 m/s) 2 2 (1.30 kg/m 3 )(11.11 m/s) 2 2
1 kN 1000 kg m/s 2 1 kN 1000 kg m/s 2
= 124.2 kN = 0.158 kN
In air:
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= (0.1)[ (5 m) 2 / 4]
Noting that power is force times velocity, the power needed to overcome this drag force is 1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (124.2 kN)(11.11 m/s) In water: = 1380 kW 1 kN m/s In air:
1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (0.158 kN)(11.11 m/s) = 1.75 kW 1 kN m/s
Therefore, the power required for this submarine to cruise horizontally in seawater is 1380 kW and the power required to tow this submarine in air at the same velocity is 1.75 kW.
Discussion Note that the power required to move the submarine in water is about 800 times the power required to move it in air. This is due to the higher density of water compared to air (sea water is about 800 times denser than air).
11-19
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-41 Solution A garbage can is found in the morning tipped over due to high winds the night before. The wind velocity during the night when the can was tipped over is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air in the wind is steady and incompressible. 2 The ground effect on the wind and the drag coefficient is negligible (a crude approximation) so that the resultant drag force acts through the center of the side surface. 3 The garbage can is loaded uniformly so that its weight acts through its center. Properties The density of air is given to be = 1.25 kg/m3, and the average density of the garbage inside the can is given to be 150 kg/m3. The drag coefficient of the garbage can is given to be 0.7. Analysis
Garbage can V 1.2 m D = 0.8 m
The volume of the garbage can and the weight of the garbage are
V = [D 2 / 4]H = [ (0.80 m) 2 / 4](1.2 m) = 0.6032 m 2
1N W = mg = gV = (150 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(0.6032 m 3 ) 1 kg m/s 2
= 887.6 N
When the garbage can is first tipped, the edge on the wind-loaded side of the can will be off the ground, and thus all the reaction forces from the ground will act on the other side. Taking the moment about an axis passing through the contact point and setting it equal to zero gives the required drag force to be
contact
= 0 F D ( H / 2) W ( D / 2) = 0
FD =
WD (887.6 N)(0.80 m) = = 591.7 N 1.2 m H
Noting that the frontal area is DH, the wind velocity that will cause this drag force is determined to be
FD = C D A
V 2
2
591.7 N = (0.7)[1.2 0.80 m 2 ]
(1.25 kg/m 3 )V 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
V = 37.5 m/s
which is equivalent to a wind velocity of V = 37.53.6 = 135 km/h.

Discussion The analysis above shows that under the stated assumptions, the wind velocity at some moment exceeded 135 km/h. But we cannot tell how high the wind velocity has been. Such analysis and predictions are commonly used in forensic engineering.
11-20
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-42E Solution The drag coefficient of a sports car increases when the sunroof is open, and it requires more power to overcome aerodynamic drag. The additional power consumption of the car when the sunroof is opened is to be determined at two different velocities. Assumptions 1 The car moves steadily at a constant velocity on a straight path. 2 The effect of velocity on the drag coefficient is negligible. Properties The density of air is given to be 0.075 lbm/ft3. The drag coefficient of the car is given to be CD = 0.32 when the sunroof is closed, and CD = 0.41 when it is open. Analysis (a) Noting that 1 mph = 1.4667 ft/s and that power is force times velocity, the drag force acting on the car and the power needed to overcome it at 35 mph are:
Open sunroof: FD1 = 0.32(18 ft 2 )
(0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(35 1.4667 ft/s) 2 2
1 lbf 32.2 lbm ft/s 2
= 17.7 lbf
1 kW Wdrag1 = FD1V = (17.7 lbf)(35 1.4667 ft/s) = 1.23 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s
Closed sunroof: FD 2 = 0.41(18 ft 2 )
(0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(35 1.4667 ft/s) 2 1 lbf = 22.7 lbf 2 32.2 lbm ft/s 2
1 kW Wdrag2 = FD 2V = (22.7 lbf)(35 1.4667 ft/s) = 1.58 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s
Therefore, the additional power required for this car when the sunroof is open is
Wextra = Wdrag2 Wdrag2 = 1.58 1.23 = 0.350 kW
(at 35 mph)
(b) We now repeat the calculations for 70 mph: Open sunroof: FD1 = 0.32(18 ft 2 )
(0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(70 1.4667 ft/s) 2 2 1 lbf 32.2 lbm ft/s 2 = 70.7 lbf
1 kW Wdrag1 = FD1V = (70.7 lbf)(70 1.4667 ft/s) = 9.82 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s
Closed sunroof: FD 2 = 0.41(18 ft 2 )
1 kW Wdrag2 = FD 2V = (90.6 lbf)(70 1.4667 ft/s) = 12.6 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s
Therefore, the additional power required for this car when the sunroof is open is
Wextra = Wdrag2 Wdrag2 = 12.6 9.82 = 2.78 kW (at 70 mph)
Discussion Note that the additional drag caused by open sunroof is 0.35 kW at 35 mph, and 2.78 kW at 70 mph, which is an increase of 8 folds when the velocity is doubled. This is expected since the power consumption to overcome drag is proportional to the cube of velocity.
11-21
Flow over Flat Plates
11-43C Solution
We are to discuss the fluid property responsible for the development of a boundary layer.
Analysis The fluid viscosity is responsible for the development of the velocity boundary layer. Velocity forces the boundary layer closer to the wall. Therefore, the higher the velocity (and thus Reynolds number), the lower the thickness of the boundary layer. Discussion All fluids have viscosity a measure of frictional forces in a fluid. There is no such thing as an inviscid fluid, although there are regions, called inviscid flow regions, in which viscous effects are negligible.
11-44C Solution
We are to define and discuss the friction coefficient for flow over a flat plate.
Analysis The friction coefficient represents the resistance to fluid flow over a flat plate. It is proportional to the drag force acting on the plate. The drag coefficient for a flat surface is equivalent to the mean friction coefficient. Discussion
In flow over a flat plate aligned with the flow, there is no pressure (form) drag only friction drag.
11-45C Solution flow. Analysis
We are to discuss how the local skin friction coefficient changes with position along a flat plate in laminar
The local friction coefficient decreases with downstream distance in laminar flow over a flat plate.
Discussion At the front of the plate, the boundary layer is very thin, and thus the shear stress at the wall is large. As the boundary layer grows downstream, however, the boundary layer grows in size, decreasing the wall shear stress.
11-46C Solution
We are to define and discuss the average skin friction coefficient over a flat plate.
Analysis The average friction coefficient in flow over a flat plate is determined by integrating the local friction coefficient over the entire length of the plate, and then dividing it by the length of the plate. Or, it can be determined experimentally by measuring the drag force, and dividing it by the dynamic pressure. Discussion For the case of a flat plate aligned with the flow, there is no pressure drag, only skin friction drag. Thus, the average friction coefficient is the same as the drag coefficient. This is not true for other body shapes.
11-22
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-47E Solution
Light oil flows over a flat plate. The total drag force per unit width of the plate is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5 105. 3 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties Analysis
The density and kinematic viscosity of light oil at 75F are = 55.3 lbm/ft3 and = 7.751103 ft2/s. Noting that L = 15 ft, the Reynolds number at the end of the plate is
Re L =
VL
(6 ft/s)(15 ft) 7.751 10 3 ft 2 /s
= 1.161 10 4
Oil 6 ft/s
which is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have laminar flow over the entire plate, and the average friction coefficient is determined from
C f = 1.328 Re 0.5 = 1.328 (1.161 10 4 ) 0.5 = 0.01232 L
Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus C D = C f for a flat plate, the drag force acting on the top surface of the plate per unit width becomes
FD = C f A
L = 15 ft
V 2
2
= 0.01232 (15 1 ft 2 )
(56.8 lbm/ft 3 )(6 ft/s) 2 1 lbf = 5.87 lbf 2 2 32.2 lbm ft/s
The total drag force acting on the entire plate can be determined by multiplying the value obtained above by the width of the plate.
Discussion The force per unit width corresponds to the weight of a mass of 5.87 lbm. Therefore, a person who applies an equal and opposite force to the plate to keep it from moving will feel like he or she is using as much force as is necessary to hold a 5.87 lbm mass from dropping.
11-23
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-48 Solution Air flows over a plane surface at high elevation. The drag force acting on the top surface of the plate is to be determined for flow along the two sides of the plate. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties The dynamic viscosity is independent of pressure, and for air at 25C it is = 1.84910-5 kg/ms. The air density at 25C = 298 K and 83.4 kPa is P 83.4 kPa Air = = = 0.9751 kg/m 3 RT (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg K)(298 K) Analysis (a) If the air flows parallel to the 8 m side, the Reynolds number becomes
6 m/s 2.5 m
Re L =
VL (0.9751 kg/m 3 )(6 m/s)(8 m) = = 2.531 10 6 1.849 10 5 kg/m s
8m
which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and turbulent flow, and the friction coefficient is determined to be
Cf = 0.074 1742 0.074 1742 = = 0.003189 1/ 5 6 1/ 5 Re L (2.531 10 ) Re L 2.531 10 6
Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus C D = C f for a flat plate, the drag force acting on the top surface of the plate becomes
FD = C f A
V 2
2
= 0.003189 (8 2.5 m 2 )
(0.9751 kg/m 3 )(6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 1.12 N
(b) If the air flows parallel to the 2.5 m side, the Reynolds number is Re L =
VL (0.9751 kg/m 3 )(6 m/s)(2.5 m) = = 7.910 10 5 1.849 10 5 kg/m s
which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and turbulent flow, and the friction coefficient is determined to be 0.074 1742 0.074 1742 Cf = = = 0.002691 1/ 5 5 1/ 5 Re L (7.910 10 ) Re L 7.910 10 5 Then the drag force acting on the top surface of the plate becomes
FD = C f A
V 2
2
= 0.002691 (8 2.5 m 2 )
(0.9751 kg/m 3 )(6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 0.94 N
Discussion Note that the drag force is proportional to density, which is proportional to the pressure. Therefore, the altitude has a major influence on the drag force acting on a surface. Commercial airplanes take advantage of this phenomenon and cruise at high altitudes where the air density is much lower to save fuel.
11-24
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-49 Solution Wind is blowing parallel to the side wall of a house. The drag force acting on the wall is to be determined for two different wind velocities. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The wall surface is smooth (the actual wall surface is usually very rough). 5 The wind blows parallel to the wall. Properties Analysis
The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 5C are = 1.269 kg/m3 and = 1.382105 m2/s . The Reynolds number is
( 55 / 3.6 ) m/s (10 m ) = = 1.105 107 1.382 105 m 2 /s which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and turbulent flow, and the friction coefficient is 0.074 1742 0.074 1742 Cf = = = 0.002730 1/ 5 Re L (1.105 10 7 ) 1 / 5 1.105 10 7 Re L Re L = VL
4m Air 55 km/h
10 m
Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus C D = C f for a flat plate, the drag force acting on the wall surface is
FD = C f A
V 2
2
= 0.00273 (10 4 m 2 )
(1.269 kg/m 3 )(55 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 16.2 N
(b) When the wind velocity is doubled to 110 km/h, the Reynolds number becomes
Re L =
VL
(110 / 3.6 ) m/s (10 m ) = = 2.211 107 1.382 105 m 2 /s
which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and turbulent flow, and the friction coefficient and the drag force become 0.074 1742 0.074 1742 Cf = = = 0.002435 1/ 5 Re L (2.211 10 7 ) 1 / 5 2.211 10 7 Re L
FD = C f A
V 2
2
= 0.002435 (10 4 m 2 )
(1.269 kg/m 3 )(110 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 57.7 N
Treating flow over the side wall of a house as flow over a flat plate is not quite realistic. When flow hits a bluff body like a house, it separates at the sharp corner and a separation bubble exists over most of the side panels of the house. Therefore, flat plat boundary layer equations are not appropriate for this problem, and the entire house should considered in the solution instead.
Discussion Note that the actual drag will probably be much higher since the wall surfaces are typically very rough. Also, we can solve this problem using the turbulent flow relation (instead of the combined laminar-turbulent flow relation) without much loss in accuracy. Finally, the drag force nearly quadruples when the velocity is doubled. This is expected since the drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity, and the effect of velocity on the friction coefficient is small.
11-25
11-50E
Solution Air flows over a flat plate. The local friction coefficients at intervals of 1 ft is to be determined and plotted against the distance from the leading edge.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 70F are = 0.07489 lbm/ft3 and = 0.5913 ft2/h = 4 2 1.64310 ft /s . Analysis
For the first 1 ft interval, the Reynolds number is ( 25 ft/s )(1 ft ) VL = = 1.522 105 Re L = 1.643 104 ft 2 /s
Air 25 ft/s
which is less than the critical value of 5 105 . Therefore, the flow is laminar. The local friction coefficient is 0.664 0.664 C f ,x = = = 0.001702 0.5 Re (1.522 10 5 ) 0.5
10 ft
We repeat calculations for all 1-ft intervals. The EES Equations window is printed below, along with the tabulated and plotted results. x, ft Re Cf
rho=0.07489 "lbm/ft3" nu=0.5913/3600 "ft2/s" V=25 Local Re and C_f Re=x*V/nu "f=0.664/Re^0.5" f=0.059/Re^0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.522E+05 3.044E+05 4.566E+05 6.088E+05 7.610E+05 9.132E+05 1.065E+06 1.218E+06 1.370E+06 1.522E+06
0.001702 0.001203 0.000983 0.004111 0.003932 0.003791 0.003676 0.003579 0.003496 0.003423
0.0045 0.004 0.0035 0.003 0.0025 0.002 0.0015 0.001 0.0005 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x, ft
Note that the Reynolds number exceeds the critical value for x > 3 ft, and thus the flow is turbulent over Discussion most of the plate. For x > 3 ft, we used C f = 0.074 / Re 1 / 5 - 1742/Re L for friction coefficient. Note that Cf decreases with L Re in both laminar and turbulent flows.
11-26
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-51 Solution Air flows on both sides of a continuous sheet of plastic. The drag force air exerts on the plastic sheet in the direction of flow is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 Both surfaces of the plastic sheet are smooth. 5 The plastic sheet does not vibrate and thus it does not induce turbulence in air flow. Properties Analysis
The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 60C are = 1.059 kg/m3 and = 1.896105 m2/s . The length of the cooling section is
Air V = 3 m/s
L = Vsheet t = [(15 / 60) m/s](2 s) = 0.5 m
The Reynolds number is Re L = VL
(3 m/s)(1.2 m) = 1.899 105 2 5 1.896 10 m /s
15 m/min
which is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus the flow is laminar. The area on both sides of the sheet exposed to air flow is
A = 2 wL = 2(1.2 m)(0.5 m) = 1.2 m 2
Plastic sheet
Then the friction coefficient and the drag force become 1.328 1.328 Cf = = = 0.003048 Re L 0.5 (1.899 10 5 ) 0.5
(1.059 kg/m 3 )(3 m/s) 2 = 0.0174 N 2 2 Discussion Note that the Reynolds number remains under the critical value, and thus the flow remains laminar over the entire plate. In reality, the flow may be turbulent because of the motion of the plastic sheet. FD = C f A = (0.003048)(1.2 m 2 )
V 2
11-52 Solution A train is cruising at a specified velocity. The drag force acting on the top surface of a passenger car of the train is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The air flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The top surface of the train is smooth (in reality it can be rough). 5 The air is calm (no significant winds). Properties Analysis
Re L =
The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.562105 m2/s . The Reynolds number is
VL
Air, 25C 70 km/h
( 70 / 3.6 ) m/s ( 8 m ) = = 9.959 106 1.562 105 m 2 /s which is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have combined laminar and turbulent flow, and the friction coefficient is determined to be 0.074 1742 0.074 1742 Cf = = = 0.002774 Re 1 / 5 Re L (9.959 10 6 ) 1 / 5 9.959 10 6 L
Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus C D = C f for a flat plate, the drag force acting on the surface becomes
FD = C f A
V 2
2
= 0.002774 (8 3.2 m 2 )
(1.184 kg/m 3 )(70 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 15.9 N
Discussion Note that we can solve this problem using the turbulent flow relation (instead of the combined laminarturbulent flow relation) without much loss in accuracy since the Reynolds number is much greater than the critical value. Also, the actual drag force will probably be greater because of the surface roughness effects.
11-27
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-53 Solution The weight of a thin flat plate exposed to air flow on both sides is balanced by a counterweight. The mass of the counterweight that needs to be added in order to balance the plate is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The surfaces of the plate are smooth. Properties Analysis
The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.562105 m2/s .
Air, 10 m/s
The Reynolds number is VL (10 m/s )( 0.5 m ) Re L = = = 3.201 105 1.562 105 m 2 /s which is less than the critical Reynolds number of 5105 . Therefore the flow is laminar. The average friction coefficient, drag force and the corresponding mass are 1.328 1.328 Cf = = = 0.002347 0.5 Re L (3.201 10 5 ) 0.5
= (0.002347)[(2 0.5 0.5) m 2 ] 2 The mass whose weight is 0.0695 N is m= FD 0.0695 kg.m/s 2 = = 0.0071 kg = 7.1 g g 9.81 m/s 2 FD = C f A
Plate 50 cm
50 cm
(1.184 kg/m )(10 m/s) = 0.0695 kg m/s 2 = 0.0695 N 2
Therefore, the mass of the counterweight must be 7.1 g to counteract the drag force acting on the plate.
Discussion Note that the apparatus described in this problem provides a convenient mechanism to measure drag force and thus drag coefficient.
11-54 Solution Laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate is considered. The change in the drag force is to be determined when the free-stream velocity of the fluid is doubled. Analysis
For the laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate the drag force is given by
FD1 = C f A
V 2
2
where C f =
2
1.328 Re 0.5
V
Therefore 2 Re Substituting Reynolds number relation, we get

0.5 2 L0.5 VL When the free-stream velocity of the fluid is doubled, the new value of the drag force on the plate becomes
FD1 =
1.328
0.5
FD1 =
1.328
V 2
= 0.664V 3 / 2 A
0.5
2 (2V ) L The ratio of drag forces corresponding to V and 2V is FD 2 (2V ) 3 / 2 = = 2 3/2 = 2.83 3/ 2 FD1 V
FD 2 =
1.328
0.5
(2V ) 2
= 0.664(2V ) 3 / 2 A
0.5
L0.5
Discussion
Note that the drag force increases almost three times in laminar flow when the fluid velocity is doubled.
11-28
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-55E Solution A refrigeration truck is traveling at a specified velocity. The drag force acting on the top and side surfaces of the truck and the power needed to overcome it are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The process is steady and incompressible. 2 The airflow over the entire outer surface is turbulent because of constant agitation. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The top and side surfaces of the truck are smooth (in reality they can be rough). 5 The air is calm (no significant winds). Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 80F are = 0.07350 lbm/ft3 and = 0.6110 ft2/s = 4 2 1.69710 ft /s . Analysis
The Reynolds number is Re L = VL
( 65 1.4667 ) ft/s ( 20 ft ) 20 ft = = 1.124 107 1.697 104 ft 2 /s The air flow over the entire outer surface is assumed to be turbulent. Then the Refrigeration 8 ft friction coefficient becomes truck 0.074 0.074 Cf = = = 0.002878 Re 1 / 5 (1.124 10 7 ) 1 / 5 L The area of the top and side surfaces of the truck is A = Atop + 2Aside = 920+2820 =500 ft2
Air 65 mph
Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus C D = C f for a plane surface, the drag force acting on these surfaces becomes
FD = C f A
V 2
2
= 0.002878 (500 ft 2 )
Noting that power is force times velocity, the power needed to overcome this drag force is
1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (14.9 lbf)(65 1.4667 ft/s) = 1.93 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s
Discussion Note that the calculated drag force (and the power required to overcome it) is very small. This is not surprising since the drag force for blunt bodies is almost entirely due to pressure drag, and the friction drag is practically negligible compared to the pressure drag.
11-29
11-56E
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of truck speed on the total drag force acting on the top and side surfaces, and the power required to overcome as the truck speed varies from 0 to 100 mph in increments of 10 mph is to be investigated.
7
The EES Equations window is Analysis printed below, along with the tabulated and plotted results.
rho=0.07350 "lbm/ft3" nu=0.6110/3600 "ft2/s" V=Vel*1.4667 "ft/s" L=20 "ft" W=2*8+9 A=L*W Re=L*V/nu Cf=0.074/Re^0.2 g=32.2 "ft/s2" F=Cf*A*(rho*V^2)/2/32.2 "lbf" Pdrag=F*V/737.56 "kW"
6 5
Pdrag, kW
4 3 2 1 0 0
20
40
60
80
100
V, mph
V, mph 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Discussion
Re 0 1.728E+06 3.457E+06 5.185E+06 6.913E+06 8.642E+06 1.037E+07 1.209E+07 1.382E+07 1.555E+07 1.728E+07
Fdrag, lbf 0.00 0.51 1.79 3.71 6.23 9.31 12.93 17.06 21.69 26.82 32.42
Pdrag, kW 0.000 0.010 0.071 0.221 0.496 0.926 1.542 2.375 3.451 4.799 6.446
The required power increases rapidly with velocity in fact, as velocity cubed.
11-30
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-57 Solution Air is flowing over a long flat plate with a specified velocity. The distance from the leading edge of the plate where the flow becomes turbulent, and the thickness of the boundary layer at that location are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.562105 m2/s . Analysis The critical Reynolds number is given to be Recr = 5105. The distance from the leading edge of the plate where the flow becomes turbulent is the distance xcr where the Reynolds number becomes equal to the critical Reynolds number,
Recr = Vxcr xcr =
V
xcr
Recr
V 8 m/s The thickness of the boundary layer at that location is obtained by substituting this value of x into the laminar boundary layer thickness relation,
(1.562 10
m 2 /s )( 5 105 )
= 0.976 m
v, x =
4.91x Re 1 / 2 x
v ,cr =
4.91x cr Re 1 / 2 cr
4.91(0.976 m) (5 10 5 ) 1 / 2
= 0.00678 m = 0.678 cm
Discussion When the flow becomes turbulent, the boundary layer thickness starts to increase, and the value of its thickness can be determined from the boundary layer thickness relation for turbulent flow.
11-58 Solution Water is flowing over a long flat plate with a specified velocity. The distance from the leading edge of the plate where the flow becomes turbulent, and the thickness of the boundary layer at that location are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 1 atm and 25C are = 997 kg/m3 and = 0.891103 kg/ms. Analysis The critical Reynolds number is given to be Recr = 5105. The distance from the leading edge of the plate where the flow becomes turbulent is the distance xcr where the Reynolds number becomes equal to the critical Reynolds number,
Re cr =
V
xcr
Vx cr
x cr =
Re cr (0.891 10 3 kg/m s)(5 10 5 ) = = 0.056 m V (997 kg/m 3 )(8 m/s)
The thickness of the boundary layer at that location is obtained by substituting this value of x into the laminar boundary layer thickness relation,
v, x =
5x Re 1 / 2 x
v ,cr =
4.91x cr Re 1 / 2 cr
4.91(0.056 m) (5 10 5 ) 1 / 2
= 0.00039 m = 0.39 mm
Therefore, the flow becomes turbulent after about 5.6 cm from the leading edge of the plate, and the thickness of the boundary layer at that location is 0.39 mm.
Discussion When the flow becomes turbulent, the boundary layer thickness starts to increase, and the value of its thickness can be determined from the boundary layer thickness relation for turbulent flow.
11-31
Flow across Cylinders and Spheres
11-59C Solution
We are to discuss why the drag coefficient suddenly drops when the flow becomes turbulent.
Analysis Turbulence moves the fluid separation point further back on the rear of the body, reducing the size of the wake, and thus the magnitude of the pressure drag (which is the dominant mode of drag). As a result, the drag coefficient suddenly drops. In general, turbulence increases the drag coefficient for flat surfaces, but the drag coefficient usually remains constant at high Reynolds numbers when the flow is turbulent. Discussion
The sudden drop in drag is sometimes referred to as the drag crisis.
11-60C Solution
We are to discuss how pressure drag and friction drag differ in flow over blunt bodies.
Analysis Friction drag is due to the shear stress at the surface whereas pressure drag is due to the pressure differential between the front and back sides of the body because of the wake that is formed in the rear. Discussion For a blunt or bluff body, pressure drag is usually greater than friction drag, while for a well-streamlined body, the opposite is true. For the case of a flat plate aligned with the flow, all of the drag is friction drag.
11-61C Solution
We are to discuss why flow separation is delayed in turbulent flow over circular cylinders.
Analysis Flow separation in flow over a cylinder is delayed in turbulent flow because of the extra mixing due to random fluctuations and the transverse motion. Discussion As a result of the turbulent mixing, a turbulent boundary layer can resist flow separation better than a laminar boundary layer can, under otherwise similar conditions.
11-32
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-62E Solution A pipe is crossing a river while remaining completely immersed in water. The drag force exerted on the pipe by the river is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The outer surface of the pipe is smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 Water flow in the river is steady. 3 The turbulence in water flow in the river is not considered. 4 The direction of water flow is normal to the pipe. Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 70F are = 62.30 lbm/ft3 and = 2.36 lbm/fth = 6.55610-4 lbm/fts. Analysis Noting that D = 1.2 in = 0.1 ft, the Reynolds number for flow over the pipe is
Re = VD
Pipe D = 1.2 in L = 105 ft River water V = 10 ft/s T = 70F
VD (62.30 lbm/ft 3 )(10 ft/s)(0.1 ft) = = 9.50 10 4 6.556 10 4 lbm/ft s
The drag coefficient corresponding to this value is, from Fig. 11-34, CD = 1.1. Also, the frontal area for flow past a cylinder is A = LD. Then the drag force acting on the cylinder becomes
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= 1.1 (105 0.1 ft 2 )
(62.30 lbm/ft 3 )(10 ft/s) 2 1 lbf = 1120 lbf 2 2 32.2 lbm ft/s
Discussion Note that this force is equivalent to the weight of a 1120 lbm mass. Therefore, the drag force the river exerts on the pipe is equivalent to hanging a mass of 1120 lbm on the pipe supported at its ends 70 ft apart. The necessary precautions should be taken if the pipe cannot support this force. Also, the fluctuations in water flow may reduce the drag coefficients by inducing turbulence and delaying flow separation.
11-63 Solution
A pipe is exposed to high winds. The drag force exerted on the pipe by the winds is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The outer surface of the pipe is smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 Air flow in the wind is steady and incompressible. 3 The turbulence in the wind is not considered. 4The direction of wind is normal to the pipe. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 5C are = 1.269 kg/m3 and = 1.38210-5 m2/s. Analysis Noting that D = 0.08 m and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the Reynolds number for flow over the pipe is
Re = VD
Wind V = 50 km/h T = 5C
(50 / 3.6 m/s)(0.08 m) 1.382 10 5 m 2 /s
= 0.8040 10 5
Pipe D = 8 cm L=1m
The drag coefficient corresponding to this value is, from Fig. 11-34, CD = 1.0. Also, the frontal area for flow past a cylinder is A = LD. Then the drag force becomes
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= 1.0(1 0.08 m 2 )
(1.269 kg/m 3 )(50 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 9.79 N (per m length)
Discussion Note that the drag force acting on a unit length of the pipe is equivalent to the weight of 1 kg mass. The total drag force acting on the entire pipe can be obtained by multiplying the value obtained by the pipe length. It should be kept in mind that wind turbulence may reduce the drag coefficients by inducing turbulence and delaying flow separation.
11-33
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-64E Solution A person extends his uncovered arms into the windy air outside. The drag force exerted on both arms by the wind is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The surfaces of the arms are smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 Air flow in the wind is steady and incompressible. 3 The turbulence in the wind is not considered. 4The direction of wind is normal to the arms. 5 The arms can be treated as 2-ft-long and 3-in.-diameter cylinders with negligible end effects. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 60F are = 0.07633 lbm/ft3 and = 0.5718 ft2/h = 1.58810-4 ft2/s. Analysis Noting that D = 3 in = 0.25 ft and 1 mph = 1.4667 ft/s, the Reynolds number for flow over the arm is
Re = VD
Air 60F, 20 mph
(20 1.4667 ft/s)(0.25 ft) 1.588 10

4
ft /s
= 4.618 10 4
Arm
The drag coefficient corresponding to this value is, from Fig. 11-34, CD = 1.0. Also, the frontal area for flow past a cylinder is A = LD. Then the total drag force acting on both arms becomes
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= 1.0 (2 2 0.25 ft 2 )
(0.07633 lbm/ft 3 )(20 1.4667 ft/s) 2 1 lbf 2 32.2 lbm ft/s 2
= 1.02 lbf
Discussion Note that this force is equivalent to the weight of 1 lbm mass. Therefore, the drag force the wind exerts on the arms of this person is equivalent to hanging 0.5 lbm of mass on each arm. Also, it should be kept in mind that the wind turbulence and the surface roughness may affect the calculated result significantly.
11-65 Solution Wind is blowing across the wire of a transmission line. The drag force exerted on the wire by the wind is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The wire surfaces are smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 Air flow in the wind is steady and incompressible. 3 The turbulence in the wind is not considered. 4The direction of wind is normal to the wire. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 15C are = 1.225 kg/m3 and = 1.47010-5 m2/s. Analysis Noting that D = 0.006 m and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the Reynolds number for the flow is
Re = VD
Wind V = 40 km/h T = 15C Transmission wire, D = 0.6 cm L = 120 m
(40 / 3.6 m/s)(0.006 m) 1.470 10

5
m /s
= 4.535 10 3
The drag coefficient corresponding to this value is, from Fig. 11-34, CD = 1.0. Also, the frontal area for flow past a cylinder is A = LD. Then the drag force becomes
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= 1.0(120 0.006 m 2 )
(1.225 kg/m 3 )(40 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 54.4 N
Therefore, the drag force acting on the wire is 54.4 N, which is equivalent to the weight of about 5.4 kg mass hanging on the wire.
Discussion It should be kept in mind that wind turbulence may reduce the drag coefficients by inducing turbulence and delaying flow separation.
11-34
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-66 Solution
Spherical hail is falling freely in the atmosphere. The terminal velocity of the hail in air is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The surface of the hail is smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 The variation of the air properties with altitude is negligible. 3 The buoyancy force applied by air to hail is negligible since air << hail (besides, the uncertainty in the density of hail is greater than the density of air). 4 Air flow over the hail is steady and incompressible when terminal velocity is established. 5 The atmosphere is calm (no winds or drafts). Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 5C are = 1.269 kg/m3 and = 1.38210-5 m2/s. The density of hail is given to be 910 kg/m3. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid, which is negligible in this case, fV 2 F D = W FB where FD = C D A , W = mg = s gV = s g (D 3 / 6), and FB 0 2 and A = D2/4 is the frontal area. Substituting and simplifying,
CD A
fV 2
2
=W
CD
2 D 2 f V
= s g
D 3
6
CD f V 2 = s g
4D 3
Hail D = 0.3 cm
Solving for V and substituting,

V= 4 g s D = 3C D f 4(9.81 m/s 2 )(910 kg/m 3 )(0.008 m) 3C D (1.269 kg/m )
3
V=
8.662 CD
(1)
The drag coefficient CD is to be determined from Fig. 11-34, but it requires the Reynolds number which cannot be calculated since we do not know velocity. Therefore, the solution requires a trial-error approach. First we express the Reynolds number as
Re = VD
Air T = 5C
V (0.008 m) 1.382 10 5 m 2 /s
Re = 578.9V
(2)
Now we choose a velocity in m/s, calculate the Re from Eq. 2, read the corresponding CD from Fig. 11-34, and calculate V from Eq. 1. Repeat calculations until the assumed velocity matches the calculated velocity. With this approach the terminal velocity is determined to be V = 13.7 m/s The corresponding Re and CD values are Re = 7930 and CD = 0.40. Therefore, the velocity of hail will remain constant when it reaches the terminal velocity of 13.7 m/s = 49 km/h.
Discussion The simple analysis above gives us a reasonable value for the terminal velocity. A more accurate answer can be obtained by a more detailed (and complex) analysis by considering the variation of air properties with altitude, and by considering the uncertainty in the drag coefficient (a hail is not necessarily spherical and smooth).
11-35
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-67 Solution A spherical dust particle is suspended in the air at a fixed point as a result of an updraft air motion. The magnitude of the updraft velocity is to be determined using Stokes law. Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (at the order of 1) so that Stokes law is applicable (to be verified). 2 The updraft is steady and incompressible. 3 The buoyancy force applied by air to the dust particle is negligible since air << dust (besides, the uncertainty in the density of dust is greater than the density of air). (We will solve the problem without utilizing this assumption for generality). Properties The density of dust is given to be s = 2.1 g/cm3 = 2100 kg/m3. The density and dynamic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are f = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.84910-5 kg/ms. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached (or the suspension of an object in a flow stream is established) when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object less the buoyancy force applied by the surrounding fluid,
F D = W FB
where FD = 3VD (Stokes law),
Here V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Substituting,

3VD = s gV f gV 3VD = ( s f ) g
D 3
6
0.1 mm Dust V Air
Solving for the velocity V and substituting the numerical values, the updraft velocity is determined to be
V= gD 2 ( s f ) 18 = (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.0001 m) 2 (2100 - 1.184) kg/m 3 18(1.849 10 -5 kg/m s) = 0.619 m/s
The Reynolds number in this case is

Re =
VD (1.184 kg/m 3 )(0.619 m/s)(0.0001 m) = = 4.0 1.849 10 -5 kg m/s
which is in the order of 1. Therefore, the creeping flow idealization and thus Stokes law is applicable, and the value calculated is valid.
Discussion Flow separation starts at about Re = 10. Therefore, Stokes law can be used as an approximation for Reynolds numbers up to this value, but this should be done with care.
11-36
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-68 Solution Dust particles that are unsettled during high winds rise to a specified height, and start falling back when things calm down. The time it takes for the dust particles to fall back to the ground and their velocity are to be determined using Stokes law. Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (at the order of 1) so that Stokes law is applicable (to be verified). 2 The atmosphere is calm during fall back (no winds or drafts). 3 The initial transient period during which the dust particle accelerates to its terminal velocity is negligible. 4 The buoyancy force applied by air to the dust particle is negligible since air << dust (besides, the uncertainty in the density of dust is greater than the density of air). (We will solve this problem without utilizing this assumption for generality). Properties The density of dust is given to be s = 1.8 g/cm3 = 1800 kg/m3. The density and dynamic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 15C are f = 1.225 kg/m3 and = 1.80210-5 kg/ms. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object less the buoyancy force applied by the surrounding fluid,
F D = W FB
Here V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Substituting,

3VD = s gV f gV 3VD = ( s f ) g
D 3
6
Solving for the velocity V and substituting the numerical values, the terminal velocity is determined to be
V= gD 2 ( s f ) 18 = (9.81 m/s 2 )(5 10 5 m) 2 (1800 - 1.225) kg/m 3 18(1.802 10 -5 kg/m s) = 0.136 m/s
0.05 mm Dust V
Then the time it takes for the dust particle to travel 350 m at this velocity becomes
L 350 m t = = = 2573 s = 42.9 min V 0.136 m/s
The Reynolds number is

Re =
VD (1.225 kg/m 3 )(0.136 m/s)(5 10 -5 m) = = 0.46 1.802 10 -5 kg m/s
which is in the order of 1. Therefore, the creeping flow idealization and thus Stokes law is applicable.
Discussion Note that the dust particle reaches a terminal velocity of 0.136 m/s, and it takes about an hour to fall back to the ground. The presence of drafts in air may significantly increase the settling time.
11-37
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-69 [Also solved using EES on enclosed DVD]
Solution A cylindrical log suspended by a crane is subjected to normal winds. The angular displacement of the log and the tension on the cable are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The surfaces of the log are smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient (not a realistic assumption). 2 Air flow in the wind is steady and incompressible. 3 The turbulence in the wind is not considered. 4The direction of wind is normal to the log, which always remains horizontal. 5 The end effects of the log are negligible. 6 The weight of the cable and the drag acting on it are negligible. 7 Air is an ideal gas. Properties The dynamic viscosity of air at 5C (independent of pressure) is = 1.75410-5 kg/ms. Then the density and kinematic viscosity of air are calculated to be
P 88 kPa = = 1.103 kg/m 3 RT (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg K)(278 K)
1.754 10 5 kg/m s = = 1.590 10 5 m 2 /s 1.103 kg/m 3

2m 0.2 m 80 km/h
Analysis Noting that D = 0.2 m and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the Reynolds number is
Re = VD
(40 / 3.6 m/s)(0.2 m) 1.590 10 5 m 2 /s
= 1.398 10 5
The drag coefficient corresponding to this value is, from Fig. 11-34, CD = 1.2. Also, the frontal area for flow past a cylinder is A = LD. Then the total drag force acting on the log becomes
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= 1.2(2 0.2 m 2 )
(1.103 kg/m 3 )(40 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 32.7 N
The weight of the log is

W = mg = gV = g
D 2 L
4
= (513 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )
(0.2 m) 2 (2 m)
4
1N 1 kg m/s 2
= 316 N
Then the resultant force acting on the log and the angle it makes with the horizontal become
2 Flog = R = W 2 + FD = 32.7 2 + 316 2 = 318 N
tan =
316 W = = 9.66 FD 32.7
= 84
Drawing a free body diagram of the log and doing a force balance will show that the magnitude of the tension on the cable must be equal to the resultant force acting on the log. Therefore, the tension on the cable is 318 N and the cable makes 84 with the horizontal.
Discussion Note that the wind in this case has rotated the cable by 6 from its vertical position, and increased the tension action on it somewhat. At very high wind speeds, the increase in the cable tension can be very significant, and wind loading must always be considered in bodies exposed to high winds.
11-38
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-70 Solution A ping-pong ball is suspended in air by an upward air jet. The velocity of the air jet is to be determined, and the phenomenon that the ball returns to the center of the air jet after a disturbance is to be explained. Assumptions 1 The surface of the ping-pong ball is smooth so that Fig. 11-34 can be used to determine the drag coefficient. 2 Air flow over the ball is steady and incompressible. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.56210-5 m2/s. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid, fV 2 F D = W FB where FD = C D A , W = mg , and FB = f gV 2 Here A = D2/4 is the frontal area and V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Also,
W = mg = (0.0026 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) = 0.0255 kg m/s 2 = 0.0255 N FB = f g
Air jet
Ball 2.6 g
D 3
6
= (1.184 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )
(0.038 m) 3
6
= 0.000334 kg m/s 2 = 0.000334 N
Substituting and solving for V,

CD
2 D 2 f V
= W FB V =
8(W FB )
D C D f
2
8(0.0255 0.000334 ) kg m/s 2 )
(0.038 m) C D (1.184 kg/m )

2 3
V=
6.122 CD
(1)
The drag coefficient CD is to be determined from Fig. 11-34, but it requires the Reynolds number which cannot be calculated since we do not know velocity. Therefore, the solution requires a trial-error approach. First we express the Reynolds number as
Re = VD
V (0.038 m) 1.562 10 5 m 2 /s
Re = 2433V
(2)
Now we choose a velocity in m/s, calculate the Re from Eq. 2, read the corresponding CD from Fig. 11-34, and calculate V from Eq. 1. Repeat calculations until the assumed velocity matches the calculated velocity. With this approach the velocity of the fluid jet is determined to be V = 9.3 m/s The corresponding Re and CD values are Re = 22,600 and CD = 0.43. Therefore, the ping-pong ball will remain suspended in the air jet when the air velocity reaches 9.3 m/s = 33.5 km/h.
Discussion 1 If the ball is pushed to the side by a finger, the ball will come back to the center of the jet (instead of falling off) due to the Bernoulli effect. In the core of the jet the velocity is higher, and thus the pressure is lower relative to a location away from the jet. 2 Note that this simple apparatus can be used to determine the drag coefficients of certain object by simply measuring the air velocity, which is easy to do. 3 This problem can also be solved roughly by taking CD = 0.5 from Table 11-2 for a sphere in laminar flow, and then verifying that the flow is laminar.
11-39
Lift
11-71C Solution
We are to discuss why the contribution of viscous effects to lift of airfoils is usually negligible.
Analysis The contribution of viscous effects to lift is usually negligible for airfoils since the wall shear is nearly parallel to the surfaces of such devices and thus nearly normal to the direction of lift. Discussion However, viscous effects are extremely important for airfoils at high angles of attack, since the viscous effects near the wall (in the boundary layer) cause the flow to separate and the airfoil to stall, losing significant lift.
11-72C Solution
We are to discuss the lift and drag on a symmetrical airfoil at zero angle of attack.
Analysis When air flows past a symmetrical airfoil at zero angle of attack, (a) the lift is zero, but (b) the drag acting on the airfoil is nonzero. Discussion In this case, because of symmetry, there is no lift, but there is still skin friction drag, along with a small amount of pressure drag.
11-73C Solution
We are to discuss the lift and drag on a nonsymmetrical airfoil at zero angle of attack.
Analysis When air flows past a nonsymmetrical airfoil at zero angle of attack, both the (a) lift and (b) drag acting on the airfoil are nonzero. Discussion Because of the lack of symmetry, the flow is different on the top and bottom surfaces of the airfoil, leading to lift. There is drag too, just as there is drag even on a symmetrical airfoil.
11-74C Solution
We are to discuss the lift and drag on a symmetrical airfoil at 5o angle of attack.
Analysis When air flows past a symmetrical airfoil at an angle of attack of 5, both the (a) lift and (b) drag acting on the airfoil are nonzero. Discussion Because of the lack of symmetry with respect to the free-stream flow, the flow is different on the top and bottom surfaces of the airfoil, leading to lift. There is drag too, just as there is drag even at zero angle of attack.
11-75C Solution
We are to define and discuss stall.
Analysis The decrease of lift with an increase in the angle of attack is called stall. When the flow separates over nearly the entire upper half of the airfoil, the lift is reduced dramatically (the separation point is near the leading edge). Stall is caused by flow separation and the formation of a wide wake region over the top surface of the airfoil. Commercial aircraft are not allowed to fly at velocities near the stall velocity for safety reasons. Airfoils stall at high angles of attack (flow cannot negotiate the curve around the leading edge). If a plane stalls, it loses mush of its lift, and it can crash. Discussion
At angles of attack above the stall angle, the drag also increases significantly.
11-40
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-76C Solution
We are to discuss which increases at a greater rate lift or drag with increasing angle of attack.
Analysis Both the lift and the drag of an airfoil increase with an increase in the angle of attack, but in general, the lift increases at a much higher rate than does the drag. Discussion
In other words, the lift-to-drag ratio increases with increasing angle of attack at least up to the stall angle.
11-77C Solution
We are to why flaps are used on aircraft during takeoff and landing.
Analysis Flaps are used at the leading and trailing edges of the wings of large aircraft during takeoff and landing to alter the shape of the wings to maximize lift and to enable the aircraft to land or takeoff at low speeds. An aircraft can take off or land without flaps, but it can do so at very high velocities, which is undesirable during takeoff and landing. Discussion In simple terms, the planform area of the wing increases as the flaps are deployed. Thus, even if the lift coefficient were to remain constant, the actual lift would still increase. In fact, however, flaps increase the lift coefficient as well, leading to even further increases in lift. Lower takeoff and landing speeds lead to shorter runway length requirements.
11-78C Solution
We are to discuss how flaps affect the lift and drag of airplane wings.
Analysis Flaps increase both the lift and the drag of the wings. But the increase in drag during takeoff and landing is not much of a concern because of the relatively short time periods involved. This is the penalty we pay willingly to take off and land at safe speeds. Discussion
Note, however, that the engine must operate at nearly full power during takeoff to overcome the large drag.
11-79C Solution
We are to discuss the effect of wing tip vortices on drag and lift.
Analysis The effect of wing tip vortices is to increase drag (induced drag) and to decrease lift. This effect is also due to the downwash, which causes an effectively smaller angle of attack. Discussion
Induced drag is a three-dimensional effect; there is no induced drag on a 2-D airfoil since there are no tips.
11-80C Solution
We are to discuss induced drag and how to minimize it.
Analysis Induced drag is the additional drag caused by the tip vortices. The tip vortices have a lot of kinetic energy, all of which is wasted and is ultimately dissipated as heat in the air downstream. Induced drag can be reduced by using long and narrow wings, and by modifying the geometry of the wing tips. Discussion
Birds are designed with feathers that fan out at the tips of their wings in order to reduce induced drag.
11-81C Solution
We are to discuss the lift on a spinning and non-spinning ball.
Analysis When air is flowing past a spherical ball, the lift exerted on the ball is zero if the ball is not spinning, and it is nonzero if the ball is spinning about an axis normal to the free stream velocity (no lift is generated if the ball is spinning about an axis parallel to the free stream velocity). Discussion
In the parallel spinning case, however, a side force would be generated (e.g., a curve ball).
11-41
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-82
Solution
A tennis ball is hit with a backspin. It is to be determined if the ball will fall or rise after being hit.
Assumptions 1 The outer surface of the ball is smooth enough for Fig. 11-53 to be applicable. 2 The ball is hit horizontally so that it starts its motion horizontally. 4200 rpm Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.56210-5 m2/s. Analysis The ball is hit horizontally, and thus it would normally fall under the effect of gravity without the spin. The backspin will generate a lift, and the ball will rise if the lift is greater than the weight of the ball. The lift can be determined from V 2 FL = C L A 2 where A is the frontal area of the ball, A = D 2 / 4 . The regular and angular velocities of the ball are 2 rad 1 min 1 m/s V = (92 km/h) and = (4200 rev/min) = 440 rad/s = 25.56 m/s 3.6 km/h 1 rev 60 s Then, D (440 rad/s)(0.064 m) = = 0.551 rad 2V 2(25.56 m/s) From Fig. 11-53, the lift coefficient corresponding to this value is CL = 0.11. Then the lift acting on the ball is (0.064 m) 2 (1.184 kg/m 3 )(25.56 m/s) 2 1 N = 0.14 N FL = (0.11) 1 kg m/s 2 4 2
1N = 0.56 N The weight of the ball is W = mg = (0.057 kg )(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2 which is more than the lift. Therefore, the ball will drop under the combined effect of gravity and lift due to spinning after hitting, with a net force of 0.56 - 0.14 = 0.42 N. VD ( 25.56m/s )( 0.064 m ) Discussion The Reynolds number for this problem is Re L = = = 1.05 105 , which is close 1.562 105 m 2 /s enough to 6104 for which Fig. 11-53 is prepared. Therefore, the result should be close enough to the actual answer.
92 km/h
11-83 Solution The takeoff speed of an aircraft when it is fully loaded is given. The required takeoff speed when the weight of the aircraft is increased by 20% as a result of overloading is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The atmospheric conditions (and thus the properties of air) remain the same. 2 The settings of the plane during takeoff are maintained the same so that the lift coefficient of the plane remains the same. Analysis
An aircraft will takeoff when lift equals the total weight. Therefore, 2W W = FL W = 1 C L V 2 A V= 2 C L A
Takeoff V = 190 km/h
We note that the takeoff velocity is proportional to the square root of the weight of the aircraft. When the density, lift coefficient, and area remain constant, the ratio of the velocities of the overloaded and fully loaded aircraft becomes
V2 = V1 2W 2 / C L A 2W1 / C L A = W2 W1 V 2 = V1 W2 W1
Substituting, the takeoff velocity of the overloaded aircraft is determined to be

V 2 = V1 1.2W1 = (190 km/h) 1.2 = 208 km/h W1
Discussion A similar analysis can be performed for the effect of the variations in density, lift coefficient, and planform area on the takeoff velocity.
11-42
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-84 Solution The takeoff speed and takeoff time of an aircraft at sea level are given. The required takeoff speed, takeoff time, and the additional runway length required at a higher elevation are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Standard atmospheric conditions exist. 2 The settings of the plane during takeoff are maintained the same so that the lift coefficient of the plane and the planform area remain constant. 3 The acceleration of the aircraft during takeoff remains constant. Properties Analysis
The density of standard air is 1 = 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level, and 2 = 1.048 kg/m3 at 1600 m altitude. (a) An aircraft will takeoff when lift equals the total weight. Therefore,
W = FL
W = 1 C L V 2 A 2
V=
2W C L A
We note that the takeoff speed is inversely proportional to the square root of air density. When the weight, lift coefficient, and area remain constant, the ratio of the speeds of the aircraft at high altitude and at sea level becomes V2 = V1 2W / 2 C L A 2W / 1C L A =
1 2
V 2 = V1
1 1.225 = (220 km/h) = 238 km/h 2 1.048
Therefore, the takeoff velocity of the aircraft at higher altitude is 238 km/h. (b) The acceleration of the aircraft at sea level is
a= V 220 km/h - 0 1 m/s 2 = = 4.074 m/s t 15 s 3.6 km/h
which is assumed to be constant both at sea level and the higher altitude. Then the takeoff time at the higher altitude becomes
a= V t t = V 238 km/h - 0 1 m/s = = 16.2 s a 4.074 m/s 2 3.6 km/h
(c) The additional runway length is determined by calculating the distance traveled during takeoff for both cases, and taking their difference:
2 L1 = 1 at1 = 1 (4.074 m/s 2 )(15 s) 2 = 458 m 2 2 2 L 2 = 1 at 2 = 1 (4.074 m/s 2 )(16.2 s) 2 = 535 m 2 2
L = L 2 L1 = 535 458 = 77 m
Discussion Note that altitude has a significant effect on the length of the runways, and it should be a major consideration on the design of airports. It is interesting that a 1.2 second increase in takeoff time increases the required runway length by about 100 m.
11-43
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-85E Solution The rate of fuel consumption of an aircraft while flying at a low altitude is given. The rate of fuel consumption at a higher altitude is to be determined for the same flight velocity. Assumptions 1 Standard atmospheric conditions exist. 2 The settings of the plane during takeoff are maintained the same so that the drag coefficient of the plane and the planform area remain constant. 3 The velocity of the aircraft and the propulsive efficiency remain constant. 4 The fuel is used primarily to provide propulsive power to overcome drag, and thus the energy consumed by auxiliary equipment (lights, etc) is negligible. Properties altitude.
The density of standard air is 1 = 0.05648 lbm/ft3 at 10,000 ft, and 2 = 0.02866 lbm/ft3 at 30,000 ft
Analysis When an aircraft cruises steadily (zero acceleration) at a constant altitude, the net force acting on the aircraft is zero, and thus the thrust provided by the engines must be equal to the drag force. Also, power is force times velocity (distance per unit time), and thus the propulsive power required to overcome drag is equal to the thrust times the cruising velocity. Therefore,
W propulsive = Thrust V = FDV = C D A
V
2
V = CD A
V
2
Cruising mfuel = 5 gal/min
The propulsive power is also equal to the product of the rate of fuel energy supplied (which is the rate of fuel consumption times the heating value of the fuel, m fuel HV ) and the propulsive efficiency. Then,
W prop = prop m fuel HV CD A
V 3
2
= prop m fuel HV
We note that the rate of fuel consumption is proportional to the density of air. When the drag coefficient, the wing area, the velocity, and the propulsive efficiency remain constant, the ratio of the rates of fuel consumptions of the aircraft at high and low altitudes becomes
m fuel, 2 m fuel, 1 = C D A 2V 3 / 2 prop HV C D A 1V / 2 prop HV
3
2 1
m fuel, 2 = m fuel, 1
2 0.02866 = (5 gal/min) = 2.54 gal/min 0.05648 1
Discussion Note the fuel consumption drops by half when the aircraft flies at 30,000 ft instead of 10,000 ft altitude. Therefore, large passenger planes routinely fly at high altitudes (usually between 30,000 and 40,000 ft) to save fuel. This is especially the case for long flights.
11-44
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-86 Solution The takeoff speed of an aircraft when it is fully loaded is given. The required takeoff speed when the aircraft has 100 empty seats is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The atmospheric conditions (and thus the properties of air) remain the same. 2 The settings of the plane during takeoff are maintained the same so that the lift coefficient of the plane remains the same. 3 A passenger with luggage has an average mass of 140 kg. Analysis
An aircraft will takeoff when lift equals the total weight. Therefore, 2W W = FL W = 1 C L V 2 A V= 2 C L A
We note that the takeoff velocity is proportional to the square root of the weight of the aircraft. When the density, lift coefficient, and wing area remain constant, the ratio of the velocities of the under-loaded and fully loaded aircraft becomes
V2 = V1 2W 2 / C L A 2W1 / C L A = W2 W1 = m2 g m1 g = m2 m1 V 2 = V1 m2 m1
where m 2 = m1 m unused capacity = 400,000 kg (140 kg/passanger) (100 passengers) = 386,000 kg Substituting, the takeoff velocity of the overloaded aircraft is determined to be
V 2 = V1 m2 386,000 = (250 km/h) = 246 km/h 400,000 m1
Discussion Note that the effect of empty seats on the takeoff velocity of the aircraft is small. This is because the most weight of the aircraft is due to its empty weight (the aircraft itself rather than the passengers and their luggage.)
11-87
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of empty passenger count on the takeoff speed of the aircraft as the number of empty seats varies from 0 to 500 in increments of 50 is to be investigated.
Analysis
250
m_passenger=140 "kg" m1=400000 "kg" m2=m1-N_empty*m_passenger V1=250 "km/h" V2=V1*SQRT(m2/m1)
245
Empty seats 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
mairplane,1, kg 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000 400000
mairplane,1, kg 400000 393000 386000 379000 372000 365000 358000 351000 344000 337000 330000
Vtakeoff, m/s 250.0 247.8 245.6 243.3 241.1 238.8 236.5 234.2 231.8 229.5 227.1
V, 240
m/s
235
230
225 0
100
200
300
400
500
Nempty seats
Discussion As expected, the takeoff speed decreases as the number of empty seats increases. On the scale plotted, the curve appears nearly linear, but it is not; the curve is actually a small portion of a square-root curve.
11-45
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-88 Solution The wing area, lift coefficient at takeoff settings, the cruising drag coefficient, and total mass of a small aircraft are given. The takeoff speed, the wing loading, and the required power to maintain a constant cruising speed are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Standard atmospheric conditions exist. 2 The drag and lift produced by parts of the plane other than the wings are not considered. Properties Analysis
The density of standard air at sea level is = 1.225 kg/m3. (a) An aircraft will takeoff when lift equals the total weight. Therefore,
Awing=30 m2 2800 kg
W = FL
W = 1 C L V 2 A 2
V=
2W C L A
Substituting, the takeoff speed is determined to be

V takeoff = 2mg
C L, takeoff A
2(2800 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) (1.225 kg/m 3 )(0.45)(30 m 2 )
CL=0.45
= 57.6 m/s = 207 km/h
(b) Wing loading is the average lift per unit planform area, which is equivalent to the ratio of the lift to the planform area of the wings since the lift generated during steady cruising is equal to the weight of the aircraft. Therefore,
Floading = FL W (2800 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) = = = 916 N/m 2 A A 30 m 2
(c) When the aircraft is cruising steadily at a constant altitude, the net force acting on the aircraft is zero, and thus thrust provided by the engines must be equal to the drag force, which is
FD = C D A
V 2
2
= (0.035)(30 m 2 )
(1.225 kg/m 3 )(300 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1 kN 1000 kg m/s 2
= 4.466 kN
Noting that power is force times velocity, the propulsive power required to overcome this drag is equal to the thrust times the cruising velocity,
1 kW Power = Thrust Velocity = FDV = (4.466 kN)(300/3.6 m/s) = 372 kW 1 kN m/s
Therefore, the engines must supply 372 kW of propulsive power to overcome the drag during cruising.
Discussion The power determined above is the power to overcome the drag that acts on the wings only, and does not include the drag that acts on the remaining parts of the aircraft (the fuselage, the tail, etc). Therefore, the total power required during cruising will be greater. The required rate of energy input can be determined by dividing the propulsive power by the propulsive efficiency.
11-46
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-89 Solution The total mass, wing area, cruising speed, and propulsive power of a small aircraft are given. The lift and drag coefficients of this airplane while cruising are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Standard atmospheric conditions exist. 2 The drag and lift produced by parts of the plane other than the wings are not considered. 3 The fuel is used primarily to provide propulsive power to overcome drag, and thus the energy consumed by auxiliary equipment (lights, etc) is negligible. Properties
Awing=42 m2 1800 kg
The density of standard air at an altitude of 4000 m is = 0.819 kg/m .

3
Analysis Noting that power is force times velocity, the propulsive power required to overcome this drag is equal to the thrust times the cruising velocity. Also, 280 km/h when the aircraft is cruising steadily at a constant altitude, the net force acting on the aircraft is zero, and thus thrust provided by the engines must be equal to the drag force. Then, W prop 190 kW 1000 N m/s = W prop = Thrust Velocity = FDV FD = = 2443 N 280/3.6 m/s 1 kW V Then the drag coefficient becomes
FD = C D A
V 2
2
CD =
2 FD
AV
1 kg m/s 2 1N (0.819 kg/m 3 )(42 m 2 )(280 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2(2443 N)
= 0.0235
An aircraft cruises at constant altitude when lift equals the total weight. Therefore,
W = F L = 1 C L V 2 A C L = 2 2W
V A
2
2(1800 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) (0.819 kg/m 3 )(42 m 2 )(280 / 3.6 m/s) 2
= 0.17
Therefore, the drag and lift coefficients of this aircraft during cruising are 0.0235 and 0.17, respectively, with a CL/CD ratio of 7.2.
Discussion The drag and lift coefficient determined are for cruising conditions. The values of these coefficient can be very different during takeoff because of the angle of attack and the wing geometry.
11-90 Solution An airfoil has a given lift-to drag ratio at 0 angle of attack. The angle of attack that will raise this ratio to 80 is to be determined. Analysis The ratio CL/CD for the given airfoil is plotted against the angle of attack in Fig. 11-43. The angle of attack corresponding to CL/CD = 80 is = 3. Discussion
Note that different airfoils have different CL/CD vs. charts.
11-47
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-91 Solution The wings of a light plane resemble the NACA 23012 airfoil with no flaps. Using data for that airfoil, the takeoff speed at a specified angle of attack and the stall speed are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Standard atmospheric conditions exist. 2 The drag and lift produced by parts of the plane other than the wings are not considered. Properties The density of standard air at sea level is = 1.225 kg/m3. At an angle of attack of 5, the lift and drag coefficients are read from Fig. 11-45 to be CL = 0.6 and CD = 0.015. The maximum lift coefficient is CL,max = 1.52 and it occurs at an angle of attack of 15. Analysis
An aircraft will takeoff when lift equals the total weight. Therefore,
W = FL W = 1 C L V 2 A 2 V= 2W C L A
Awing= 46 m2 W = 15,000 N
Substituting, the takeoff speed is determined to be V takeoff = 1 kg m/s 2 1N (1.225 kg/m 3 )(0.6 )(46 m 2 ) 2(15,000 N) = 29.8 m/s = 107 km/h
since 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h. The stall velocity (the minimum takeoff velocity corresponding the stall conditions) is determined by using the maximum lift coefficient in the above equation,
V min = 2W
C L,max A
1 kg m/s 2 1N (1.225 kg/m 3 )(1.52)(46 m 2 ) 2(15,000 N)
= 18.7 m/s = 67.4 km/h
Discussion
The safe minimum velocity to avoid the stall region is obtained by multiplying the stall velocity by 1.2:
V min,safe = 1.2V min = 1.2 (18.7 m/s) = 22.4 m/s = 80.8 km/h
Note that the takeoff velocity decreased from 107 km/h at an angle of attack of 5 to 80.8 km/s under stall conditions with a safety margin.
11-48
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-92 [Also solved using EES on enclosed DVD]
Solution The mass, wing area, the maximum (stall) lift coefficient, the cruising speed and the cruising drag coefficient of an airplane are given. The safe takeoff speed at sea level and the thrust that the engines must deliver during cruising are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Standard atmospheric conditions exist 2 The drag and lift produced by parts of the plane other than the wings are not considered. 3 The takeoff speed is 20% over the stall speed. 4 The fuel is used primarily to provide propulsive power to overcome drag, and thus the energy consumed by auxiliary equipment (lights, etc) is negligible. Properties The density of standard air is 1 = 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level, and 2 = 0.312 kg/m3 at 12,000 m altitude. The cruising drag coefficient is given to be CD = 0.03. The maximum lift coefficient is given to be CL,max = 3.2. Analysis
(a) An aircraft will takeoff when lift equals the total weight. Therefore,
W = FL W = 1 C L V 2 A 2 V= 2W
C L A
2mg
C L A
Awing=300 m2 m = 50,000 kg
The stall velocity (the minimum takeoff velocity corresponding the stall conditions) is determined by using the maximum lift coefficient in the above equation,
V min = 2mg = 1C L,max A 2(50,000 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) (1.225 kg/m )(3.2)(300 m )
3 2
= 28.9 m/s = 104 km/h
FL = 3.2
since 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h. Then the safe minimum velocity to avoid the stall region becomes
V min,safe = 1.2V min = 1.2 (28.9 m/s) = 34.7 m/s = 125 km/h
(b) When the aircraft cruises steadily at a constant altitude, the net force acting on the aircraft is zero, and thus the thrust provided by the engines must be equal to the drag force, which is
FD = C D A
2V 2
2
= (0.03)(300 m 2 )
(0.312 kg/m 3 )(700 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2
1 kN 1000 kg m/s 2
= 53.08 kN
Noting that power is force times velocity, the propulsive power required to overcome this drag is equal to the thrust times the cruising velocity, 1 kW Power = Ttrust Velocity = FDV = (53.08 kN)(700 / 3.6 m/s) = 10,300 kW 1 kN m/s Therefore, the engines must supply 10,300 kW of propulsive power to overcome drag during cruising.
Discussion The power determined above is the power to overcome the drag that acts on the wings only, and does not include the drag that act on the remaining parts of the aircraft (the fuselage, the tail, etc). Therefore, the total power required during cruising will be greater. The required rate of energy input can be determined by dividing the propulsive power by the propulsive efficiency.
11-49
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-93E Solution determined.
A spinning ball is dropped into a water stream. The lift and drag forces acting on the ball are to be
Assumptions 1 The outer surface of the ball is smooth enough for Fig. 11-53 to be applicable. 2 The ball is completely immersed in water. Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 60F are = 62.36 lbm/ft3 and = 2.713 lbm/fth = -4 7.53610 lbm/fts. Analysis The drag and lift forces can be determined from V 2 V 2 and FL = C L A FD = C D A 2 2 where A is the frontal area of the ball, which is A = D 2 / 4 , and D = 2.4/12 = 0.2 ft. The Reynolds number and the angular velocity of the ball are
Re =
500 rpm Water stream 4 ft/s
2.4 in Ball
VD (62.36 lbm/ft 3 )(4 ft/s)(0.2 ft) = = 6.62 10 4 7.536 10 4 ft 2 /s

2 rad 1 min = 52.4 rad/s 1 rev 60 s
= (500 rev/min)
and
(52.4 rad/s)(0.2 ft) = 1.31 rad 2V 2(4 ft/s) From Fig. 11-53, the drag and lift coefficients corresponding to this value are CD = 0.56 and CL = 0.35. Then the drag and the lift acting on the ball are (0.2 ft) 2 (62.36 lbm/ft 3 )(4 ft/s) 2 1 lbf FD = (0.56) = 0.27 lbf 2 4 2 32.2 lbm ft/s = FL = (0.35)
(0.2 ft) 2 (62.36 lbm/ft 3 )(4 ft/s) 2

4 2
1 lbf = 0.17 lbf 2 32.2 lbm ft/s
The Reynolds number for this problem is 6.62104 which is close enough to 6104 for which Fig. 11-53 is Discussion prepared. Therefore, the result should be close enough to the actual answer.
11-50
Review Problems
11-94 Solution An automotive engine is approximated as a rectangular block. The drag force acting on the bottom surface of the engine is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The air flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Air is an ideal gas. 3 The atmospheric air is calm (no significant winds). 3 The air flow is turbulent over the entire surface because of the constant agitation of the engine block. 4 The bottom surface of the engine is a flat surface, and it is smooth (in reality it is quite rough because of the dirt collected on it). Properties Analysis
Re L = VL
The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 15C are = 1.225 kg/m3 and = 1.470105 m2/s. The Reynolds number at the end of the engine block is Engine block
Air V = 85 km/h T = 15C
( 85 / 3.6 ) m/s ( 0.7 m ) = = 1.124 106 1.470 105 m 2 /s The flow is assumed to be turbulent over the entire surface. Then the average friction coefficient and the drag force acting on the surface becomes 0.074 0.074 Cf = = = 0.004561 1/ 5 Re L (1.124 10 6 ) 1 / 5 FD = C f A
L = 0.7 m
1N 1 kg.m/s 2 = 0.65 N 2 Discussion Note that the calculated drag force (and the power required to overcome it) is very small. This is not surprising since the drag force for blunt bodies is almost entirely due to pressure drag, and the friction drag is practically negligible compared to the pressure drag.
V 2
= (0.004561)[0.6 0.7 m 2 ]
(1.225 kg/m 3 )(85/3.6 m/s) 2 2
11-51
11-95
Solution A fluid flows over a 2.5-m long flat plate. The thickness of the boundary layer at intervals of 0.25 m is to be determined and plotted against the distance from the leading edge for air, water, and oil.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties The kinematic viscosity of the three fluids at 1 atm and 20C are: = 1.516105 m2/s for air , = / = 3 (1.00210 kg/ms)/(998 kg/m3) = 1.004106 m2/s for water, and = 9.429104 m2/s for oil. Analysis
The thickness of the boundary layer along the flow for laminar and turbulent flows is given by 4.91x 0.38 x Laminar flow: x = 1/ 2 , Turbulent flow: x = Re x Re 1 / 5 3 m/s x (a) AIR: The Reynolds number and the boundary layer thickness at the end of the first 0.25 m interval are
Re x =
Vx
5x
( 3 m/s )( 0.25 m )
1.516 105 m 2 /s
= 4.91 (0.25 m) (0.495 10 5 ) 0.5
= 0.495 105 ,
2.5 m
x =
Re 1 / 2 x
= 5.52 10 3 m
0.14 0.12
We repeat calculations for all 0.25 m intervals. The EES Equations window is printed below, along with the tabulated and plotted results.
V=3 "m/s" nu1=1.516E-5 "m2/s, Air" Re1=x*V/nu1 delta1=4.91*x*Re1^(-0.5) "m, laminar flow" nu2=1.004E-6 "m2/s, water" Re2=x*V/nu2 delta2=0.38*x*Re2^(-0.2) "m, turbulent flow" nu3=9.429E-4 "m2/s, oil" Re3=x*V/nu3 delta3=4.91*x*Re3^(-0.5) "m, laminar flow"
Oil 0.1
, m
0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 Water Air
0.5
1.5
2.5
x, m
Oil x 0.0000 0.0435 0.0616 0.0754 0.0870 0.0973 0.1066 0.1152 0.1231 0.1306 0.1376
x, cm 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
Air Re 0.000E+00 4.947E+04 9.894E+04 1.484E+05 1.979E+05 2.474E+05 2.968E+05 3.463E+05 3.958E+05 4.453E+05 4.947E+05 x 0.0000 0.0055 0.0078 0.0096 0.0110 0.0123 0.0135 0.0146 0.0156 0.0166 0.0175
Water Re 0.000E+00 7.470E+05 1.494E+06 2.241E+06 2.988E+06 3.735E+06 4.482E+06 5.229E+06 5.976E+06 6.723E+06 7.470E+06 x 0.0000 0.0064 0.0111 0.0153 0.0193 0.0230 0.0266 0.0301 0.0335 0.0369 0.0401
Re 0.000E+00 7.954E+02 1.591E+03 2.386E+03 3.182E+03 3.977E+03 4.773E+03 5.568E+03 6.363E+03 7.159E+03 7.954E+03
Discussion Note that the flow is laminar for (a) and (c), and turbulent for (b). Also note that the thickness of the boundary layer is very small for air and water, but it is very large for oil. This is due to the high viscosity of oil.
11-52
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-96E Solution The passenger compartment of a minivan is modeled as a rectangular box. The drag force acting on the top and the two side surfaces and the power needed to overcome it are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The air flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The air flow over the exterior surfaces is turbulent because of constant agitation. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The top and side surfaces of the minivan are flat and smooth (in reality they can be rough). 5 The atmospheric air is calm (no significant winds). Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 80F are = 0.07350 lbm/ft3 and = 0.6110 ft2/h = 4 2 1.69710 ft /s. Analysis
The Reynolds number at the end of the top and side surfaces is Re L = VL
( 60 1.4667 ) ft/s (11 ft ) = = 5.704 106 1.697 104 ft 2 /s The air flow over the entire outer surface is assumed to be turbulent. Then the friction coefficient becomes 0.074 0.074 Minivan Cf = = = 0.00330 1/ 5 Re L (5.704 10 6 ) 1 / 5
Air 60 mph
The area of the top and side surfaces of the minivan is A = Atop + 2Aside = 611+23.211 = 136.4 ft2 Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus C D = C f for a plane surface, the drag force acting on these surfaces becomes
(0.074 lbm/ft 3 )(60 1.4667 ft/s) 2 1 lbf = 4.0 lbf 2 2 32.2 lbm ft/s 2 Noting that power is force times velocity, the power needed to overcome this drag force is 1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (4.0 lbf)(60 1.4667 ft/s) = 0.48 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s Discussion Note that the calculated drag force (and the power required to overcome it) is very small. This is not surprising since the drag force for blunt bodies is almost entirely due to pressure drag, and the friction drag is practically negligible compared to the pressure drag. FD = C f A = 0.00330 (136.4 ft 2 )
V 2
11-97 Solution A large spherical tank located outdoors is subjected to winds. The drag force exerted on the tank by the winds is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The outer surfaces of the tank are smooth. 2 Air flow in the wind is steady and incompressible, and flow around the tank is uniform. 3 Turbulence in the wind is not considered. 4 The effect of any support bars on flow and drag is negligible. Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 3 1.184 kg/m and = 1.56210-5 m2/s. Analysis the flow is
V = 35 km/h T = 25C
Noting that D = 1 m and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the Reynolds number for
VD
( 35 / 3.6 ) m/s (1 m ) Re = = = 6.224 105 1.562 105 m 2 /s
Iced water Do = 1 m 0C
The drag coefficient for a smooth sphere corresponding to this Reynolds number is, from Fig. 11-36, CD = 0.065. Also, the frontal area for flow past a sphere is A = D2/4. Then the drag force becomes
FD = CD A
V 2
2
= 0.065 (1 m 2 ) / 4
(1.184 kg/m ) ( 35 / 3.6 m/s )

3
1N 2 1 kg m/s
= 2.86 N
Discussion Note that the drag coefficient is very low in this case since the flow is turbulent (Re > 2105). Also, it should be kept in mind that wind turbulence may affect the drag coefficient.
11-53
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-98 Solution A rectangular advertisement panel attached to a rectangular concrete block by two poles is to withstand high winds. For a given maximum wind speed, the maximum drag force on the panel and the poles, and the minimum length L of the concrete block for the panel to resist the winds are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow of air is steady and incompressible. 2 The wind is normal to the panel (to check for the worst case). 3 The flow is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficients can be used. Properties In turbulent flow, the drag coefficient is CD = 0.3 for a circular rod, and CD = 2.0 for a thin rectangular plate (Table 11-2). The densities of air and concrete block are given to be = 1.30 kg/m3 and c = 2300 kg/m3. Analysis
(a) The drag force acting on the panel is
FD, panel = C D A
V 2
2 (1.30 kg/m 3 )(150 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2 1N 1 kg m/s 2
4m AD 4m
2m
= (2.0)(2 4 m 2 ) = 18,000 N
(b) The drag force acting on each pole is V 2 FD, pole = C D A 2

= (0.3)(0.05 4 m 2 ) (1.30 kg/m 3 )(150 / 3.6 m/s) 2 2 1N 1 kg m/s 2
4m 0.15 m
Concrete
= 68 N Therefore, the drag force acting on both poles is 68 2 = 136 N. Note that the drag force acting on poles is negligible compared to the drag force acting on the panel.
(c) The weight of the concrete block is

1N W = mg = gV = (2300 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(L 4 m 0.15 m) 1 kg m/s 2 = 13,540 L N
Note that the resultant drag force on the panel passes through its center, the drag force on the pole passes through the center of the pole, and the weight of the panel passes through the center of the block. When the concrete block is first tipped, the wind-loaded side of the block will be lifted off the ground, and thus the entire reaction force from the ground will act on the other side. Taking the moment about this side and setting it equal to zero gives
M = 0
FD ,panel (1 + 4 + 0.15) + FD ,pole (2 + 0.15) W ( L / 2) = 0
Substituting and solving for L gives
18,000 5.15 + 136 2.15 13,540 L L / 2 = 0
L = 3.70 m
Therefore, the minimum length of the concrete block must be L = 3.70. This length appears to be large and impractical. It can be reduced to a more reasonable value by (a) Discussion increasing the height of the concrete block, (b) reducing the length of the poles (and thus the tipping moment), or (c) by attaching the concrete block to the ground (through long nails, for example).
11-54
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-99 Solution The bottom surface of a plastic boat is approximated as a flat surface. The friction drag exerted on the bottom surface of the boat by water and the power needed to overcome it are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The water is calm (no significant currents or waves). 3 The water flow is turbulent over the entire surface because of the constant agitation of the boat. 4 The bottom surface of the boat is a flat surface, and it is smooth. Properties Analysis
The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 15C are = 999.1 kg/m3 and = 1.138103 kg/ms. The Reynolds number at the end of the bottom surface of the boat is
Re L =
VL (999.1 kg/m 3 )(30 / 3.6 m/s)(2 m) = = 1.463 10 7 1.138 10 3 kg/m s

30 km/h Boat
The flow is assumed to be turbulent over the entire surface. Then the average friction coefficient and the drag force acting on the surface becomes 0.074 0.074 C f = 1/ 5 = = 0.00273 Re L (1.463 10 7 )1 / 5
FD = C f A
1N 1 kg.m/s 2 2 Noting that power is force times velocity, the power needed to overcome this drag force is
V 2
= (0.00273)[1.5 2 m 2 ]
(999.1 kg/m 3 )(30/3.6 m/s) 2 2
= 284.1 N
1 kW Wdrag = FDV = (284.1 N)(30 / 3.6 m/s) = 2.37 kW 1000 N m/s
Discussion Note that the calculated drag force (and the power required to overcome it) is relatively small. This is not surprising since the drag force for blunt bodies (including those partially immersed in a liquid) is almost entirely due to pressure drag, and the friction drag is practically negligible compared to the pressure drag.
11-55
11-100
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of boat speed on the drag force acting on the bottom surface of the boat and the power needed to overcome as the boat speed varies from 0 to 100 km/h in increments of 10 km/h is to be investigated.
Analysis
rho=999.1 "kg/m3" mu=1.138E-3 "m2/s" V=Vel/3.6 "m/s" L=2 "m" W=1.5 "m" A=L*W Re=rho*L*V/mu Cf=0.074/Re^0.2 g=9.81 "m/s2" F=Cf*A*(rho*V^2)/2 "N" P_drag=F*V/1000 "kW"
V, km/h 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2500
Re 0 4.877E+06 9.755E+06 1.463E+07 1.951E+07 2.439E+07 2.926E+07 3.414E+07 3.902E+07 4.390E+07 4.877E+07
Cf 0 0.00340 0.00296 0.00273 0.00258 0.00246 0.00238 0.00230 0.00224 0.00219 0.00215
70 60
Fdrag, N 0 39 137 284 477 713 989 1306 1661 2053 2481
Pdrag, kW 0.0 0.1 0.8 2.4 5.3 9.9 16.5 25.4 36.9 51.3 68.9
2000
50
1500
Pdrag, kW
40 30 20 10 0 0
Fdrag, N
1000
500
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
100
V, km/h
V, km/h
Discussion
The curves look similar at first glance, but in fact Fdrag increases like V 2, while Fdrag increases like V 3.
11-56
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-101E [Also solved using EES on enclosed DVD]
Solution Cruising conditions of a passenger plane are given. The minimum safe landing and takeoff speeds with and without flaps, the angle of attack during cruising, and the power required are to be determined
Assumptions 1 The drag and lift produced by parts of the plane other than the wings are not considered. 2 The wings are assumed to be two-dimensional airfoil sections, and the tip effects are neglected. 4 The lift and drag characteristics of the wings can be approximated by NACA 23012 so that Fig. 11-45 is applicable. Properties The densities of air are 0.075 lbm/ft3 on the ground and 3 0.0208 lbm/ft at cruising altitude. The maximum lift coefficients of the wings are 3.48 and 1.52 with and without flaps, respectively (Fig. 11-45). Analysis
(a) The weight and cruising speed of the airplane are 1 lbf W = mg = (150,000 lbm)(32.2 ft/s 2 ) = 150,000 lbf 2 32.2 lbm ft/s
V = 550 mph m = 150,000 lbm Awing = 1800 m2
1.4667 ft/s V = (550 mph ) 1 mph = 806.7 ft/s Minimum velocity corresponding the stall conditions with and without flaps are
V min 1 =
V min 2 =
2W
C L,max 1 A
2W
=
==
32.2 lbm ft/s 2 1 lbf (0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(1.52)(1800 ft 2 ) 2(150,000 lbf)

2(150,000 lbf)
= 217 ft/s
32.2 lbm ft/s 2 = 143 ft/s 1 lbf C L,max 2 A (0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(3.48)(1800 ft 2 ) The safe minimum velocities to avoid the stall region are obtained by multiplying these values by 1.2:
Without flaps: V min 1,safe = 1.2V min 1 = 1.2 (217 ft/s) = 260 ft/s = 178 mph With flaps:
V min 2,safe = 1.2V min 2 = 1.2 (143 ft/s) = 172 ft/s = 117 mph
since 1 mph = 1.4667 ft/s. Note that the use of flaps allows the plane to takeoff and land at considerably lower velocities, and thus at a shorter runway. (b) When an aircraft is cruising steadily at a constant altitude, the lift must be equal to the weight of the aircraft, FL = W. Then the lift coefficient is determined to be
CL = FL
1 2
V A
2
32.2 lbm ft/s 2 3 2 2 1 1 lbf 2 (0.0208 lbm/ft )(806.7 ft/s) (1800 ft ) 150,000 lbf
= 0.40
For the case of no flaps, the angle of attack corresponding to this value of CL is determined from Fig. 11-45 to be about = 3.5. (c) When aircraft cruises steadily, the net force acting on the aircraft is zero, and thus thrust provided by the engines must be equal to the drag force. The drag coefficient corresponding to the cruising lift coefficient of 0.40 is CD = 0.015 (Fig. 1145). Then the drag force acting on the wings becomes (0.0208 lbm/ft 3 )(806.7 ft/s) 2 V 2 1 lbf FD = C D A = (0.015)(1800 ft 2 ) = 5675 lbf 2 2 32.2 lbm ft/s 2 Noting that power is force times velocity (distance per unit time), the power required to overcome this drag is equal to the thrust times the cruising velocity, 1 kW Power = Thrust Velocity = FDV = (5675 lbf)(806.7 ft/s) = 6200 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s Discussion Note that the engines must supply 6200 kW of power to overcome the drag during cruising. This is the power required to overcome the drag that acts on the wings only, and does not include the drag that acts on the remaining parts of the aircraft (the fuselage, the tail, etc).
11-57
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-102 Solution A smooth ball is moving at a specified velocity. The increase in the drag coefficient when the ball spins is to be determined. Assumptions drafts). 1 The outer surface of the ball is smooth. 2 The air is calm (no winds or
3500 rpm
Properties The density and kinematic viscosity of air at 1 atm and 25C are = 1.184 kg/m3 and = 1.56210-5 m2/s. Analysis Noting that D = 0.08 m and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, the regular and angular velocities of the ball are
36 km/h
2 rad 1 min 1 m/s V = (36 km/h) = 367 rad/s = 10 m/s and = (3500 rev/min) 3.6 km/h 1 rev 60 s From these values, we calculate the nondimensional rate of rotation and the Reynolds number:
(10 m/s)(0.08 m) (367 rad/s)(0.08 m) VD and Re = = = 5.122 10 4 = 1.468 rad 2V 2(10 m/s) 1.562 10 5 m 2 /s Then the drag coefficients for the ball with and without spin are determined from Figs. 11-36 and 11-53 to be: =
Without spin: With spin:
CD = 0.49 CD = 0.58
(Fig. 11-36, smooth ball) (Fig. 11-53)
Then the increase in the drag coefficient due to spinning becomes CD ,spin CD , no spin 0.58 0.49 = = 0.184 Increase in CD = CD , no spin 0.49 Therefore, the drag coefficient in this case increases by about 18.4% because of spinning.
Discussion Note that the Reynolds number for this problem is 5.122104 which is close enough to 6104 for which Fig. 11-53 is prepared. Therefore, the result obtained should be fairly accurate.
11-103 Solution The total weight of a paratrooper and its parachute is given. The terminal velocity of the paratrooper in air is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The air flow over the parachute is turbulent so that the tabulated value of the drag coefficient can be used. 2 The variation of the air properties with altitude is negligible. 3 The buoyancy force applied by air to the person (and the parachute) is negligible because of the small volume occupied and the low air density. Properties
The density of air is given to be 1.20 kg/m3. The drag coefficient of a parachute is CD = 1.3.
Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object, less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid, which is negligible in this case, fV 2 8m F D = W FB where FD = C D A , W = mg = 950 N, and FB 0 2 where A = D2/4 is the frontal area. Substituting and simplifying,
2 Solving for V and substituting, V= 8W C D D f
2
CD A
fV 2
=W
CD
2 D 2 f V
=W
1 kg m/s 2 1N 1.3 (8 m) 2 (1.20 kg/m 3 ) 8(950 N)
= 4.9 m/s
950 N
Therefore, the velocity of the paratrooper will remain constant when it reaches the terminal velocity of 4.9 m/s = 18 km/h.
Discussion The simple analysis above gives us a rough value for the terminal velocity. A more accurate answer can be obtained by a more detailed (and complex) analysis by considering the variation of air density with altitude, and by considering the uncertainty in the drag coefficient.
11-58
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-104 Solution A fairing is installed to the front of a rig to reduce the drag coefficient. The maximum speed of the rig after the fairing is installed is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The rig moves steadily at a constant velocity on a straight path in calm weather. 2 The bearing friction resistance is constant. 3 The effect of velocity on the drag and rolling resistance coefficients is negligible. 4 The buoyancy of air is negligible. 5 The power produced by the engine is used to overcome rolling resistance, bearing friction, and aerodynamic drag. Properties The density of air is given to be 1.25 kg/m3. The drag coefficient of the rig is given to be CD = 0.96, and decreases to CD = 0.76 when a fairing is installed. The rolling resistance coefficient is CRR = 0.05. Analysis
The bearing friction resistance is given to be Fbearing = 350 N. The rolling resistance is
1N FRR = C RRW = 0.05(17,000 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2 = 8339 N
The maximum drag occurs at maximum velocity, and its value before the fairing is installed is V 2 (1.25 kg/m 3 )(110 / 3.6 m/s) 2 1N FD1 = C D A 1 = (0.96 )(9.2 m 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2 = 5154 N 2 2 Power is force times velocity, and thus the power needed to overcome bearing friction, drag, and rolling resistance is the product of the sum of these forces and the velocity of the rig,
W total = W bearing + Wdrag + W RR = ( Fbearing + FD + FRR )V 1 kW = (350 + 8339 + 5154)(110 / 3.6 m/s) 1000 N m/s = 423 kW
The maximum velocity the rig can attain at the same power of 423 kW after the fairing is installed is determined by setting the sum of the bearing friction, rolling resistance, and the drag force equal to 423 kW, V 2 W total = W bearing + Wdrag2 + W RR = ( Fbearing + FD 2 + FRR )V 2 = 350 + C D 2 A 2 + 5154 V 2 2 Substituting the known quantities, 3 2 1N 1000 N m/s 2 (1.25 kg/m )V 2 (423 kW) = 350 N + (0.76 )(9.2 m ) 1 kg m/s 2 + 5154 N V 2 1 kW 2 or,
423,000 = 5504V 2 + 4.37V 23
Solving it with an equation solver gives V2 = 36.9 m/s = 133 km/h.

Discussion Note that the maximum velocity of the rig increases from 110 km/h to 133 km/h as a result of reducing its drag coefficient from 0.96 to 0.76 while holding the bearing friction and the rolling resistance constant.
11-59
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-105 Solution A spherical object is dropped into a fluid, and its terminal velocity is measured. The viscosity of the fluid is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (at the order of 1) so that Stokes law is applicable (to be verified). 2 The diameter of the tube that contains the fluid is large enough to simulate free fall in an unbounded fluid body. 3 The tube is long enough to assure that the velocity measured is the terminal velocity. Properties kg/m3.
The density of glass ball is given to be s = 2500 kg/m3. The density of the fluid is given to be f = 875
Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object, less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid,
F D = W FB
Here V = D3/6 is the volume of the sphere. Substituting and simplifying,

3VD = s gV f gV
3VD = ( s f ) g
D 3
6
3 mm Glass ball 0.12 m/s
Solving for and substituting, the dynamic viscosity of the fluid is determined to be
gD 2 ( s f ) 18V
(9.81 m/s 2 )(0.003 m) 2 (2500 - 875) kg/m 3 = = 0.0664 kg/m s 18(0.12 m/s)
The Reynolds number is

Re =
VD (875 kg/m 3 )(0.12 m/s)(0.003 m) = = 4.74 0.0664 kg m/s
which is at the order of 1. Therefore, the creeping flow idealization is valid.

Discussion Flow separation starts at about Re = 10. Therefore, Stokes law can be used for Reynolds numbers up to this value, but this should be done with care.
11-60
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-106 Solution Spherical aluminum balls are dropped into glycerin, and their terminal velocities are measured. The velocities are to be compared to those predicted by Stokes law, and the error involved is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (at the order of 1) so that Stokes law is applicable (to be verified). 2 The diameter of the tube that contains the fluid is large enough to simulate free fall in an unbounded fluid body. 3 The tube is long enough to assure that the velocity measured is terminal velocity. Properties The density of aluminum balls is given to be s = 2700 kg/m3. The density and viscosity of glycerin are given to be f = 1274 kg/m3 and = 1 kg/ms. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object, less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid,
F D = W FB

3VD = s gV f gV
3VD = ( s f ) g
D 3
6
FD FB
3 mm Aluminum ball
Solving for the terminal velocity V of the ball gives gD 2 ( s f ) V= 18 (a) D = 2 mm and V = 3.2 mm/s (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.002 m) 2 (2700 - 1274) kg/m 3 V= = 0.00311 m/s = 3.11 mm/s 18(1 kg/ m s) Vexperimental VStokes 3.2 3.11 Error = = = 0.029 or 2.9% Vexperimental 3.2 (b) D = 4 mm and V = 12.8 mm/s (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.004 m) 2 (2700 - 1274) kg/m 3 V= = 0.0124 m/s = 12.4 mm/s 18(1 kg/ m s) V experimental VStokes 12.8 12.4 Error = = = 0.029 or 2.9% Vexperimental 12.8 (c) D = 10 mm and V = 60.4 mm/s (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.010 m) 2 (2700 - 1274) kg/m 3 V= = 0.0777 m/s = 77.7 mm/s 18(1 kg/ m s) V experimental VStokes 60.4 77.7 Error = = = 0.287 or - 28.7% Vexperimental 60.4
W=mg Glycerin
There is a good agreement for the first two diameters. However the error for third one is large. The Reynolds number for each case is VD (1274 kg/m 3 )(0.0032 m/s)(0.002 m) = = 0.008 , (b) Re = 0.065, and (c) Re = 0.770. (a) Re = 1 kg m/s We observe that Re << 1 for the first two cases, and thus the creeping flow idealization is applicable. But this is not the case for the third case.
Discussion If we used the general form of the equation (see next problem) we would obtain V = 59.7 mm/s for part (c), which is very close to the experimental result (60.4 mm/s).
11-61
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-107 Solution Spherical aluminum balls are dropped into glycerin, and their terminal velocities are measured. The velocities predicted by general form of Stokes law and the error involved are to be determined. Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (of order 1) so that Stokes law is applicable (to be verified). 2 The diameter of the tube that contains the fluid is large enough to simulate free fall in an unbounded fluid body. 3 The tube is long enough to assure that the velocity measured is terminal velocity. Properties The density of aluminum balls is given to be s = 2700 kg/m3. The density and viscosity of glycerin are given to be f = 1274 kg/m3 and = 1 kg/ms. Analysis The terminal velocity of a free falling object is reached when the drag force equals the weight of the solid object, less the buoyancy force applied by the fluid,
F D = W FB
FD FB
2 2
where FD = 3DV + (9 / 16 ) s V D ,
3 mm Aluminum ball

3VD + (9 / 16 ) sV D = ( s f ) g
2 2
D 3
6
W=mg Glycerin
Solving for the terminal velocity V of the ball gives

9 b + b 2 4ac D 3 V= where a = s D 2 , b = 3D , and c = ( s f ) g 2a 6 16
(a) D = 2 mm and V = 3.2 mm/s: a = 0.01909, b = 0.01885, c = -0.0000586

V= = 0.00310 m/s = 3.10 mm/s 2 0.01909 V experimental VStokes 3.2 3.10 Error = = = 0.032 or 3.2% Vexperimental 3.2 0.0377 + (0.0377) 2 4 0.07634 (0.0004688) 0.01885 + (0.01885) 2 4 0.01909 (0.0000586 )
(b) D = 4 mm and V = 12.8 mm/s: a = 0.07634, b = 0.0377, c = -0.0004688

V= = 0.0121 m/s = 12.1 mm/s 2 0.07634 Vexperimental VStokes 12.8 12.1 Error = = = 0.052 or 5.2% Vexperimental 12.8 0.09425 + (0.09425) 2 4 0.3771 (0.007325)
(c) D = 10 mm and V = 60.4 mm/s: a = 0.4771, b = 0.09425, c = -0.007325

V= = 0.0597 m/s = 59.7 mm/s 2 0.4771 Vexperimental VStokes 60.4 59.7 Error = = = 0.012 or 1.2% Vexperimental 60.4
The Reynolds number for the three cases are VD (1274 kg/m 3 )(0.0032 m/s)(0.002 m) (a) Re = = = 0.008 , 1 kg m/s
(b) Re = 0.065,
and
(c) Re = 0.770.
Discussion There is a good agreement for the third case (case c), but the general Stokes law increased the error for the first two cases (cases a and b) from 2.9% and 2.9% to 3.2% and 5.2%, respectively. Therefore, the basic form of Stokes law should be preferred when the Reynolds number is much lower than 1.
11-62
Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift 11-108 Solution A spherical aluminum ball is dropped into oil. A relation is to be obtained for the variation of velocity with time and the terminal velocity of the ball. The variation of velocity with time is to be plotted, and the time it takes to reach 99% of terminal velocity is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The Reynolds number is low (Re << 1) so that Stokes law is applicable. 2 The diameter of the tube that contains the fluid is large enough to simulate free fall in an unbounded fluid body. Properties The density of aluminum balls is given to be s = 2700 kg/m3. The density and viscosity of oil are given to be f = 876 kg/m3 and = 0.2177 kg/ms. Analysis The free body diagram is shown in the figure. The net force acting downward on the ball is the weight of the ball less the weight of the ball and the buoyancy force applied by the fluid, Fnet = W FD FB where FD = 3DV , W = m s g = s gV , and FB = f gV
where FD is the drag force, FB is the buoyancy force, and W is the weight. Also, V = D3/6 is the volume, ms is the mass, D is the diameter, and V the velocity of the ball. Applying Newtons second law in the vertical direction,
Fnet = ma
m s g FD F B = m
dV dt
Substituting the drag and buoyancy force relations,
FD FB
3
s
or,
D
6
g 3DV f g
D
6
= s
D dV
6
dt dV dt dV = dt a bV = bt
D Aluminum ball
f 18 dV V= g 1 s s D 2 dt
a bV =
where a = g (1 f / s ) and b = 18 /( s D 2 ) . It can be rearranged as Integrating from t = 0 where V = 0 to t = t where V =V gives
W=mg Water
dV = a bV
dt
ln(a bV ) =t b 0
V
t
0
a bV ln a
Solving for V gives the desired relation for the variation of velocity of the ball with time,
a V = 1 e bt b
or
18 t ( s f ) gD 2 1 e s D 2 V= 18 2 a ( s f ) gD = = 18 b
(1)
Note that as t , it gives the terminal velocity as V terminal
(2)
The time it takes to reach 99% of terminal velocity can to be determined by replacing V in Eq. 1 by 0.99V terminal= 0.99a/b. This gives e-bt = 0.01 or
t 99% = ln(0.01) s D 2 ln(0.01) = 18 b
(3)
Given values: D = 0.003 m, f = 876 kg/m3, = 0.2177 kg/ms, g = 9.81 m/s2. Calculation results: Re = 0.50, a = 6.627, b = 161.3, t99% = 0.029 s, and V terminal= a/b = 0.04 m/s.
11-63

0.045
t, s 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
V, m/s 0.000 0.033 0.039 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041
0.04 0.035 0.03
V, m/s
0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
t, s
Discussion
The velocity increases rapidly at first, but quickly levels off by around 0.04 s.
11-64
11-109
Solution Engine oil flows over a long flat plate. The distance from the leading edge xcr where the flow becomes turbulent is to be determined, and thickness of the boundary layer over a distance of 2xcr is to be plotted.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5105. 3 The surface of the plate is smooth. Properties Analysis
The kinematic viscosity of engine oil at 40C is = 2.485104 m2/s.
The thickness of the boundary layer along the flow for laminar and turbulent flows is given by 4.91x 0.38 x x = 1/ 2 , Turbulent flow: x = 1 / 5 Laminar flow: V Re x Re x
( 5 105 )( 2.485 104 m2 /s ) = 31.1m , Recr Recr = xcr = = V 4 m/s Therefore, we should consider flow over 231.1 = 62.2 m long section of the plate, and use the laminar relation for the first half, and the turbulent relation for the second part to determine the boundary layer thickness. For example, the Reynolds number and the boundary layer thickness at a distance 2 m from the leading edge of the plate are ( 4 m/s )( 2 m ) Vx 4.91x 4.91 (2 m) = = 32,190 , x = 1 / 2 = Re x = = 0.0547 m 4 2 2.485 10 m /s Re x (32,190) 0.5
Vxcr Calculating the boundary layer thickness and plotting give x, m 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00
Discussion
1.6 1.4 Turbulent 1.2 1
The distance from the leading edge xcr where the flow turns turbulent is determined by setting Reynolds number equal to the critical Reynolds number,
xcr
Re 0 8.05E+04 1.61E+05 2.41E+05 3.22E+05 4.02E+05 4.83E+05 5.63E+05 6.44E+05 7.24E+05 8.05E+05 8.85E+05 9.66E+05
x, laminar
0.000 0.087 0.122 0.150 0.173 0.194 0.212 -
x, turbulent
0.941 1.047 1.151 1.252 1.351 1.449
, m
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 Laminar
10
20
30
40
50
60
x, m
Notice the sudden, rapid rise in boundary layer thickness when the boundary layer becomes turbulent.
Design and Essay Problems

11-110 to 11-113 Solution Students essays and designs should be unique and will differ from each other.
11-65

Chapter 11 Cengal

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Chapter 11 Cengal

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Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift

CHAPTER 11 FLOW OVER BODIES: DRAG AND LIFT

We are to explain when a flow is 2-D, 3-D, and axisymmetric.

We are to discuss the difference between upstream and free-stream velocity.

We are to discuss the difference between streamlined and blunt bodies.

11-4C Solution Analysis

We are to define and discuss terminal velocity.

We are to discuss the effect of surface roughness on drag coefficient.

We are to discuss how drag coefficient varies with Reynolds number.

We are to define and discuss flow separation.

We are to define and discuss drafting.

We are to compare the fuel efficiency of two cars.

We are to compare the speed of two bicyclists.

1 kg m/s 2 1N (1.269 kg/m 3 )(0.2)[ (0.12 m) 2 / 4] 2(5.2 N)

(60.2 m/s)(0.12 m) 1.382 10

which is greater than 210 . Therefore, the flow is turbulent as assumed.

(1.041 10 7 Btu/year) /( 20,000 Btu/lbm) 50 lbm/ft

Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift

11-28E Solution determined.

( 0.0772 lbm/ft ) ( 90 1.4667 ft/s )

1 lbf = 6684 lbf 6680 lbf 2 32.2 lbm ft/s

4.30 10 6 kJ/year = 1.54 10 7 kJ/year 0.28

(1.54 10 7 kJ/year) /( 42,000 kJ/kg) = 489 L/year 0.75 kg/L

Cost = (Amount of fuel)(Unit cost) = (489 L/year)($0.50/L) = $245/year

P 87 kPa = = 1.028 kg/m 3 RT (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg.K)(295 K)

11-32 Solution Assumptions

Solving for V and substituting,

The Reynolds number is Re =

VD (998 kg/m 3 )(0.126 m/s)(4 10 -3 m) = = 503 1.002 10 -3 kg m/s

which is less than 2105. Therefore, the flow is laminar as assumed.

Substituting, the required drag force is determined to be

2(9.81 m/s 2 )(80 + 15 kg)sin12 0.9(0.4 m 2 )(1.25 kg/m 3 )

= 29.3 m/s = 106 km/h

(1.25 kg/m 3 )(15 m/s) 2 2

M max = FD 2 L FD1 L = ( FD 2 FD1 ) L = (0.848 0.283 N)(0.125 m) = 0.0706 Nm

Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50

(a) The rolling resistance of the car is

1N FRR = C RR W = 0.04(950 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 kg m/s 2

W total = Wdrag + W RR = ( FD + FRR )V = C D A

0.3456V 3 + 372.8V = 80,000

Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift

Drag, Rolling, and Total Power, kW

V, m/s 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150

(1025 kg/m 3 )(11.11 m/s) 2 2 (1.30 kg/m 3 )(11.11 m/s) 2 2

1 kN 1000 kg m/s 2 1 kN 1000 kg m/s 2

V = [D 2 / 4]H = [ (0.80 m) 2 / 4](1.2 m) = 0.6032 m 2

1N W = mg = gV = (150 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(0.6032 m 3 ) 1 kg m/s 2

WD (887.6 N)(0.80 m) = = 591.7 N 1.2 m H

591.7 N = (0.7)[1.2 0.80 m 2 ]

which is equivalent to a wind velocity of V = 37.53.6 = 135 km/h.

Open sunroof: FD1 = 0.32(18 ft 2 )

(0.075 lbm/ft 3 )(35 1.4667 ft/s) 2 2

1 lbf 32.2 lbm ft/s 2

Closed sunroof: FD 2 = 0.41(18 ft 2 )

1 kW Wdrag2 = FD 2V = (22.7 lbf)(35 1.4667 ft/s) = 1.58 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s

Closed sunroof: FD 2 = 0.41(18 ft 2 )

1 kW Wdrag2 = FD 2V = (90.6 lbf)(70 1.4667 ft/s) = 12.6 kW 737.56 lbf ft/s

Chapter 11 Flow Over Bodies: Drag and Lift

Flow over Flat Plates

m_passenger=140 "kg" m1=400000 "kg" m2=m1-N_emptym_passenger V1=250 "km/h" V2=V1SQRT(m2/m1)