Basic Number Theory for RSA Algorithm
Dr. Natarajan Meghanathan
Assistant Professor of Computer Science Jackson State University, Jackson MS
E-mail:
[email protected] Modular Arithmetic
Given any positive integer n and any integer a, if we divide a by n, we get a quotient q and a remainder r that obey the following relationship:
a = q * n + r, 0 r < n and r is the remainder, q is the quotient When a is positive 0 1 2 n 2n 3n (q-1)n qn r n (q)n r Example:
a = 59; n = 7; 59 = (8)*7 + 3 a = -59; n = 7; -59 = (-9)*7 + 4 59 mod 7 = 3 -59 mod 7 = 4 r = 3; q = 8 r = 4; q = -9
n a (q+1)n
When a is negative (q-1)n 3n 2n n 2 1 0
All the numbers marked on the line are actually negative with respect to sign
Modular Arithmetic
Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, if a mod n = b mod n. This is written as a b mod n.
We say a and b are equivalent to each other in class modulo n
Example:
73 4 mod 23, because 73 mod 23 = 4 = 4 mod 23 21 -9 mod 10, because 21 mod 10 = 1 = -9 mod 10
Properties of the Modulo Operator
If a b mod n, then (a b) mod n = 0 If a b mod n, then b a mod n If a b mod n and b c mod n, then a c mod n
Example:
73 4 mod 23, then (73 4) mod 23 = 0 73 4 mod 23, then 4 73 mod 23, because 4 mod 23 = 73 mod 23 73 4 mod 23 and 4 96 mod 23, then 73 96 mod 23.
Modular Arithmetic
Now, that we have studied the meaning of equivalency or congruent modulo n, it is see that the mod n operator maps all integers (negative and positive) into the set of integers [0, 1, ., n1]. Example: Class of modulo 15
From the above table, we could say things like -38 22 mod 15 24 54 mod 15 -38 mod 15 = 7 [-38 = (-3)*15 + 7] 24 mod 15 = 9 [24 = (1)*15 + 9] 22 mod 15 = 7 [22 = (1)*15 + 7] 54 mod 15 = 9 [54 = (3)*15 + 9]
Modular Arithmetic
Properties:
(x + y) mod n = (x mod n + y mod n) mod n Example:
Compute: (54 + 49) mod 15 (54 + 49) mod 15 = 103 mod 15 = 13 54 mod 15 = 9 49 mod 15 = 4 (54 mod 15 + 49 mod 15) = 9 + 4 = 13 (54 mod 15 + 49 mod 15) mod 15 = 13 mod 15 = 13
Example:
Compute (42 + 52) mod 15 (42 + 52) mod 15 = 94 mod 15 = 4 42 mod 15 = 12 52 mod 15 = 7 (42 mod 15 + 52 mod 15) = 12 + 7 = 19 (42 mod 15 + 52 mod 15) mod 15 = 19 mod 15 = 4
Modular Arithmetic
Properties:
(x * y) mod n = (x mod n * y mod n) mod n Example:
Compute: (54 * 49) mod 15 (54 * 49) mod 15 = 2646 mod 15 = 6 54 mod 15 = 9 49 mod 15 = 4 (54 mod 15 * 49 mod 15) = 9 * 4 = 36 (54 mod 15 * 49 mod 15) mod 15 = 36 mod 15 = 6
Example:
Compute (42 * 52) mod 15 (42 * 52) mod 15 = 2184 mod 15 = 9 42 mod 15 = 12 52 mod 15 = 7 (42 mod 15 * 52 mod 15) = 12 * 7 = 84 (42 mod 15 * 52 mod 15) mod 15 = 84 mod 15 = 9
Modular Arithmetic
Properties:
(a * b * c) mod n = ( (a mod n) * (b mod n) * (c mod n) ) mod n
(a * b * c) mod n = ( ( ( (a mod n) * (b mod n) ) mod n ) * (c mod n) ) mod n
(a * b * c * d) mod n = ( (a mod n) * (b mod n) * (c mod n) * (d mod n) ) mod n Similarly, (a * b * c * d * e) mod n. Example:
Compute (42 * 56 * 98 * 108) mod 15 Straightforward approach: (42 * 56 * 98 * 108) mod 15 = (234893568) mod 15 = 3 Optimum approach 1 Optimum approach 2
Modular Arithmetic
Modular Exponentiation
The Right-to-Left Binary Algorithm
Example for Modular Exponentiation
To compute 541 mod 9
Straightforward approach:
541 mod 9 = (45474735088646411895751953125) mod 9 = 2 Number of multiplications - 40
Using the Right-to-Left Binary Algorithm
Write 41 in binary: 101001 541 = 532 * 58 * 51 541 mod 9 = (532 * 58 * 51) mod 9
Example for Modular Exponentiation
To compute 361 mod 8
Straightforward approach:
361 mod 8 = (12717347825648619542883299603) mod 8 = 3 Number of multiplications - 60
Using the Right-to-Left Binary Algorithm
Write 61 in binary: 111101 341 = 332 * 316 * 38 * 34 * 31 541 mod 9 = (532 * 58 * 51) mod 9
Multiplicative Inverse Modulo n
If (a * b) modulo n = 1, then
a is said to be the multiplicative inverse of b in class modulo n b is said to be the multiplicative inverse of a in class modulo n
Example:
Find the multiplicative inverse of 7 in class modulo 15 Straightforward approach:
Multiply 7 with all the integers [0, 1, , 14] in class modulo 15 There will be only one integer x for which (7*x) modulo 15 = 1
Find the multiplicative inverse of 9 in class modulo 13
Multiply 9 with all the integers [0, 1, , 12] in class modulo 13 There will be only one integer x for which (9*x) modulo 13 = 1
A more efficient approach to find multiplicative inverse in class modulo n is to use the Extended Euclid Algorithm
Euclids Algorithm to find the GCD
Given two integers m and n (say m > n), then
GCD (m, n) = GCD (n, m mod n) One can continue using the above recursion until the second term becomes 0. The GCD (m, n) will be then the value of the first term, because GCD (k, 0) = k
Example: GCD (120, 45)
GCD (120, 45) = GCD (45, 30) = GCD (30, 15) = GCD (15, 0) = 15
Example: GCD (45, 12)
GCD (45, 12) = GCD (12, 9) = GCD (9, 3) = GCD (3, 0) = 3
Example: GCD (53, 30)
GCD (53, 30) = GCD (30, 23) = GCD (23, 7) = GCD (7, 2) = GCD (2, 1) = GCD (1, 0) = 1
Note: Two numbers m and n are said to be relatively prime if
GCD (m, n) = 1.
Property of GCD
For any two integers m and n,
We can write m * x + n * y = GCD (m, n)
x and y are also integers We find x and y through the Extended Euclid algorithm
If m and n are relatively prime, then
there exists two integers x and y such that m * x + n * y = 1
x is the multiplicative inverse of m modulo n y is the multiplicative inverse of n modulo m We could find x and y through the Extended Euclid algorithm
Extended Euclid Algorithm
Theorem Statement
Let m and n be positive integers. Define
a[0] = m, a[1] = n x[0] = 1, x[1] = 0, y[0] = 0, y[1] = 1, q[k] = Floor( a[k-1]/ a[k]) for k > 0 a[k] = a[k-2] (a[k-1]*q[k-1]) for k > 1 x[k] = x[k-2] (q[k-1] * x[k-1]) for k > 1 y[k] = y[k-2] (q[k-1] * y[k-1]) for k > 1
If a[p] is the last non-zero a[k], then
a[p] = GCD (m, n) = x[p] * m + y[p] * n x[p] is the multiplicative inverse of m modulo n y[p] is the multiplicative inverse of n modulo m
Example for Extended Euclid Algorithm
Find the multiplicative inverse of 30 modulo 53
The larger of the two numbers is our m and the smaller is n Initial Setup of the computation table We want to find the x and y m such that 53x + 30y = 1 n
Iteration 1
Iteration 2
Example for Extended Euclid Algorithm
Iteration 3
Iteration 4
Iteration 5
-13*53+30*23 = 1 = GCD
23 is the multiplicative inverse of 30 modulo 53 -13 17 is the Multiplicative inverse of 53 modulo 30
STOP!
Example for Extended Euclid Algorithm
Find the multiplicative inverse of 17 modulo 89
The larger of the two numbers is our m and the smaller is n Initial Setup of the computation table We want to find the x and y m such that 89x + 17y = 1 n
Iteration 1
Iteration 2
Example for Extended Euclid Algorithm
Iteration 3
STOP! -4*89 + 21*17 = 1 = GCD
21 is the multiplicative inverse of 17 modulo 89
- 4 13 is the multiplicative inverse of 89 modulo 17
