WAVEGUIDE

Waveguides are a form of RF feeder used for microwave applications. For use, the basics of waveguide technology are easy to comprehend, although the mathematics involved can become complicated when wave theory and the like are used. Waveguides are a guide for electromagnetic waves and this gives rise to the name waveguide. Waveguides effectively confirm and direct a wave within a given boundary. Within many electronic circles, waveguides are most commonly used for microwave RF signals, the same principles can be used for many forms of wave from sound to light. Waveguides are used in a variety of applications to carry radio frequency energy from one pint to another. In their broadest terms a waveguide is described as a system of material that is designed to confine electromagnetic waves in a direction defined by its physical boundaries. This definition gives a very broad view of waveguides, but indicates that waveguide theory can be applied in a number of areas and in a variety of different ways. Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions and can be thought of as spherical waves travelling out from a central source. As a result the power intensity decreases as the distance increases - it is proportional to the power of the source divided by the square of the distance. The waveguide operates by confining the electromagnetic wave so that it does not spread out and losses resulting from this effect are eliminated. Typically a waveguide is thought if as a transmission line comprising a hollow conducting tube, which may be rectangular or circular within which electromagnetic waves are propagated. Unlike coaxial cable, there is no center conductor within the waveguide. Signals propagate within the confines of the metallic walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total internal reflection from the walls of the waveguide. Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency, known as the cut-off frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The cut-off frequency of the waveguide depends upon its dimensions. In view of the mechanical constraints this means that waveguides are only used for microwave frequencies. Although it is theoretically possible to build waveguides for lower frequencies the size would not make them viable to contain within normal dimensions and their cost would be prohibitive. As a very rough guide to the dimensions required for a waveguide, the width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the signal being carried. As a result, there is a number of standard sizes used for waveguides as detailed in another page of this tutorial. Also other forms of waveguide may be specifically designed to operate on a given band of frequencies

Types of RF waveguide
There is a number of different types of RF waveguide that can be used, bought and designed. Typically waveguides are thought of as being rectangular in cross section as this is the most common form of waveguide. However other types and approaches may be used. Rectangular waveguide: This is the most commonly used form of waveguide and has a rectangular cross section. Circular waveguide: Circular waveguide is less common than rectangular waveguide. They have many similarities in their basic approach, although signals often use a different mode of propagation. Circuit board stripline: This form of waveguide is used on printed circuit boards as a transmission line for microwave signals. It typically consists of a line of a given thickness above an earth plane. Its thickness defines the impedance. In addition to these basic forms, there are also flexible waveguides. These are most widely seen in the rectangular format. Flexible waveguide is often used to connect to antennas, etc that may not be fixed or may be moveable. Waveguides are more expensive than other forms of RF feeder. However waveguides offer a number of advantages that mean they are the only feasible solution in many applications. Although waveguide is not nearly as widely used as other forms of feeder such as coax, it still forms and essential method of transferring RF power, especially are microwave frequencies. In order to be able to use waveguides to their best effect, it is necessary to have a basic understanding of waveguide theory, including waveguide propagation and the waveguide propagation constant. While waveguide theory can become particularly involved, it is not the aim here to delve too deeply into the waveguide theory mathematics. Waveguide theory is based around electromagnetic wave theory because the waves propagating along waveguides are electromagnetic waves that have been constrained, typically within a hollow metal tube. The constraining boundaries of the metal tube prevent the electromagnetic wave from spreading out and thereby reducing in intensity according to the inverse square law. As a result, losses are very low.

Waveguide theory of propagation

According to waveguide theory there are a number of different types of electromagnetic wave that can propagate within the waveguide. These different types of waves correspond to the different elements within an electromagnetic wave. TE waves: Transverse electric waves, also sometimes called H waves, are characterized by the fact that the electric vector (E) is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation. TM waves: Transverse magnetic waves, also called E waves are characterized by the fact that the magnetic vector (H vector) is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation. TEM waves: The Transverse electromagnetic wave is cannot be propagated within a waveguide, but is included for completeness. It is the mode that is commonly used within coaxial and open wire feeders. The TEM wave is characterized by the fact that both the electric vector (E vector) and the magnetic vector (H vector) are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Text about waveguide theory often refers to the TE and TM waves with integers after them: TEm,n. The numerals M and N are always integers that can take on separate values from 0 or 1 to infinity. These indicate the wave modes within the waveguide. Only a limited number of different m, n modes can be propagated along a waveguide dependent upon the waveguide dimensions and format. For each mode there is a definite lower frequency limit. This is known as the cut-off frequency. Below this frequency no signals can propagate along the waveguide. As a result the waveguide can be seen as a high pass filter. It is possible for many modes to propagate along a waveguide. The number of possible modes for a given size of waveguide increases with the frequency. It is also worth noting that there is only one possible mode, called the dominant mode for the lowest frequency that can be transmitted. It is the dominant mode in the waveguide that is normally used. It should be remembered, that even though waveguide theory is expressed in terms of fields and waves, the wall of the waveguide conducts current. For many calculations it is assumed to be a perfect conductor. In reality this is not the case, and some losses are introduced as a result. Waveguide theory rules of thumb There are a number of rules of thumb and common points that may be used when dealing with waveguides. For rectangular waveguides, the TE10 mode of propagation is the lowest mode that is supported. For rectangular waveguides, the waveguide width, i.e. the widest internal dimension of the cross section, determines the lower cut-off frequency and is equal to 1/2 wavelength of the lower cut-off frequency. For rectangular waveguides, the TE01 mode occurs when the height equals 1/2 wavelength of the cut-off frequency. For rectangular waveguides, the TE20, occurs when the width equals one wavelength of the lower cut-off frequency.

Waveguide impedance definition

There are several ways to define the waveguide impedance - it is not as straightforward as that of a more traditional coaxial feeder. To determine the waveguide impedance by using the voltage to be the potential difference between the top and bottom walls in the middle of the waveguide, and then take the value of current to be the integrated value across the top wall. As expected the ratio gives the impedance. Measure the waveguide impedance is to utilizing the voltage and then uses the power flow within the waveguide. The waveguide impedance can be determined by taking the ratio of the electric field to the magnetic field at the center of the waveguide. All the methods tend to give results that are within a factor of two of the free space impedance of 377 ohms.

Waveguide propagation constant A quantity known as the propagation constant is denoted by the Greek letter gamma, . The waveguide propagation constant defines the phase and amplitude of each component of the wave as it propagates along the waveguide. The factor for each component of the wave cane be expressed by:

exp[jt - m,nz]
Where: z = direction of propagation = angular frequency, i.e. 2 x frequency It can be seen that if propagation constant, m,n is real, the phase of each component is constant, and in this case the amplitude decreases exponentially as z increases. In this case no significant propagation takes place and the frequency used for the calculation is below the waveguide cut-off frequency. It is actually found in this case that a small degree of propagation does occur, but as the levels of attenuation are very high, the signal only travels for a very small distance. As the results are very predictable, a short length of waveguide used below its cut-off frequency can be used as an attenuation with known attenuation. The alternative case occurs when the propagation constant, m,n is imaginary. Here it is found that the amplitude of each component remains constant, but the phase varies with the distance z. This means that propagation occurs within the waveguide. The value of m,n is contains purely imaginary when there is a totally lossless system. As in reality some loss always occurs, the propagation constant, m,n will contain both real and imaginary parts, m,n and m,n respectively. Accordingly it will be found that:

m,n = m,n + j m,n

This waveguide theory and waveguide equations are true for any waveguide regardless of whether they are rectangular or circular. Waveguide impedance can be important in a number of applications. In the same way that the characteristic impedance is important for other forms of feeder, the same can be true in a number of instances with waveguides. Techniques including the use of a waveguide iris, or a waveguide post can be used to provide the required level of waveguide impedance matching. The waveguide impedance needs to be known on a number of instances to ensure the optimum power transfer and the minimum level of reflected power is obtained.

Waveguide impedance and reflection coefficient

In just the same that more common coaxial and other feeder systems need to have loads closely matched to the source impedance to obtain the maximum power transfer, the same is true with waveguides. If the waveguide impedance is matched to the source or load, then a greater level of power transfer will occur. When waveguides are not accurately matched to their loads, standing waves result, and not all the power is transferred. To overcome the mismatch it is necessary to use some waveguide impedance matching techniques.

Waveguide impedance matching

In order to ensure the optimum waveguide impedance matching is obtained, small devices are placed into the waveguide close to the point where the matching is needed to change its characteristics. There are a number of ways in which waveguide impedance matching can be achieved: Use of gradual changes in dimensions of waveguide. Use of a waveguide iris Use of a waveguide post or screw Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages and can be used in different circumstances. The use of elements including a waveguide iris or a waveguide post or screw has an effect which is manifest at some distance from the obstacle in the guide since the fields in the vicinity of the waveguide iris or screw are disturned.

Waveguide impedance matching using gradual changes

It is found that abrupt changes in a waveguide will give rise to a discontinuity that will create standing waves. However gradual changes in impedance do not cause this. This approach is used with horn antennas - these are funnel shaped antennas that provide the waveguide impedance match between the waveguide itself and free space by gradually expanding the waveguide dimensions. There are basically three types of waveguide horn that may be used: E plane H plane Pyramid The different types of gradual matching using a waveguide horn can be seen in the diagram below:

Waveguide size standards

There are a number of different standards for waveguides. These tend to be country specific. Some of the major standards include: WR waveguide system: EIA designation (Standard US) using a WR designator to indicate the size WG waveguide system: RCSC Designation (Standard UK)

Waveguide junction types

There are a number of different types of waveguide junction. The major types are listed below: H-type T Junction: This type of waveguide junction gains its name because top of the "T" in the T junction is parallel to the

plane of the magnetic field, H lines in the waveguide. E, H plane and pyramid Horn antennas used E-Type T Junction: This form of waveguide junction gains its for waveguide matching name as an E- type T junction because the tope of the "T" extends from the main waveguide in the same plane as the electric field in the waveguide. Magic T waveguide junction: The magic T waveguide junction is effectively a combination of the E-type and H-type waveguide junctions. Hybrid Ring Waveguide Junction: This form of waveguide junction is another form of waveguide junction that is more complicated than either the basic E-type or H-type waveguide junction.

Waveguide E-type junction Waveguide E-type junction E fields Magic T waveguide junction

Waveguide H-type junction electric field Waveguide H-type junction

Types of waveguide bend

There are several ways in which waveguide bends can be accomplished. They may be used according to the applications and the requirements.

Waveguide E bend Waveguide H bend Waveguide sharp E bend Waveguide sharp H bend

Uses of Wave Guide:

There are the following uses of Wave Guide. 1. It is used where the transmission or reception is in the range of microwave frequencies. 2. It is also used for handling the high power of energy. 3. It is mostly used in the airborne radar. 4. In ground radars we also use the wave guide. 5. The circular wave guide is mostly used in the ground radar to transmit or receive the energy from antenna. Which revolves in 360o bearing continuously. 6. The wave guide is also used in communication system. 7. In satellite communication the wave guide is mostly used. 8. We also use the wave guide in the devices of navigation aids. 9. In some cases the wave guide is used as attenuator where very high frequencies are involved. 10. The wave guides are also used with the cavity resonators to carry the input and out put signals.

WAVEGUIDE THEORY
The two-wire transmission line used in conventional circuits is inefficient for transferring electromagnetic energy at microwave frequencies. At these frequencies, energy escapes by radiation because the fields are not confined in all directions. Coaxial lines are more efficient than two-wire lines for transferring electromagnetic energy because the fields are completely confined by the conductors, as illustrated in figure 3-16. Waveguides are the most efficient way to transfer electromagnetic energy. WAVEGUIDES are essentially coaxial lines without center conductors. They are constructed from conductive material and may be rectangular, circular, or elliptical in shape, as shown in figure.

WAVEGUIDE ADVANTAGES
Waveguides have several advantages over two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. For example, the large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces COPPER (12R) LOSSES. Two-wire transmission lines have large copper losses because they have a relatively small surface area. The surface area of the outer conductor of a coaxial cable is large, but the surface area of the inner conductor is relatively small. At microwave frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner Waveguide Shapes conductor is restricted to a very small layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called SKIN EFFECT. Skin effect tends to increase the effective resistance of the conductor. Although energy transfer in coaxial cable is caused by electromagnetic field motion, the magnitude of the field is limited by the size of the current-carrying area of the inner conductor. The small size of the center conductor is even further reduced by skin effect, and energy transmission by coaxial cable becomes less efficient than by waveguides. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are also lower in waveguides than in two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. Dielectric losses in two-wire and coaxial lines are caused by the heating of the insulation between the conductors. The insulation behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor formed by the two wires of the transmission line.

WAVEGUIDE DISADVANTAGES
Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. The width of a waveguide must be approximately a half wavelength at the frequency of the wave to be transported. For example, a waveguide for use at 1 megahertz would be about 700 feet wide. This makes the use of waveguides at frequencies below 1000 megahertz increasingly impractical. The lower frequency range of any system using waveguides is limited by the physical dimensions of the waveguides. Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape. Special couplings at the joints are required to assure proper operation. Also, the inside surfaces of waveguides are often plated with silver or gold to reduce skin effect losses. These requirements increase the costs and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at any other than microwave frequencies.

ENERGY PROPAGATION IN WAVEGUIDES

Since energy is transferred through waveguides by electromagnetic fields, you need a basic understanding of field theory. Both electric (E FIELD) and magnetic fields (H FIELD) are present in waveguides, and the interaction of these fields causes energy to travel through the waveguide. This action is best understood by first looking at the properties of the two individual fields. E Field An electric field exists when a difference of potential causes a stress in the dielectric between two points. The simplest electric field is one that forms between the plates of a capacitor when one plate is made positive compared to the other. The stress created in the dielectric is an electric field. Electric fields are represented by arrows that point from the positive toward the negative potential. The number of arrows shows the relative strength of the field. In view B, for example, evenly spaced arrows indicate the field is evenly distributed. For ease of explanation, the electric field is abbreviated E field, and the lines of stress are called E lines. H Field The magnetic field in a waveguide is made up of magnetic lines of force that are caused by current flow through the conductive material of the waveguide. Magnetic lines of force, called H lines, are continuous closed loops. All of the H lines associated with current are collectively called a magnetic field or H field. The strength of the H field, indicated by the number of H lines in a given area, varies directly with the amount of current. Although H lines encircle a single, straight wire, they behave differently when the wire is formed into a coil. In a coil the individual H lines tend to form around each turn of wire. Since the H lines take opposite directions between adjacent turns, the field between the turns is canceled. Inside and outside the coil, where the direction of each H field is the same, the fields join and form continuous H lines around the entire coil. A similar action takes place in a waveguide.

Waveguide Bends
The size, shape, and dielectric material of a waveguide must be constant throughout its length for energy to move from one end to the other without reflections. Any abrupt change in its size or shape can cause reflections and a loss in overall efficiency. When such a change is necessary, the bends, twists, and joints of the waveguides must meet certain conditions to prevent reflections. Waveguides maybe bent in several ways that do not cause reflections. One way is the gradual bend. This gradual bend is known as an E bend because it distorts the E fields. The E bend must have a radius greater than two wavelengths to prevent reflections. Another common bend is the gradual H bend. It is called an H bend because the H fields are distorted when a waveguide is bent in this manner. Again, the radius of the bend must be greater than two wavelengths to prevent reflections. Neither the E bend in the a dimension nor the H bend in the b dimension changes the normal mode of operation. A sharp bend in either dimension may be used if it meets certain requirements. Notice the two 45-degree bends in figure 3-50; the bends are 1/4 apart. The reflections that occur at the 45-degree bends cancel each other, leaving the fields as though no reflections have occurred.
Gradual H bend

Gradual E bend