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VGVP

This document discusses group velocity (vg) and phase velocity (vp) of waves. It defines vg as the velocity of the envelope of a wave packet, which represents the speed at which the overall shape of the packet propagates. Vp is defined as the velocity at which the phase of any single frequency component travels. The key relationship is that vg = dω/dk, where ω is the angular frequency and k is the wavenumber. Several examples are provided to illustrate how to calculate vg from expressions for vp, including for light passing through dispersive media. The document also discusses the generalization of deriving vg = dω/dk using a Fourier analysis approach.

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Jyoti Singh
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148 views6 pages

VGVP

This document discusses group velocity (vg) and phase velocity (vp) of waves. It defines vg as the velocity of the envelope of a wave packet, which represents the speed at which the overall shape of the packet propagates. Vp is defined as the velocity at which the phase of any single frequency component travels. The key relationship is that vg = dω/dk, where ω is the angular frequency and k is the wavenumber. Several examples are provided to illustrate how to calculate vg from expressions for vp, including for light passing through dispersive media. The document also discusses the generalization of deriving vg = dω/dk using a Fourier analysis approach.

Uploaded by

Jyoti Singh
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as TXT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 16: Group and Phase Velocity Up to now we have just talked about the speed (or velocity)

v of a wave. Actuall y there are two velocities: the Group Velocity vg and the Phase Velocity vp. They are given by t he memorable formul: vp = ? k vg = d? dk 1. Phase velocity A single (in?nite) wave is described by the expression cos(?t - kx) or sin[ 2p ? (x - vt)] or equivalent. The pattern travels with a velocity (actually a speed) vp = ? T = f? = ?/k vp is what matters with interference. The refractive index n is de?ned as c/v an d this means c/vp 2. Group velocity An in?nite wave is unrealistic. A real wave has to have beginning and end. The overall shape is called the envelope. Various shapes are possible - abrupt or gentle. vg = d? dk is the velocity of the envelope. 3. Illustration Consider two waves almost in step. They have ?1, k1 and ?2, k2 (and ?1, ?2...) Write the means and di?erences ? = ?1+?2 2 , k = k1+k2 2 ?? = ?1-?2 2 , ?k = k1-k2 2 the original quantities can be expressed in terms of these ?1 = ? + ??, ?2 = ? - ?? etc Adding the two waves gives a total wave e i(?1t-k1x) + e i(?2t-k2x) This can be written e i(?t+??t-kx-?kx) + e i(?t-??t-kx+?kx) Take out a common factor: e i(?t-kx)

e i(??t-?kx) + e i(-??t+?kx) Remembering cos? = e i? +e -i? 2 this is 2cos(??t - ?kx)e i(?t-kx) The ?rst term is clearly the envelope. It has small wavenumber and frequency and so a long wavelength and period. It travels with velocity vg = ??/?k. This generalises: vg = d? dk 4. Finding vg Often vp is known from measurements or from basic principles. Take the expressio n for vp and write ?/k for vp in it. Turn all the ? and f etc terms into ? and k. Then di?erentiate with respect to k. This gives an expression involving d? dk from which vg can be extracted. As a trivial example, suppose vp is constant (i.e. independent of wavelength) wi th value c. Then ? = ck and d?/dk = c. Group and phase velocity are the same in this case. 5. Example: Refractive Index The velocity of light in a medium tends to depend on the wavelength. (Hence rain bows, prisms, etc.). This is called dispersion. See the previous lecture for details. People normally quote n as a function of ? rather than ? as a function of k. Thi s contains the same information, we need to manipulate it: what follows is mere algebra: dn d? = dn dk dk d? Take these two di?erentials separately. First n = c vp = ck ? so dn dk = c ? ck ?2 d? dk Lecture 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Group and Phase Velocity and secondly k = 2p ? so dk d? = 2p ?2 = k ? Now put these together and get dn d? = -k ? ( c ? - ck ?2 vg) dn d? = - kc ?? + ck 2 ?2? vg = - c vp? + c v 2 p? vg Rearrange to get an expression for vg vg = v 2 p? c ( c vp? + dn d? ) vg = vp + vp? n dn d? = vp(1 + ? n dn d? ) . This can also be written: vg = vp(1 k n dn dk ) = vp - ? dvp

d? = c n+?(dn/d?) . Of all these equally-valid alternatives, only vg = d? dk is memorable. Note: if n is falling with ?, vg < vp. This is called normal dispersion. If n is rising, vg > vp and this is called anomalous dispersion 6. Example Suppose some glass has a slightly di?erent refractive index for red light and bl ue light: n = 1.51 at 400 nm, n = 1.49 at 600 nm. This is a fall of dn = 0.02 in d? = 200 nm. The mean ? is 500 nm and the mean n is 1.5. vp = 2 10 8 m/s vg = 2 10 8 (1 - (500/1.5)(.02/200)) = 2 10 8 (1 - .0333) = 1.93 10 8 m/s 7. Refractive index of X rays We saw in the last lecture that at the highest frequencies(=shortest wavelengths , hence X rays) one can write n = p 1 - B/?2 where B is a positive number containing N and all the proportionality c onstants. This n is less than 1 so vp > c (!) Putting that worry on one side, let s ?nd the group velocity. Start from n = c vp = ck ? = q 1 B ?2 Squaring: c 2 k 2 ?2 = 1 - B ?2 Multiplying by ? 2 : c 2 k 2 = ? 2 - B Then di?erentiate wrt k: 2c 2 k = 2? d? dk

This gives vg = c 2 /vp so vg < c and relativity is OK, as information (causal signals) travels with vg not vp. In this case we have vgvp = c 2 . The product of the group and phase velocities is equal to c 2 . There are many cases where this turns out to be true, but it is not universal and there ar e some where it isn t. 8. A more general picture for deriving vg = d? dk The earlier (standard) example just considered two waves. If you re happy with tha t, ?ne. For a more general approach we need to bring in an extended concept of Fourier Series. A periodic function can be expressed as sum of sine and cosine terms f(?) = P k aksin(k?) + bkcos(k?) ak = 1 p R p -p f(?)sin(k?)d? bk = 1 (2)p R p -p f(?)cos(k?)d? This can be extended to non-periodic functions f(x) = R 8 -8 F(k)e ikx dk where F(k) = 1 2p R 8 -8 f(x)e -ikx dx An in?nite sine wave has a well-de?ned wavelength and thus a well-de?ned k. F(k) is a delta function. If F(k) is broad, the wave is made up of lots of sine waves of di?erent waveleng ths and has a short wavepacket (as the contributions all cancel away from the peak). Suppose we have a long wave packet f(x). That means that there is a small spread in k. The function F(k) will have a sharp peak about some central value k0 At some initial time t = 0 the wave can be written f(x, 0) = R 8 -8 F(k)e ikx dk

After time t the wave has evolved to f(x, t) = R 8 -8 F(k)e i(kx-?(k)t) dk where ?(k) explicitly shows that di?erent wavelength components have di?erent fr equencies. Let ?(k) = ?0 + d? dk (k - k0). This is the Taylor expansion to 1st order, and we re using the fact that the spread in k is small. Then f(x, t) = R F(k)e i(k0x+kx-k0x-?0t-(k-ko) d? dk t) dk f(x, t) = e i(k0x-?0t) R F(k)e i(k-k0)(x-d? dk t) dk The ?rst part is the pure sine wave. The second part (the integral) describes th e envelope. It looks messy, but all the x and t dependence is in the x d? dk t. So the envelope progresses with velocity d? dk = vg

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