1 Cost Accounting

As compared to the financial accounting, the focus of cost accounting is different. In the modern days of cut throat competition, any business organization has to pay attention towards their cost of production. Computation of cost on scientific c basis and thereafter cost control and cost reduction has become of paramount importance. Hence it has become essential to study the basic principles and concepts of cost accounting. These are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs. 1 Cost :- Cost can be defi ned as the expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on or attributable to a given thing. It can also be described as the resources that have been sacrifi ced or must be sacrifi ced to attain a particular objective. In other words, cost is the amount of resources used for something which must be measured in terms of money. For example Cost of preparing one cup of tea is the amount incurred on the elements like material, labor and other expenses, similarly cost of offering any services like banking is the amount of expenditure for offering that service. Thus cost of production or cost of service can be calculated by ascertaining the resources used for the production or services. 2.Costing :- Costing may be defi ned as the technique and process of ascertaining costs. According to Wheldon, Costing is classifying, recording, allocation and appropriation of expenses for the determination of cost of products or services and for the presentation of suitably arranged data for the purpose of control and guidance of management. It includes the ascertainment of every order, job, contract, process, service units as may be appropriate. It deals with the cost of production, selling and distribution. If we analyze the above defi nitions, it will be understood that costing is basically the procedure of ascertaining the costs. As mentioned above, for any business organization, ascertaining of costs is must and for this purpose a scientifi c procedure should be followed. Costing is precisely this procedure which helps them to fi nd out the costs of products or services. 3 Cost Accounting :- Cost Accounting primarily deals with collection, analysis of relevant of cost data for interpretation and presentation for various problems of management. Cost accounting accounts for the cost of products, service or an operation. It is defi ned as, the establishment of budgets, standard costs and actual costs of operations, processes, activities or products and the analysis of variances, profi tability or the social use of funds. 4 Cost Accountancy :- Cost Accountancy is a broader term and is defi ned as, the application of costing and cost accounting principles, methods and techniques to the science and art and practice of cost control and the ascertainment of profi tability as well as presentation of information for the purpose of managerial decision making. If we analyze the above defi nition, the following points will emerge, A. Cost accounting is basically application of the costing and cost accounting principles. B. This application is with specifi c purpose and that is for the purpose of cost control, ascertainment of profi tability and also for presentation of information to facilitate decision making. C. Cost accounting is a combination of art and science, it is a science as it has well defi ned rules and regulations, it is an art as application of any science requires art and it is a practice as it has to be applied on continuous basis and is not a one time exercise.

5 Objectives of Cost Accounting :- Objectives of Cost Accounting can be summarized as under 1. To ascertain the cost of production on per unit basis, for example, cost per kg, cost per meter, cost per liter, cost per ton etc. 2. Cost accounting helps in the determination of selling price. Cost accounting enables to determine the cost of production on a scientifi c basis and it helps to fi x the selling price. 3. Cost accounting helps in cost control and cost reduction. 4. Ascertainment of division wise, activity wise and unit wise profi tability becomes possible through cost accounting. 5. Cost accounting also helps in locating wastages, ineffi ciencies and other loopholes in the production processes/services offered. 6. Cost accounting helps in presentation of relevant data to the management which helps in decision making. Decision making is one of the important functions of Management and it requires presentation of relevant data. Cost accounting enables presentation of relevant data in a systematic manner so that decision making becomes possible. 7. Cost accounting also helps in estimation of costs for the future. 6 Essentials of a good Costing system :- For availing of maximum benefits, a good costing system should possess the following characteristics. A. Costing system adopted in any organization should be suitable to its nature and size of the business and its information needs. B. A costing system should be such that it is economical and the benefits derived from the same should be more than the cost of operating of the same. C. Costing system should be simple to operate and understand. Unnecessary complications be avoided. D. Costing system should ensure proper system of accounting for material, labor and overheads and there should be proper classifi cation made at the time of recording of the transaction itself. E. Before designing a costing system, need and objectives of the system should be identified. F. The costing system should ensure that the fi nal aim of ascertaining of cost as accurately possible should be achieved. 7 Certain Important Terms :- It is necessary to understand certain important terms used in cost accounting. A. Cost Center :- Cost Center is defi ned as, a production or service, function, activity or item of equipment whose costs may be attributed to cost units. A cost center is the smallest organizational sub unit for which separate cost allocation is attempted. To put in simple words, a cost center is nothing but a location, person or item of equipment for which cost may be ascertained and used for the purpose of cost control. For example, a production department, stores department, sales department can be cost centers. Similarly, an item of equipment like a lathe, fork-lift, truck or delivery vehicle can be cost center, a person like sales manager can be a cost center. The main object of identifying a cost center is to facilitate collection of costs so that further accounting will be easy. A cost center can be either personal or impersonal, similarly it can be a production cost center or service cost center. A cost center in which a specific process or a continuous sequence of operations is carried out is known as Process Cost Center.

B. Profit Center :- Profit Center is defined as, a segment of the business entity by which both revenues are received and expenses are incurred or controlled. (CEMA) A profi t center is any sub unit of an organization to which both revenues and costs are assigned. As explained above, cost center is an activity to which only costs are assigned but a profi t center is one where costs and revenues are assigned so that profi t can be ascertained. Such revenues and expenditure are being used to evaluate segmental performance as well as managerial performance. A division of an organization may be called as profi t center. The performance of profi t center is evaluated in terms of the fact whether the center has achieved its budgeted profits. Thus the profi t center concept is used for evaluation of performance. 8 Costing Systems :- There are different costing systems used in practice. These are described below. A. Historical Costing :- In this system, costs are ascertained only after they are incurred and that is why it is called as historical costing system. For example, costs incurred in the month of April, 2007 may be ascertained and collected in the month of May. Such type of costing system is extremely useful for conducting post-mortem examination of costs, i.e. analysis of the costs incurred in the past. Historical costing system may not be useful from cost control point of view but it certainly indicates a trend in the behavior of costs and is useful for estimation of costs in future. B. Absorption Costing :- In this type of costing system, costs are absorbed in the product units irrespective of their nature. In other words, all fi xed and variable costs are absorbed in the products. It is based on the principle that costs should be charged or absorbed to whatever is being costed, whether it is a cost unit, cost center. C. Marginal Costing :- In Marginal Costing, only variable costs are charged to the products and fixed costs are written off to the Costing Profi t and Loss A/c. The principle followed in this case is that since fi xed costs are largely period costs, they should not enter into the production units. Naturally, the fi xed costs will not enter into the inventories and they will be valued at marginal costs only. D. Uniform Costing :- This is not a distinct method of costing but is the adoption of identical costing principles and procedures by several units of the same industry or by several undertakings by mutual agreement. Uniform costing facilitates valid comparisons between organizations and helps in eliminating inefficiencies. 9 Classifi cation of Costs :- An important step in computation and analysis of cost is the classification of costs into different types. Classifi cation helps in better control of the costs and also helps considerably in decision making. Classifi cation of costs can be made according to the following basis. A. Classifi cation according to elements :- Costs can be classifi ed according to the elements. There are three elements of costing, viz. material, labor and expenses. Total cost of production/ services can be divided into the three elements to fi nd out the contribution of each element in the total costs. B. Classifi cation according to nature :- As per this classifi cation, costs can be classifi ed into Direct and Indirect. Direct costs are the costs which are identifi able with the product unit or cost center while indirect costs are not identifi able with the product unit or cost center and hence they are to be allocated, apportioned and then absorb in the production units. All elements of costs like material, labor and expenses can be classifi ed into direct and indirect. They are mentioned below. i. Direct and Indirect Material :- Direct material is the material which is identifi able with the product. For example, in a cup of tea, quantity of milk consumed can be identifi

ed, quantity of glass in a glass bottle can be identifi ed and so these will be direct materials for these products. Indirect material cannot be identifi ed with the product, for example lubricants, fuel, oil, cotton wastes etc cannot be identifi ed with a given unit of product and hence these are the examples of indirect materials. ii. Direct and Indirect Labor :- Direct labor can be identifi ed with a given unit of product, for example, when wages are paid according to the piece rate, wages per unit can be identified. Similarly wages paid to workers who are directly engaged in the production can also be identifi ed and hence they are direct wages. On the other hand, wages paid to workers like sweepers, gardeners, maintenance workers etc are indirect wages as they cannot be identifi ed with the given unit of production. iii. Direct and Indirect Expenses :- Direct expenses refers to expenses that are specifi cally incurred and charged for specifi c or particular job, process, service, cost center or cost unit. These expenses are also called as chargeable expenses. Examples of these expenses are cost of drawing, design and layout, royalties payable on use of patents, copyrights etc, consultation fees paid to architects, surveyors etc. Indirect expenses on the other hand cannot be traced to specifi c product, job, process, service or cost center or cost unit. Several examples of indirect expenses can be given like insurance, electricity, rent, salaries, advertising etc. It should be noted that the total of direct expenses is known as Prime Cost while the total of all indirect expenses is known as Overheads. C. Classifi cation according to behavior :- Costs can also be classifi ed according to their behavior. This classifi cation is explained below. i. Fixed Costs :- Out of the total costs, some costs remain fi xed irrespective of changes in the production volume. These costs are called as fi xed costs. The feature of these costs is that the total costs remain same while per unit fi xed cost is always variable. Examples of these costs are salaries, insurance, rent, etc. 10 ii. Variable Costs :- These costs are variable in nature, i.e. they change according to the volume of production. Their variability is in the same proportion to the production. For example, if the production units are 2,000 and the variable cost is Rs. 5 per unit, the total variable cost will be Rs. 10,000, if the production units are increased to 5,000 units, the total variable costs will be Rs. 25,000, i.e. the increase is exactly in the same proportion of the production. Another feature of the variable cost is that per unit variable cost remains same while the total variable costs will vary. In the example given above, the per unit variable cost remains Rs. 2 per unit while total variable costs change. Examples of variable costs are direct materials, direct labor etc. iii. Semi-variable Costs :- Certain costs are partly fi xed and partly variable. In other words, they contain the features of both types of costs. These costs are neither totally fi xed nor

totally variable. Maintenance costs, supervisory costs etc are examples of semi-variable costs. These costs are also called as stepped costs. D. Classifi cation according to functions :- Costs can also be classifi ed according to the functions/ activities. This classifi cation can be done as mentioned below. i. Production Costs :- All costs incurred for production of goods are known as production costs. ii. Administrative Costs :- Costs incurred for administration are known as administrative costs. Examples of these costs are offi ce salaries, printing and stationery, offi ce telephone, offi ce rent, offi ce insurance etc. iii. Selling and Distribution Costs :- All costs incurred for procuring an order are called as selling costs while all costs incurred for execution of order are distribution costs. Market research expenses, advertising, sales staff salary, sales promotion expenses are some of the examples of selling costs. Transportation expenses incurred on sales, warehouse rent etc are examples of distribution costs. iv. Research and Development Costs :- In the modern days, research and development has become one of the important functions of a business organization. Expenditure incurred for this function can be classifi ed as Research and Development Costs. E. Classifi cation according to time :- Costs can also be classifi ed according to time. This classifi cation is explained below. I. Historical Costs :- These are the costs which are incurred in the past, i.e. in the past year, past month or even in the last week or yesterday. The historical costs are ascertained after the period is over. In other words it becomes a post-mortem analysis of what has happened in the past. Though historical costs have limited importance, still they can be used for estimating the trends of the future, i.e. they can be effectively used for predicting the future costs. II. Predetermined Cost :- These costs relating to the product are computed in advance of production, on the basis of a specifi cation of all the factors affecting cost and cost data. Pre determined costs may be either standard or estimated. Standard Cost is a predetermined calculation of how much cost should be under specifi c working conditions. It is based on technical studies regarding material, labor and expenses. The main purpose of standard

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cost is to have some kind of benchmark for comparing the actual performance with the standards. On the other hand, estimated costs are predetermined costs based on past performance and adjusted to the anticipated changes. It can be used in any business situation or decision making which does not require accurate cost.

F. Classifi cation of costs for Management decision making :- One of the important function of cost accounting is to present information to the Management for the purpose of decision making. For decision making certain types of costs are relevant. Classifi cation of costs based on the criteria of decision making can be done in the following manner I. Marginal Cost :- Marginal cost is the change in the aggregate costs due to change in the volume of output by one unit. For example, suppose a manufacturing company produces 10,000 units and the aggregate costs are Rs. 25,000, if 10,001 units are produced the aggregate costs may be Rs. 25,020 which means that the marginal cost is Rs. 20. Marginal cost is also termed as variable cost and hence per unit marginal cost is always same, i.e. per unit marginal cost is always fi xed. Marginal cost can be effectively used for decision making in various areas. II. Differential Costs :- Differential costs are also known as incremental cost. This cost is the difference in total cost that will arise from the selection of one alternative to the other. In other words, it is an added cost of a change in the level of activity. This type of analysis is useful for taking various decisions like change in the level of activity, adding or dropping a product, change in product mix, make or buy decisions, accepting an export offer and so on. III. Opportunity Costs :- It is the value of benefi t sacrifi ced in favor of an alternative course of action. It is the maximum amount that could be obtained at any given point of time if a resource was sold or put to the most valuable alternative use that would be practicable. Opportunity cost of goods or services is measured in terms of revenue which could have been earned by employing that goods or services in some other alternative uses. IV. Relevant Cost :- The relevant cost is a cost which is relevant in various decisions of management. Decision making involves consideration of several alternative courses of action. In this process, whatever costs are relevant are to be taken into consideration. In other words, costs which are going to be affected matter the most and these costs are called as relevant costs. Relevant cost is a future cost which is different for different alternatives. It can also be defi ned as any cost which is affected by the decision on hand. Thus in decision making relevant costs play a vital role. V. Replacement Cost :- This cost is the cost at which existing items of material or fi xed assets can be replaced. Thus this is the cost of replacing existing assets at present or at a future date. VI. Abnormal Costs :- It is an unusual or a typical cost whose occurrence is usually not regular and is unexpected. This cost arises due to some abnormal situation of production. Abnormal cost arises due to idle time, may be due to some unexpected heavy breakdown of machinery. They are not taken into consideration while computing cost of production or for decision making. 12

VII. Controllable Costs :- In cost accounting, cost control and cost reduction are extremely important. In fact, in the competitive environment, cost control and reduction are the key words. Hence it is essential to identify the controllable and uncontrollable costs. Controllable costs are those which can be controlled or infl uenced by a conscious management action. For example, costs like telephone, printing stationery etc can be controlled while costs like salaries etc cannot be controlled at least in the short run. Generally, direct costs are controllable while uncontrollable costs are beyond the control of an individual in a given period of time. VIII. Shutdown Cost :- These costs are the costs which are incurred if the operations are shut down and they will disappear if the operations are continued. Examples of these costs are costs of sheltering the plant and machinery and construction of sheds for storing exposed property. Computation of shutdown costs is extremely important for taking a decision of continuing or shutting down operations. IX. Capacity Cost :- These costs are normally fi xed costs. The cost incurred by a company for providing production, administration and selling and distribution capabilities in order to perform various functions. Capacity costs include the costs of plant, machinery and building for production, warehouses and vehicles for distribution and key personnel for administration. These costs are in the nature of long-term costs and are incurred as a result of planning decisions. X. Urgent Costs :- These costs are those which must be incurred in order to continue operations of the fi rm. For example, cost of material and labor must be incurred if production is to take place. 1.3.10 Costing Methods and Techniques :Introduction :- It is necessary to understand the difference between the costing methods and techniques. Costing methods are those which help a fi rm to compute the cost of production or services offered by it. On the other hand, costing techniques are those which help a fi rm to present the data in a particular manner so as to facilitate the decision making as well as cost control and cost reduction. Costing methods and techniques are explained below. Methods of Costing :- The following are the methods of costing. I. Job Costing :- This method is also called as job costing. This costing method is used in fi rms which work on the basis of job work. There are some manufacturing units which undertake job work and are called as job order units. The main feature of these organizations is that they produce according to the requirements and specifi cations of the consumers. Each job may be different from the other one. Production is only on specifi c order and there is no pre demand production. Because of this situation, it is necessary to compute the cost of each job and hence job costing system is used. In this system, each job is treated separately and a job cost sheet is prepared to fi nd out the cost of the job.

The job cost sheet helps to compute the cost of the job in a phased manner and fi nally arrives the total cost of production. II. Batch Costing :- This method of costing is used in those fi rms where production is made on continuous basis. Each unit coming out is uniform in all respects and production is made prior to the demand, i.e. in anticipation of demand. One batch of production consists of the units produced from the time

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machinery is set to the time when it will be shut down for maintenance. For example, if production commences on 1st January 2007 and the machine is shut down for maintenance on 1st April 2007, the number of units produced in this period will be the size of one batch. The total cost incurred during this period will be divided by the number of units produced and unit cost will be worked out. Firms producing consumer goods like television, air-conditioners, washing machines etc use batch costing. III. Process Costing :- Some of the products like sugar, chemicals etc involve continuous production process and hence process costing method is used to work out the cost of production. The meaning of continuous process is that the input introduced in the process I travels through continuous process before fi nished product is produced. The output of process I becomes input of process II and the output of process II becomes input of the process III. If there is no additional process, the output of process III will be the fi nished product. In process costing, cost per process is worked out and per unit cost is worked out by dividing the total cost by the number of units. Industries like sugar, edible oil, chemicals are examples of continuous production process and use process costing. IV. Operating Costing :- This type of costing method is used in service sector to work out the cost of services offered to the consumers. For example, operating costing method is used in hospitals, power generating units, transportation sector etc. A cost sheet is prepared to compute the total cost and it is divided by cost units for working out the per unit cost. V. Contract Costing :- This method of costing is used in construction industry to work out the cost of contract undertaken. For example, cost of constructing a bridge, commercial complex, residential complex, highways etc is worked out by use of this method of costing. Contract costing is actually similar to job costing, the only difference being that in contract costing, one construction job may take

several months or even years before they are complete while in job costing, each job may be of a short duration. In contract costing, as each contract may take a long period for completion, the question of computing of profi t is to be solved with the help of a well defi ned and accepted method. 1.3.11 Technique of Costing :- As mentioned above, costing methods are for computation of the total cost of production/services offered by a fi rm. On the other hand, costing technique help to present the data in a particular format so that decision making becomes easy. Costing techniques also help for controlling and reducing the costs. The following are the techniques of costing. I. Marginal Costing :- This technique is based on the assumption that the total cost of production can be divided into fi xed and variable. Fixed costs remain same irrespective of the changes in the volume of production while the variable costs vary with the level of production, i.e. they will increase if the production increases and decrease if the production decreases. Variable cost per unit always remains the same. In this technique, only variable costs are taken into account while calculating production cost. Fixed costs are not absorbed in the production units. They are written off to the Costing Profi t and Loss Account. The reason behind this is that the fi xed costs are period costs and hence should not be absorbed in the production. Secondly they are variable on per unit basis and hence there is no equitable basis for charging them to the products. This technique is effectively used for decision making in the areas like make or buy decisions, optimizing of product mix, key factor analysis, fi xation of selling price, accepting or rejecting an export offer, and several other areas. II. Standard Costing :- Standard costs are predetermined costs relating to material, labor and overheads. Though they are predetermined, they are worked out on scientifi c basis by 14 conducting technical analysis. They are computed for all elements of costs such as material, labor and overheads. The main objective of fi xation of standard cost is to have benchmark against which the actual performance can be compared. This means that the actual costs are compared with the standards. The difference is called as variance. If actual costs are more than the standard, the variance is adverse while if actual costs are less than the standard, the variance is favorable. The adverse variances are analyzed and reasons for the same are

found out. Favorable variances may also be analyzed to fi nd out the reasons behind the same. Standard costing, thus is an important technique for cost control and reduction. III. Budgets and Budgetary Control :- Budget is defi ned as, a quantitative and/or a monetary statement prepared to prior to a defi ned period of time for the policies during that period for the purpose of achieving a given objective. If we analyze this defi nition, it will be clear that a budget is a statement, which may be either in monetary form or quantitative form or both. For example, a production budget can be prepared in quantitative form showing the target production, it can also be prepared in monetary terms showing the expected cost of production. Some budgets can be prepared only in monetary terms, e.g. cash budget showing the estimated receipts and payments in a particular period can be prepared in monetary terms only. Another feature of budget is that it is always prepared prior to a defi ned period of time which means that budget is always prepared for future and that too a defi ned future. For example, a budget may be prepared for next 12 months or 6 months or even for 1 month, but the time period must be certain and not vague. One of the important aspect of budgeting is that it lays down the objective to be achieved during the defi ned period of time and for achieving the objectives, whatever policies are to be pursued are refl ected in the budget. Budgetary control involves preparation of budgets and continuous comparison of actual with budgets so that necessary corrective action can be taken. For example, when a production budget is prepared, the production targets are laid down in the same for a particular period. After the period is over, the actual production is compared with the budget and the deviation is found out so that necessary corrective action can be taken. Budget and Budgetary Control is one of the important techniques of costing used for cost control and also for performance evaluation. The success of the technique depends upon several factors such as support from top management, involvement of employees and coordination within the organization. 1.3.12 Cost Sheet Cost Sheet is a statement of cost showing the total cost of production and profi t or loss from a particular product or service. A Cost Sheet shows the cost in a systematic manner and element

wise. A typical format of the Cost Sheet is given below.

15

Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting and Management Accounting Cost and Management Accounting
Cost Sheet for the period......................................... Production ............................... units Particulars Amount (Rs.) Amount (Rs.) A. Direct Materials Opening Stock + Purchases + Carriage inwards - Closing Stock B. Direct Wages C. Direct Expenses I. Prime Cost ( A + B + C ) D. Factory Overheads- Indirect materials Loose Tools Indirect wages Rent and Rates ( Factory) Lighting and heating ( F ) Power and fuel Repairs and Maintenance Drawing offi ce expenses Research and experiment Depreciation Plant ( F ) Insurance ( F ) Work Managers salary II. Factory Cost/Works Cost ( I + D ) E. Offi ce and Administrative Overheads Rent and Rates offi ce Salaries offi ce Insurance of offi ce building and equipments Telephone and postage Printing and Stationery Depreciation of furniture and offi ce equipments Legal expenses Audit fees Bank Charges III. Cost of Production ( II + E ) F. Selling and Distribution Overheads Showroom rent and rates Salesmens salaries and commission Traveling expenses Printing and Stationery Sales Department Advertising Bad debts Postage Debt collection expenses Carriage outwards 16 Particulars Amount (Rs.) Amount (Rs.) Depreciation of delivery van Debt collection expenses

Samples and free gifts IV. Cost of Sales ( III + F ) V. Profi t/Loss VI. Sales ( IV + V) A glance at the above cost sheet will reveal that it works out the total cost of production/service in a phased manner. In other words, total costs are segregated into elements like Prime Cost, Factory or Works Cost, Cost of Production, Cost of Sales and fi nally the profi t/loss is worked out by comparing the total cost with the selling price. Appropriate adjustments are made for opening and closing stock of Work in Progress and also opening and closing stock of fi nished goods. The format of cost sheet may be suitably changed according to the requirements of each fi rm but the basic form remains the same. 1.3.13 Cost Control and Reduction :- One of the important functions of cost accounting is cost control and cost reduction. Cost control implies various actions taken in order to ensure that the cost do not rise beyond a particular level while cost reduction means reducing the existing cost of production. Both these concepts are discussed below. Cost Control :- As mentioned above, cost control means keeping the expenses within limits or control. Cost control has the following features. A. Cost control is a continuous process. It involves setting standards and budgets for deciding targets of different expenses and constant comparison of actual the budgeted and standards. B. Cost control involves creation of responsibilities center with clearly defi ned authorities and responsibilities. C. It also involves, timely cost control reports showing the variances between standard and actual performance. D. Motivating and encouraging employees to accomplish budgetary goals is also one of the essential aspects of cost control. E. Actually cost control not only means monetary limits on cost but it also involves optimum utilization of resources or performing the same job at same cost. Cost Reduction :- Cost control means attempts to reduce the costs. For example, if the present costs are Rs. 1,000 per unit, attempts can be made to reduce it to bring it down below Rs. 1,000. For doing this, all out efforts will have to be made for achieving this target. The goal of cost reduction can be achieved in two ways, fi rst is reducing the cost per unit and the second one is increasing

productivity. Reducing wastages, improving effi ciency, searching for alternative materials, and a constant drive to reduce costs, can effect cost reduction. The following tools and techniques are normally used for cost reduction. A. Value analysis or value engineering. B. Setting standards for all elements of costs and constant comparison of actual with standard and analysis of variances.

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C. Work study D. Job evaluation and merit rating E. Quality control F. Use of techniques like Economic Order Quantity G. Classifi cation and codifi cation H. Standardization and simplifi cation I. Inventory management J. Benchmarking K. Standardization L. Business Process Re-engineering. 14 Cost Management :- The term Cost Management has not been defi ned as such. However it can be said that cost management identifi es, collects, measures, classifi es and reports information that is useful to managers and other internal users in cost ascertainment, planning, controlling and decision making. Cost management aims to produce and provide information to internal users and personnel working in the organization. Need for Cost Management :- Effective management of cost makes an organization more strong, more stable and helps in improving the potentials of a business. The organization calls for a system that would monitor the full economic impact of the business, on resource acquisition and consumption. This provides supplying of information to the top management for exploring various alternatives by which cost effectiveness can be improved. Cost management also helps in optimizing resources which will improve overall effi ciency of the organization and help the fi rm to achieve its objectives. 1.3.15 Difference between Cost Accounting and Financial Accounting The distinguishing features of fi nancial accounting and cost accounting are given below. Financial Accounting Cost Accounting 1. It aims at fi nding out results of accounting year in the form of Profi t and Loss Account and Balance Sheet. 1. It aims at computing cost of production/

service in a scientifi c manner and then cost control and cost reduction. 2. It is more attached with reporting the results and position of business to persons and authorities other than management like government, creditors, investors, owners etc. 2. It is an internal reporting system for an organizations own management for decision making. 3. Financial Accounting data is historical in nature 3. It not only deals with historical data but is also futuristic in approach. 4. In fi nancial accounting, the major emphasis is in cost classifi cation based on type of transactions, e.g. salaries, repairs, insurance, stores etc. 4. In cost accounting, classifi cation is basically on the basis of functions, activities, products, process and on internal planning and control and information needs of the organization. 18 Financial Accounting Cost Accounting 5. In fi nancial accounting, only those transactions are recorded which can be expressed in monetary terms. 5. Cost accounting uses both monetary as well as quantitative information. 6. It aims at presenting true and fair view of the profi t and loss position as well as fi nancial position. 6. It aims at computing true and fair view of the cost of production/services offered by the fi rm. 7. Financial Accounts are subject to statutory audit to verify whether they disclose a true and fair view of the profi t and loss as well as fi nancial position 7. Cost accounts are subject to cost audit which verifi es whether the cost accounts disclose true and fair view of the cost of production of the company. 1.3.16 Installation of a Costing System :- As explained above, cost accounting system is a system that accumulates costs, assigns them to cost objects and reports cost information. In addition to this, a proper cost accounting system assists management in the planning and control of the business operations as well as in analyzing product profi tability. There are several other advantages of a

well defi ned costing system in an organization like generating information for decision making, supplying information to the management for internal control, detailed analysis of costs like fi xed costs, variable costs, controllable costs, labor costs, material costs, overheads etc. However it is necessary that the cost accounting system is properly installed in an organization. Costing system installed in an organization should be simple to understand, easy to operate, highly reliable and suitable to the organization. The following factors should be taken into consideration while designing a costing system. I. Size of the fi rm :- Size of the fi rm is an extremely important factor in designing a cost accounting system. As the size of the fi rm and its business grows, the volume and complexity of the cost data also grows. In such situation, the cost accounting system should be capable of supplying such information. II. Manufacturing Process :- Process of manufacturer changes from industry to industry. In some industries, there may be a continuous process of production while in some batch or job type of production may be in operation. A cost accounting system should be such that the manufacturing process is taken into consideration and cost data is collected accordingly. III. Nature and Number of Products :- If a single product is produced, all costs like material, labor and indirect expenses can be directly allocated to that product. But if more than one product is manufactured, the question of allocation and apportionment as well as absorption of indirect expenses ( Overheads ) arises and hence the cost accounting system should be designed accordingly as more complex data will be required. IV. Management Control Needs :- The designing of a cost accounting system in a business organization is guided by the management control requirements. The costing system should supply data to persons at different levels in the organization to take suitable action in their respective areas. V. Raw Materials :- The designing of a cost accounting system in a business is also guided by the raw materials required for the production. The nature of raw materials and the degree of waste therein infl uence the designing of costing system. There are some materials which have a high degree of spoilage. The costing system should be such that identifi cation of spoilage,

keeping records of materials, pricing of the issues etc are taken into consideration.

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Cost and Management Accounting

VI. Organization Structure :- The structure of the organization also plays a vital role in designing a costing system. The system should correspond to the hierarchy of the organization. VII. External Factors :- External factors are also important in designing of a costing system. For example, Cost Accounting Record Rules have been mandatory for certain types of industries. For the sake of compliance of the same, costing system should be designed. 1.3.17 Practical Diffi culties in Installation of Costing system :- The practical diffi culties expected at the time of installation of costing system are given below. I. Top Management of an organization may not give necessary support and recognition to the costing system installed in an organization. Due to lack of support, this system may not give desired results. II. There may be resistance from existing accounting staff due to fear of losing job recognition and importance after the implementation of the system. III. Employees of other departments may not co-operate for installation of costing system due to fear of increase in workload or revealing of ineffi ciency. IV. The foremen, supervisors, workers and other operating level staff may resent the introduction of costing system due to the fear on increasing of workload. V. Shortage of qualifi ed and effi cient staff may be another diffi culty in installing and operating a costing system. VI. Sometimes fi rms resist a costing system due to the heavy cost of installation and operating of the same. The cost may be more than the benefi ts of the same.

4 Management Accounting
Introduction :- The scope of Management Accounting is broader than the scope of cost accounting. In cost accounting, as we have seen, the primary emphasis is on cost and it deals with collection, analysis, relevance, interpretation and presentation for various problems of management. Management Accounting is an accounting system which will help the Management to improve its efficiency. The main thrust of Management Accounting is towards determining policy and formulating plans to achieve desired objectives of management. It helps the Management in planning, controlling and analyzing the performance of the organization in order to follow the path of continuous improvement. Management Accounting utilizes the principle and practices of financial accounting and cost accounting in addition to other modern management techniques for effective operation of a company. In fact there is an overlapping in various areas of cost accounting and management accounting. However, the distinguishing features of

Management Accounting are given below.

5 Features of Management Accounting

The features of Management Accounting are given below. 1. The Management Accounting data are derived from both, the financial accounting and cost accounting. 2. The main thrust in management accounting is towards determining policy and formulating plans to achieve desired objectives of management. 3. Management Accounting makes corporate planning and strategy effective and meaningful. 4. It is concerned with short and long range planning and uses highly sophisticated techniques like sensitivity analysis, probability techniques, decision tree, ratio analysis etc for planning, control and evaluation. 5. It is futuristic in approach and predictive in nature. 6. Management Accounting system cannot be installed without proper cost accounting system. 7. Management Accounting systems generate various reports which are extremely useful from the Management point of view.

1.6 Management Accounting Information and their use

In the above paragraphs, we have seen the utility of Management Accounting. One of the distinguishing factors between the fi nancial accounting and management accounting is that the management accounting does not have a unifi ed structure. The format in which it is prepared varies widely according to the circumstances in each case and the purpose for which the information is being summarized. The management accounting generates information, which is used for three different purposes. I] Measurement II] Control and III] Decision making [Alternative choice problems] For each of these purposes, management accounting generates vital information. The uses of information for each of the three purposes of management accounting is explained below. I. Measurement: For measurement of full costs, the management accounting system focuses on the measurement of full costs. Full costs are the total costs required for producing goods or offering services. These costs are divided into A] Direct costs and B] Indirect costs. Direct costs are identifi able or traceable to the products or services offered while indirect costs are not traceable to the products or services. Full cost accounting measures not only the total costs [direct plus indirect costs] required for producing products or services but also the full costs required to run other activity like conducting a research project or running a welfare scheme and so on. Thus full cost accounting is not restricted to solely to measure the cost of manufacturing. II. Control: An important aspect of the management accounting information is to provide information, which can be used for Control. The management accounting system is structured in such a manner that information is generated for each Responsibility Center. A responsibility center is an organization unit headed by a manager who is responsible for its operations and performance. Management accounting helps to prepare budget for each responsibility center and also facilitates comparison between the budgeted and actual results. A report is prepared for each responsibility center, which shows the budgeted and actual performance and also the difference between the two. This enables the performance analysis of each responsibility center so that proper corrective action can be taken in this respect. III. Decision Making: Management accounting generates useful information for decision making. Management has to take several decisions in the course of business. Some of the major decisions are,

Make or Buy, Accepting or rejecting of an Export Order, Working of second shift, Fixation of selling price, Capital expenditure decisions, Increasing production capacity, Optimizing of Product Mix and so on. For all these decisions, providing of information is necessary and the management accounting generates this information, which enables the management to take such decisions.

7 Role of Management Accountancy

The role of management accounting and financial accounting is quite different from each other as they have different goals altogether. Management Accounting measures, analyzes and reports financial and non financial information that helps managers to take decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization. Managers use management accounting information to choose, communicate and implement strategy. They also use management accounting information to coordinate product design, production and marketing decisions. Management accounting focuses on internal reporting. The following points highlight the role played by Management Accounting in the business organization. I. Implementing Strategy: Managers implement strategies by translating them into actions. Creating value for customers is an important part of planning and implementation of strategies. Strategic planning and implementation will include decisions regarding the design of products, services or processes, research and development, production, marketing, distribution and customer services. Each of this area is important for satisfying customers and keeping them satisfied. Management accounting will help to track the costs of each of the activity mentioned above. The ultimate target is to reduce costs in each category and to improve efficiency. Cost information also helps managers make cost benefit analysis. For example, managers can find out that is it cheaper to buy products from outside vendors or to do manufacturing in-house? Is it worthwhile to invest more resources in design and manufacturing if it reduces costs in marketing and customer service? II. Supply Chain Analysis: Companies can also implement strategy, cut costs and create value by enhancing their supply chain. The term Supply Chain describes the flow of goods, services and information from the initial sources of materials and services to the delivery of products to customers regardless of whether those activities occur in the same organization or in other organization. Customers expect improved performance from companies through the supply chain. They expect that the companies should perform all these activities in an efficient manner so as to reduce costs and also maintain quality of the products and the products be available easily for them. This is no doubt a daunting task and the management accounting plays a vital role in ensuring value for money for the customers. Tools like standard costing and target costing can be used effectively for cost control and cost reduction and thus ensure reasonable prices for customers. A system of budgets and budgetary control will ensure continuous planning and monitoring various functions and thus provide for introspection. Continuous improvement in these activities will help in creating value for customers. III. Decision Making: One of the important functions of management is decision making. Management Accounting helps in this crucial area by providing relevant information to the management. Techniques like marginal costing helps to generate information, which will be useful for taking decisions. Decisions include make or buy decisions, adding or dropping a product line, working of additional shift, shut down or continue operations, capital expenditure

decisions and so on. Decisions based on information are expected to be more rational and objective rather than subjective. IV. Performance Measurement: Management accounting helps immensely for the measurement of performance of the organization. The main aspect of performance measurement is comparison between the targets and actual. There are several tools and techniques like budgets and budgetary control, standard costing and marginal costing, which are used in measuring the actual performance against the target performance. This will facilitate introspection and corrective action can be taken for further improving the performance.

Methods of Costing - Job, Batch and Contract Costing 1 Introduction

As mentioned in the first chapter, the term costing refers to the techniques and processes of determining costs of a product manufactured or services rendered. The first stage in cost accounting is to ascertain the cost of the product offered or the services provided. In order to do the same, it is necessary to follow a particular method of ascertaining the cost. The methods of costing are applied in various business units to ascertain the cost of product or service offered. Different methods of costing are required to be used in different types of businesses. For example, costing methods used in a manufacturing business will differ from the methods used in a business that is offering services. Even in a manufacturing business, some business units may have production in a continuous process, i.e. output of a process is an input of the subsequent process and so on, while in some businesses production is done according to the requirements of customers and hence each job is different from the other one. Different methods of costing are used to suit these diverse requirements. These methods of costing are discussed in detail in this chapter.

2 Methods of Costing
As mentioned in the above paragraph, the methods of costing are used to ascertain the cost of product or service offered by a business organization. There are two principle methods of costing. These methods are as follows I] Job Costing II] Process Costing Other methods of costing are the variations of these two principle methods. The variations of these methods of costing are as follows. I] Job Costing: Batch Costing, Contract Costing, Multiple Costing. II] Process Costing: Unit or Single Output Costing, Operating Costing, Operation Costing The Job Costing and its variations are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs. I] Job Costing: This method of costing is used in Job Order Industries where the production is as per the requirements of the customer. In Job Order industries, the production is not on continuous basis, rather it is only when order from customers is received and that too as per the specifications of the customers. Consequently, each job can be different from the other one. Method used in such type of business organizations is the Job Costing or Job Order Costing. The objective of this method of costing is to work out the cost of each job by preparing the Job Cost Sheet. A job may be a product, unit, batch, sales order, project, contract, service, specific program or any other cost objective that is distinguishable clearly and unique in terms of materials and other services used. The cost of completed job will be the materials used for the job, the

direct labor employed for the same and the production overheads and other overheads if any charged to the job. The following are the features of job costing. _ It is a specific order costing _ A job is carried out or a product is produced is produced to meet the specific requirements of the order _ Job costing enables a business to ascertain the cost of a job on the basis of which quotation for the job may be given. _ While computing the cost, direct costs are charged to the job directly as they are traceable to the job. Indirect expenses i.e. overheads are charged to the job on some suitable basis. _ Each job completed may be different from other jobs and hence it is difficult to have standardization of controls and therefore more detailed supervision and control is necessary. _ At the end of the accounting period, work in progress may or may not exist.

3 Methodology used in Job Costing

As discussed above, the objective of job costing is to ascertain the cost of a job that is produced as per the requirements of the customers. Hence it is necessary to identify the costs associated with the job and present it in the form of job cost sheet for showing various types of costs. Various costs are recorded in the following manner. _ Direct Material Costs: Material used during the production process of a job and identified with the job is the direct material. The cost of such material consumed is the direct material cost. Direct material cost is identifiable with the job and is charged directly. The source document for ascertaining this cost is the material requisition slip from which the quantity of material consumed can be worked out. Cost of the same can be worked out according to any method of pricing of the issues like first in first out, last in first out or average method as per the policy of the organization. The actual material cost can be compared with standard cost to find out any variations between the two. However, as each job may be different from the other, standardization is difficult but efforts can be made for the same. _ Direct Labor Cost: This cost is also identifiable with a particular job and can be worked out with the help of Job Time Tickets which is a record of time spent by a worker on a particular job. The job time ticket has the record of starting time and completion time of the job and the time required for the job can be worked out easily from the same. Calculation of wages can be done by multiplying the time spent by the hourly rate. Here also standards can be set for the time as well as the rate so that comparison between the standard cost and actual cost can be very useful. _ Direct Expenses: Direct expenses are chargeable directly to the concerned job. The invoices or any other document can be marked with the number of job and thus the amount of direct expenses can be ascertained. _ Overheads: This is really a challenging task as the overheads are all indirect expenses incurred for the job. Because of their nature, overheads cannot be identified with the job and so they are apportioned to a particular job on some suitable basis. Pre determined rates of absorption of overheads are generally used for charging the overheads. This is done on the basis of the budgeted data. If the predetermined rates are used, under/over absorption of overheads is inevitable and hence rectification of the same becomes necessary. _ Work in Progress: On the completion of a job, the total cost is worked out by adding the overhead expenses in the direct cost. In other word, the overheads are added to the prime cost. The cost sheet is then marked as completed and proper entries are made in the finished goods ledger. If a job remains incomplete at the end of an accounting

period, the total cost incurred on the same becomes the cost of work in progress. The work in progress at the end of the accounting period becomes the closing work in progress and the same becomes the opening work in progress at the beginning of the next accounting period. A separate account for work in progress is maintained.

4 Advantages of Job Costing

The following are the advantages of job costing. _ Accurate information is available regarding the cost of the job completed and the profits generated from the same. _ Proper records are maintained regarding the material, labor and overheads so that a costing system is built up _ Useful cost data is generated from the point of view of management for proper control and analysis. _ Performance analysis with other jobs is possible by comparing the data of various jobs. However it should be remembered that each job completed may be different from the other. _ If standard costing system is in use, the actual cost of job can be compared with the standard to findout any deviation between the two. _ Some jobs are priced on the basis of cost plus basis. In such cases, a profit margin is added in the costof the job. In such situation, a customer will be willing to pay the price if the cost data is reliable. Jobcosting helps in maintaining this reliability and the data made available becomes credible.

5 Limitations of Job Costing

Job costing suffers from certain limitations. These are as follows. _ It is said that it is too time consuming and requires detailed record keeping. This makes the method more expensive. _ Record keeping for different jobs may prove complicated. _ Inefficiencies of the organization may be charged to a job though it may not be responsible for the same. In spite of the above limitations, it can be said that job costing is an extremely useful method for computation of the cost of a job. The limitation of time consuming can be removed by computerization and this can also reduce the complexity of the record keeping.

6 Format of Job Cost Sheet

II] Batch Costing: In the job costing, we have seen that the production is as per the orders of the customers and according to the specifications mentioned by them. On the other hand, batch costing is used where units of a product are manufactured in batches and used in the assembly of the fi nal product. Thus components of products like television, radio sets, air conditioners and other consumer goods are manufactured in batches to maintain uniformity in all respects. It is not possible here to manufacture as per the requirements of customers and hence rather than manufacturing a single unit, several units of the component are manufactured. For example, rather than manufacturing a single unit, it will be always beneficial to manufacture say, 75, 000 units of the component as it will reduce the cost of production substantially and also bring standardization in the quality and other aspects of the product. The finished units are held in stock and normal inventory control techniques are used for controlling the inventory. Batch number is given to each batch manufactured and accordingly the cost is worked out.

Costing procedure in batch costing is more or less similar to the job costing in the sense that cost is worked out for each batch rather than job. Direct costs like direct materials, direct labor and direct expenses are charged directly to the job as they are traceable to the job. The source documents used for them are material requisitions, labor records and records pertaining to the direct expenses. Indirect costs, i.e. overheads are allocated or apportioned to the batch on some suitable basis. Thus a batch cost sheet is prepared to show the total cost of the batch. One of the important aspects of batch type production is to decide the batch size. Actually the determination of appropriate batch size of the production has conflicting views. If production is produced in large quantities, the impact of the setting up cost will be lower as the setting up cost is fixed per batch. But on the other hand if the production quantity is large, the inventory carrying cost will be high as more inventory will have to be carried over in the store. The carrying cost of the inventory includes cost of storage, risk of pilferage, spoilage, obsolescence and interest on the investments blocked in the inventories. Therefore the size of the batch should not be either too small or too large. On the basis of a trade off between large size and small size, an appropriate size of the batch should be decided. This batch size is known as Economic Batch Quantity that is similar to the concept of Economic Order Quantity. This quantity is determined with the help of the following formula. Economic Batch Quantity = 2AS/C Where A = Annual requirements of the product S = Setting up cost per batch C = Carrying cost per unit of inventory per annum. III] Contract Costing: Contract Costing is a method used in construction industry to fi nd out the cost and profit of a particular construction assignment. The principles of job costing are also applicable in contract costing. In fact Contract Costing can be termed as an extension of Job Costing as each contract is nothing but a job completed. Contract Costing is used by concerns like construction firms, civil engineering contractors, and engineering fi rms. One of the important features of contract costing is that most of the expenses can be traced to a particular contract. Those expenses that cannot be traced to a particular contract are apportioned to the contract on some suitable basis. The cost computation in case of a contract is done on the following basis. A. Material Cost: Direct Material required for a particular contract is debited to the Contract Account. There may be some quantity of material which is returned back to the store. In such cases, material returned note is prepared and is either credited to the Contract Account or deducted from the material debited to the Contract Account. Similar treatment is given to the material transferred from one contract to another one. Material Transfer Note is prepared to record these transactions of transfer. Material remaining at the site at the end of a particular accounting period is shown as closing stock after valuation of the same and carried forward to the next period. B. Labor Cost: Wages paid to the workers engaged on a particular contract should be charged to that contract irrespective of the work performed by them. If there are common workers on more than one contract and/or if the workers are transferred from one contract to the other contract, time sheets must be maintained and wages may be distributed on the basis of time spent on each contract. Some of the workers may be working in the central offi ce or central stores, their wages can be apportioned to a particular contract on suitable basis like time spent etc. C. Expenses: All expenses incurred for a particular contract should be charged to that contract. In case of any indirect expenses incurred for the organization as a whole, they

should be charged to the contract on some suitable basis. Direct expenses can be charged directly to the contract. D. Plant and Machinery: Depreciation on the plant and machinery used for the contract is to be charged to the contract account. The depreciation may be charged on any of the following basis. _ If a plant is specially purchased for a particular contract and is expected to be used for the contract for long time, thus being exhausted at site, the total cost of the plant will be debited to the contract account. After the completion of the contract, if it is no longer required, it will be sold at the site itself and the sale proceeds are credited to the contract account. If it is not sold, the contract is credited with the depreciated [revalued amount] value]. Thus the amount of depreciation is debited to the contract account. The main drawback of this method is that the debit side of the contract account is unnecessarily infl ated with the cost of the plant value and thus the cost of contract is shown very high. For removing this drawback, the difference between the original cost at the commencement of the contract and the depreciated value at the end of the period is worked out and charged to the contract account as depreciation. _ If a plant is used for a contract for a short period, there is no need of debiting the cost of the plant to the contract account. The amount of depreciation is worked out on the basis of per hour and charged to the contract on that basis. The hourly rate is calculated by dividing the depreciation and other operating expenses of the plant by the total estimated working hours of the plant. _ Sometimes plants may be taken on hire for a particular contract. In such cases the amount of rent paid should be debited to the contract account. V. Subcontract: Sometimes due to certain situations, a sub contractor is appointed to carry out certain special work for the main contract. This special work done by the sub contractor becomes a direct charge to the main contract and accordingly debited to the contract account. The payments made to the sub contractor are charged to the main contract as direct expenses and no detailed break up of the same is required. Material supplied to the sub contractor without any charge, is debited to the contract account as direct material and machinery, tools etc supplied to him on rent should be depreciated on appropriate basis and debited to the contract account. Rent received for the use of such tools and machines should be credited to the contract account or deducted from the final bill of the sub contractor. VI. Additional Work: Sometimes additional work may be necessary in addition to the work originally contracted for. This forms a separate charge and if the amount involved is large, a subsidiary contract is generally entered into with the contract. VII. Special Aspects Of Contract Account: There are certain special aspects of contract accounts. These are discussed below. _ Certified Work: In contracts which are expected to continue for a long period of time, it is a normal practice that the contractor obtains certain sums from the contractee from time to time. This is done on the value of contract completed and certified by the architect/surveyor appointed by the contractee. The amount received by the contractor is not 100% of the value of the work certified but is less than the same, as the balance amount is kept as retention money. For recording this transaction, any of the following two methods may be used. I. In the fi rst method, the contract account is credited with the value mentioned in the certificate and personal account of the contractee is debited. Cash received is credited with the contractees account and the balance is shown as a debtor representing the retention money. II. In the second method, the contract account is credited with the value of the certificate and the

contractees account is debited with amount payable immediately and a special retention money account is debited with the amount so retained. _ Treatment of Profit on incomplete Profit: Several contracts take more time than one financial year before they are complete. The questions arises as to whether the profits on such contracts should be taken into consideration after the completion of the contract or whether a portion of the same should be taken into accounts every year on certain basis. If profit is taken into consideration after the completion of contracts and if in a single year several contracts are completed, the profits shown will be very high while in another year, if none of the contracts are completed, amount of profits shown will be very low. Thus there will be distortions in the amount of profits. Therefore it becomes necessary to compute the amount of profit on partly completed contracts and take credit of appropriate amount in the profit and loss account by using the following guidelines. _ Value of certified work only should be taken into consideration while determining the profit. Value of work not certified should not be taken into consideration. _ In case of contracts which are less than 25% complete, no profits should be taken into consideration and consequently no credit should be taken to Profit and Loss Account. _ In case of contracts which are more than 25% complete, but less than 50% complete, the following method should be used for computing the profit to be credited to the Profit and Loss Account. 1/3 _ Notional Profit/ Cash Received/Work Certified. Notional profit is the difference between the value of work certified and cost of work certified. It is computed in the following manner. Notional Profit = Value of work certified [cost of work to date cost of work completed but not certified] _ In case of contracts complete between 50% and 90% [more than 50% but less than 90%] the following method is used for computing the profit to be credited to the Profit and Loss Account. 2/3 _ Notional Profit X Cash Received/Work Certified _ In case of contracts completed 90% or more than that, it is considered to be almost complete. In such cases, the estimated total profit is first determined by deducting the total costs to date and additional expenditure necessary to complete the contract from the contract price. The portion of profit so arrived is credited to the Profit and Loss Account by using the following formula. _ Method I:- Estimated Profit _ Work Certified /Contract Price _ Method II:- Estimated Profit _ Work Certified /Contract Price _ Cash Received/Work Certified or Estimated Prof t _ Cash Received/Work Certified. The method II is preferable to the first one. In case, additional expenditure to complete the contract not mentioned, the amount of profit to be transferred to the Prof t and Loss Account is determined using the following formula. _ Notional Profit _ Work Certified/Contract Price

Reconciliation of Cost and Financial Accounts 1 Introduction

In financial accounting, a bank reconciliation statement is prepared to reconcile between the bank balance as shown by the pass- book and cash- book of a business organization. This statement is prepared when there is a difference between the balances as shown by both these books. On the same principle, a reconciliation statement is prepared in cost accounts for reconciling the profits shown by the cost accounts and financial accounts. Obviously this is required when the profits shown by both the methods differ. Profit shown by the cost accounts and financial accounts differ when accounts are kept on non-integrated system, which means that cost accounts and financial accounts are prepared separately and independently of each other. In such a case, profit disclosed by one accounting system will differ from the profit shown by the other and need for reconciliation will arise. The reasons for this difference and the method of preparing the reconciliation is discussed in this chapter.

2 Reasons for Difference in Profit

The profit shown by financial accounts and cost accounts differ on account of the following reasons. I] Items of Financial Nature not recorded in Cost Accounts: The following items are not recorded in cost as they are of purely financial nature and consequently the profits differ as these items are recorded in the financial accounts. _ Interest received on bank deposits. _ Dividend, interest received on investments. _ Rent received _ Losses on sale of assets _ Bad debts written off, recovered _ Transfer fees received _ Interest on proprietors capital _ Fines and penalties payable _ Compensation payable. II] Items Charged to Profit and Loss Account but not Recorded in Cost Accounts: The following items are found in the cost accounts but not recorded in the financial accounts. _ Corporate taxes _ Appropriations out of profits, such as transfer of profits to reserves _ Certain payments like dividend _ Additional provisions of depreciation _ Certain amounts written off such as goodwill, patents, preliminary expenses, underwriting commission etc. III] Items Peculiar in Cost Accounts: The items described below are peculiar in cost accounts while their treatment in financial accounts is different. Hence there is a difference between the profi ts shown by both the systems 233

Cost and Management Accounting

_ Overheads: In cost accounts, overheads are finally absorbed in the products by computing the predetermined rate of absorption. In such cases, there may be under/over absorption of overheads. This means that the overheads actually incurred will not tally with the overheads charged to the product. In financial accounts overheads are always taken at actual basis irrespective of under/over absorption of the same. In such cases the profits shown by both the systems will differ. However, if the under/over absorbed overheads are charged to the costing profit and loss account, the profits shown by financial accounts and cost accounts will not differ.

_ Valuation of Closing Stock and Work-in-Progress: The principle of valuation of closing stock in financial statements is cost price or market price whichever is less. However, in cost accounts, valuation of closing stock may be made on the basis of marginal costing where only the variable costs are taken into consideration while valuing the closing stock. Thus the closing stock valuation may differ. Work-in-Progress in cost accounts is often valued on the basis of prime cost and sometimes variable manufacturing overheads are added in the same. On the other hand, in financial accounting, work-in-progress may be valued after taking into consideration administrative expenses also. Due to this difference in valuation, profits shown by cost accounts and financial accounts differ. _ Abnormal Losses and Gains: In cost accounts, abnormal losses and gains are computed and transferred to the Costing Profit and Loss A/c. No such computation is made in the financial accounts. This results in difference between the profits shown by cost accounts and financial accounts.

10.3 Methodology for Preparing Reconciliation Statement

Reconciliation between the profits shown by cost accounts and financial accounts is made by the same method as is followed in the Bank Reconciliation Statement. Beginning to this statement may be made from either the profits as per the financial accounts or cost accounts. The items, which are responsible for the difference between the two are either added or deducted from the profits taken in the beginning. After addition or deduction, the profit as shown by the other method is arrived at. Thus if the beginning is made from profits as shown by cost accounts, we will arrive at the profits as shown by the financial accounts and vice versa. The following steps are to be taken for preparing this statement. _ The starting point may be either profit shown by cost accounts or financial accounts. _ If the profit as taken in the beginning is reduced due to the various causes given, these items should be added in the profits. _ If the profit as taken in the beginning is increased due to the various causes given, these items should be deducted from the profits. _ After completion of these additions and deductions, we will arrive at the profi t as shown by the other system, i.e. if profits as per cost accounts is taken in the beginning, we will arrive at the profi t as shown by financial accounts and vice versa. Reconciliation of Cost and Financial Accounts Problems and Solutions 1. Prepare a Reconciliation Statement from the following particulars: Particulars Amount Rs. Profi t as per cost accounts 2, 91, 000 Works overheads under-recovered 19, 000 Administration overheads under - recovered 45, 500 Selling overheads over - recovered 39, 000 Overvaluation of opening stock in cost accounts 30, 000 Overvaluation of closing stock in cost accounts 15, 000 Interest earned during the year 7, 500 Rent received during the year 54, 000 Bad debts written off during the year 18, 000 Preliminary expenses written off during the year 36, 000 Profi t as per fi nancial accounts 2,88,000 Solution: Reconciliation Statement Particulars Amount Rs. Amount Rs. Profi t as per cost accounts 2, 91, 000 Add:

_ Over-recovery of selling overheads _ Over-valuation of opening stock in cost accounts _ Interest earned not recorded in cost a/cs _ Rent received not recorded in cost a/cs _ Total 39, 000 30, 000 7, 500 54, 000 1, 30, 500 Total 4, 21, 500 Less: _ Under recovery of work overheads _ Under recovery of administrative overheads _ Over-valuation of closing stock in cost a/cs _ Bad debts not recorded in cost a/cs _ Preliminary expenses written off not recorded in cost a/cs _ Total 19, 000 45, 500 15, 000 18, 000 36, 000 1, 33, 500 Profi t as per Financial Accounts 2, 88, 000 235

Cost and Management Accounting

2. The following information is available from the fi nancial books of a company having a normal production capacity of 60, 000 units for the year ended 31st March 2007. a) Sales Rs.10, 00, 000 [50, 000 units] b) There was no opening and closing of fi nished units. c) Direct material and direct wages cost were Rs.5, 00, 000 and Rs.2, 50, 000 respectively d) Actual factory expenses were Rs.1, 50, 000 of which 60% are fi xed e) Actual administration expenses were Rs.45, 000, which are completely fi xed. f) Actual selling and distribution expenses were Rs.30, 000 out of which, 40% are fi xed. g) Interest and dividends received Rs.15, 000. You are required to, A. Find out profi ts as per fi nancial books for the year ended 31st March 2007. B. Prepare cost sheet and ascertain the profi t as per the cost accounts for the year ended 31st March 2007. C. Prepare a statement reconciling profi ts shown by fi nancial and cost books. Solution: A] Computation of Profi t as per Financial Accounts Profi t and Loss A/c For the Year ended 31st March 2007 Debit Credit Particulars Amount Rs. Particulars Amount Rs. To Direct Material 5, 00, 000 By Sales 50, 000 units 10, 00, 000

To Direct Wages 2, 50, 000 By Interest & Dividends 15, 000 To Factory Expenses 1, 50, 000 To Administrative Expenses 45, 000 To Selling & Distribution Expenses 30, 000 To Net Profi t 40, 000 Total 10, 15, 000 Total 10, 15, 000

Reconciliation of Cost and Financial Accounts

236

B] Cost Sheet Particulars Amount Rs. Amount Rs. _ Direct Materials _ Direct Wages 5, 00, 000 2, 50, 000 Prime Cost 7, 50, 000 _ Factory Overheads _ Variable _ Fixed: Rs.90, 000 X 5/6 _ Total 60, 000 75, 000 1, 35, 000 Works Cost 8, 85, 000 _ Administrative Expenses: Rs.45000 _ 5/6 37, 500 Cost of Production 9, 22, 500 _ Selling & Distribution Overheads _ Variable _ Fixed Rs.12, 000 _ 5/6 _ Total 18, 000 10, 000 28, 000 Cost of Sales 9, 50, 500 _ Profi t 49, 500 _ Sales 10, 00, 000 C] Statement of Reconciliation Particulars Amount Rs. Amount Rs. Profi t as per Cost Accounts 49, 500 Add: Income from interest and dividends excluded in Cost Accounts 15, 000 15, 000 Total 64, 500 237

Cost and Management Accounting

Particulars Amount Rs. Amount Rs. Less: Factory overheads undercharged in Cost Accounts Administrative overheads undercharged in Cost Accounts

Selling & Distribution overheads undercharged in Cost Accounts Total 15, 000 7, 500 2, 000 24, 500 Profi ts as per Financial Accounts 40, 000 3. From the following particulars, prepare a] A statement of cost of manufacture for the year, b] A statement of profi t as per cost accounts c] Profi t and Loss Accounts in fi nancial books and, d] Reconciliation of the difference in the profi ts as shown by b] and c] above, Opening stock of raw materials: Rs.1, 00, 000 Closing stock of raw materials: Rs.1, 50, 000 Opening stock of fi nished product: Rs.2, 00, 000 Closing stock of fi nished product: Rs.50, 000 Purchases of raw materials: Rs.6, 00, 000 Wages: Rs.2, 50, 000 Charge factory overhead at 25% on prime cost. Offi ce overheads will be levied at 75% on factory overheads. Actual works expenditure amounted to Rs.1, 93, 750 and actual offi ce expenses amounted to Rs.1, 52, 500. The selling price was fi xed at 25% above cost price. Solution: A] Statement of Cost of Production Particulars Amount Rs. Amount Rs. Material consumed: Opening Stock Add: Purchases Less: Closing Stock 1, 00, 000 6, 00, 000 1, 50, 000 5, 50, 000 Wages 2, 50, 000

Reconciliation of Cost and Financial Accounts

238

Particulars Amount Rs. Amount Rs. Prime Cost [Material consumed + wages] 8, 00, 000 Factory overheads 25% on prime cost 2, 00, 000 Works Cost 10, 00, 000 Offi ce Overheads 75% on factory overheads 1, 50, 000 Cost of Production 11, 50, 000 B] Statement Showing Profi t as per Cost Accounts Particulars Amount Rs. Opening Stock fi nished goods 2, 00, 000 Add: Cost of production [Statement A] 11, 50, 000 13, 50, 000 Less: Closing stock fi nished goods 50, 000 Cost of goods sold 13, 00, 000 Profi t 25% on cost 3, 25, 000 Sales 16, 25, 000

C] Profi t and Loss Account- [Financial Books] Debit Credit Particulars Amount Rs. Particulars Amount Rs. To Opening Stock Raw Material Finished Stock 1, 00, 000 2, 00, 000 By Sales 16, 25, 000 To Purchases 6, 00, 000 By Closing Stock Raw Materials Finished Stock 1, 50, 000 50, 000 To Wages 2, 50, 000 To Works Expenditure 1, 93, 750 To Offi ce Expenses 1, 52, 500 To Profi t 3, 28, 750 Total 18, 25, 000 Total 18, 25, 000 239

Cost and Management Accounting

D] Statement of Reconciliation of Profi t Particulars Amount Rs. Profi t as per Financial Books 3, 28, 750 Add: Offi ce overheads under-absorbed in cost accounts 2, 500 Total 3, 31, 250 Less: Factory overheads over-absorbed in cost accounts [Rs.2, 00, 000 Rs.1, 93, 750] 6, 250 Profi t as per Cost Accounts 3, 25, 000 4. The Profi t and Loss A/c of XYZ Ltd. for the year ended 31st March, 2007 was as follows: Profi t and Loss A/c for the Year ended 31st March 2007 Debit Credit Particulars Amount Rs. Particulars Amount Rs. To Materials 4, 80, 000 By Sales 9, 60, 000 To Wages 3, 60, 000 By Work-in-progress To Direct Expenses 2, 40, 000 Materials 30, 000 To Gross Profi t 1, 20, 000 Wages 18, 000 Direct Expenses 12, 000 By Closing Stock 1, 80, 000 Total 12, 00, 000 Total 12, 00, 000 To Administration Expenses 60, 000 By Gross Profi t 1, 20, 000 To Net Profi t 66, 000 By Dividends Received 6, 000 Total 1, 26, 000 Total 1, 26, 000 As per the cost records, the direct expenses have been estimated at a cost of Rs.30 per kg and administration expenses at Rs.15 per kg. During the year production was 6000 kg and sales were 4 800 kg.

Question Bank Reconciliation

A. Essay Type 1. Explain the need for reconciliation of cost and fi nancial accounts. 2. Explain the importance of reconciliation of cost and fi nancial accounts. Mention four items of expenses or incomes, which will appear in fi nancial accounts but normally appear in cost accounts. 3. Why is a reconciliation of cost and fi nancial accounts necessary? Under what circumstances a reconciliation statement can be avoided? 4. At the end of an accounting period, it is found that the profi t as shown in the fi nancial accounts falls considerably short of the profi ts according to the cost accounts. Indicate how the discrepancy may have arisen. 5. Indicate the reasons why it is necessary for the cost and fi nancial accounts organization to be reconciled and explain the main sources of difference, which would enter into such a reconciliation. B] Indicate whether the following statements are True or False 1. Under non-integral system, cost and fi nancial accounts do not need to be reconciled. 2. Reconciliation of cost and fi nancial accounts ensures the accuracy of the two sets of accounts. 3. Profi t or loss on sale of fi xed assets is included only in fi nancial accounts but not in cost accounts. 4. Under absorption of overhead results in higher amount of profi ts. 5. Bad debts written off are not shown in the cost accounts.