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Overview of Structural Analysis Overall strategy: understand how to solve simple structural problems by hand and leverage this knowledge with computational tools to solve complicated problems. We will also use computational tools to validate simplifying assumptions. Tasks will include not only analysis, but optimization (design). o Chapter 1: Structural analysis overview: components, load, flow, role of analysis, fail safe vs. safe life o Airplane structures (many space structures are similar) Major components: spar, rib, skin, stringers, longheron, bulkhead, former, frame, etc. (more detail later, including interaction of the basic components) PICTURES (take directory!) Load flow Comment: Often the built-up structure behaves like a simple structural element (e.g. modeling of a wing as a beam). Often the behavior of the components of a complex structure is like simple structural elements. (e.g. uniaxial rods that form a truss) o Design and analysis (will show video later in semester Applegate & Homeyer) Process Uncertainties Fail safe vs safe life (balloon + tape demo) Factor of safety Tools of the structural analyst Books/proprietary design guides Statics, strength of materials Finite elements Experience/judgment Experimental results Analysis versus experimentation roles are changing! Need simple example! The Comet disaster (lack of accurate analysis tools) The Challenger disaster (environmental effect) Columbia disaster (damage + environmental effect)

Acknowledgements

Aircraft Structural Considerations

03/03/2011 Presented by: Steve Applegate

This presentation was originally developed by Byron Rodgers for instruction at Texas A&M. Frank Sauer expanded the content when he started giving the presentation after Byron passed away in 2007. Additional content on Damage Tolerance was recently added to the presentation with inputs from Ed Nichols.

Aircraft Design Considerations

Aircraft Structure
How does aircraft structure differ from other structure?
Weight Efficiency Weight is $ and performance To minimize weight the arrangement of structural members is optimized to ensure efficient loads paths. Aircraft structure consists of thin gage members that operate near buckling or in the post-buckled regime.
Buckling due to shear and/or compression loading may be allowed at very low load levels Post-Buckled behavior is the realm of aircraft stress analysis

-Determining the Aircraft arrangement requires inputs from various groups -It is the responsibility of the Stress group to ensure load paths for all items -Structural Arrangement is not always optimum -Compromises are necessary to meet all requirements
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Structural Considerations
The Structure Will Not Fail! - Not Under Any Static Design Ultimate Load Case
Ultimate Load Is Typically 1.5 * Limit Load Limit Load Is Most Severe Condition Expected To Be Encountered In Life Of The Fleet Safety Factor Covers Part Tolerances, Statistical Allowables, Load Exceedance, Environmental Degradation

What does a structural analyst do?

1. What is the load path? Where is load coming from, where does it want to go? Perhaps more basic: What is the load? 2. How do structural members carry the load? Tension, compression, bending, shear, torsion. How do you arrange the members efficiently? 3. How do those structural members, carrying those loads, fail? Many different failure modes - strength, stability, attachments, interactions 4. How do you calculate the failing load for those members, those loads? Getting the answer wrong on the first or third questions is most common cause of unexpected structural failure
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- Not After Repeated Loads Within The Lifetime Of The Vehicle The Structure Will Not Deflect Such That Something Does Not Work Anymore! - Inhibit or degrade mechanical operation or reduce clearances between moveable
parts.

- Affect aerodynamic characteristics or result in significant changes to the

distribution of external or internal loads. maintenance actions.

- Result in detrimental deformation: delamination, yield, or result in subsequent Structure Will Meet Specified Durability/ Damage Tolerance/ Fail Safety
Requirements.

- No Failures With Specified Damage Within Allowed Inspection Intervals

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Analysis and Sizing Steps

Understand Criteria, Requirements & Function Load Conditions and Environment Obtain Geometry / Establish Configuration Identify/Determine Internal Loads for Each Part Balance Loads & Reactions (free body diagrams) Develop Shear, Moment, and Axial Loads (and diagrams) Conduct Analyses/Sizing using Appropriate Loads, Methods, and Allowables
Criteria Requirements Objectives FARs MIL Specs SOW/PDS Configuration

Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements

Requirements Have Evolved With Experience/Lessons Learned
Flight Loads: Maneuver Gust Control Deflection Buffet Inertia Vibration Ground Loads: Vertical Load Factor Braking Bumps Turns Catapult Arrested Landing Aborted Takeoff Spin-Up Spring Back One Wheel/Two Wheel Towing Ground Winds Break Away Other Loads & Conditions: Fatigue Fail Safety Damage Tolerance Bird Strike Ditching Lightning Strike Windmilling Thermal Jacking Pressurization Power Plant Hail Ground Handling

External Loads Environments Pressures Inertia Thermal Acoustic

Document Throughout Process: Assumptions Geometry Used Internal Loads, Balances Analysis References, Etc.

Internal Loads Load Paths

Analysis Sizing

Methods Tests Allowables

Certification Reports

Specific Conditions are defined per: CFR14 Parts 23 and 25(FAR).Commercial (Subpart C = Structures) Mil-A-8860-8870 and SD-24L. Military
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Aircraft Structural Considerations

Different Objectives - Different Configurations - Similar Process Structural Arrangement is influenced by the type and size of the airplane

400 passengers 40 year service life All weather Maintainable Reliable Damage Tolerant
External Loads Environments Pressures Inertia Thermal Acoustic Criteria Requirements Objectives FARs MIL Specs SOW/PDS Configuration

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement

Stringer System (d > h)

Military Fighter/Attack Carrier Suitable Mach 2 nz = 7.5g

Two-Spars Stiffened skins many ribs

Internal Loads Load Paths

Analysis Sizing

Methods Tests Allowables

RPV Long Range Loiter XX Hours w/o refueling

Certification Reports

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement

Main Types of Wing Primary Structure

Thin Skin ( many stringers and ribs)

Stiffened Skin (many ribs)

Thick Skin ( many spars, few ribs) Fighters Thin Sections Unstiffened Skins Skin and Spar Chords Carry Bending Moment

Transports & Bombers Deep Sections Skin Supported by Stringers Carries Bending Moments

Section Bending Moments

Shear Tied Ribs @ Concentrated Load Locations

Stringers would not be efficient

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement

Frames @ Direction Changes in Load Carrying Members High Stiffness Wing

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement

Longeron System (d < h) Wing Fold

Longeron System (d < h) Frames @ Direction Changes in Load Carrying Members

Dielectric material

Multi-Spar (unstiffened skins, few ribs) Stub Ribs @ Spoiler Hinges

Multi-Spar (unstiffened skins, few ribs)

Frames @ Concentrated Load Points

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Frames @ Concentrated Load Points

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Internal Loads
Six Load Components and Five Distinct Types of Internal Loads

Internal Loads
Members Under Axial Tension Load Static Strength Size Net Tensile Stress < Ftu If Member is not Straight Will Generate Bending Moment Members Under Axial Compression Load Referred to as Columns Subject to Buckling Critical Load Depends on Length Cross-Sectional Shape Modulus of Elasticity End Restraint If Member is not Straight Will Generate Bending Moment Members Under Bending Moments Generally Referred to as Beams

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Axial Tension Axial Compression Bending Moments Shear Torsion

Uniform Axial Uniform Torsion

These may act individually as uniform or varying loads, or they may be present in various combinations

Varying Axial

Axial, Torsion, Bending and Shear

Examples of Internal Loads Each Member Must Be in Static Equilibrium!

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Internal Loads
Members Under Shear Load Effects Most Pronounced in Thin Panels Webs of Beams Skins of Fuselage, Wings and Tails Members Under Torsion Load Generally Closed Section Members (such as Tubes) are Used Open Section Members often Subjected to Torsion Members Under Combined Loads Failure Involves Interaction of the Effects of Loads In General, Appropriate Interaction Formulas are Applied Beam Columns

Internal Loads/Load Paths

Aircraft structure is designed to be light weight => Typically very thin gage Members are arranged to carry loads efficiently (in-plane)

shear webs axial members

Out-of-plane loads are carried to redistribution members where the loads are converted to inplane components Loads distribute and are reacted by the components that are best equipped to react them Stiffened Skin Panel

Body Panel

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Built-Up Spar

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Internal Loads/Load Paths

Load Paths in Wing/Stabilizer and Fuselage components Wing Bending Shear Torsion Concentrated Load Introduction Hold Contour & Support Stringers Skins and Stringers Spar Webs Skins and Spar Webs Ribs Fuselage Skins and Stringers Skins Skins Bulkheads

Internal Loads/Load Paths

So how do we get internal members to carry loads efficiently?
Lift CG Thrust Drag

Balance Load

Moment

Consider all load conditions and requirements

Weight

If the design envelope is not well understood there is a high probability that the structures limitations are not well understood Apply loads realistically Determine where they are going to be balanced

Develop a static load balance for each critical condition

Ribs

Frames

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Cut sections to determine local internal loads Provide a path for the loads to follow Load will follow stiffest path!

Do this for local loads as well as for general vehicle loads

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Note: Most members serve more than one function

Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements

Typical Commercial Transport Critical Static Load Conditions
Positive Dynamic Gust Positive Maneuver and Static Gust Negative Maneuver and Braking Aileron Roll Negative Maneuver Buffet Positive Checked Maneuver Gust Lateral Maneuver Negative Checked Maneuver Taxi Rudder Kick, Yaw Maneuver and Lateral Gust

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Idealize Wing as a Beam: Loaded by distributed pressure. Shear (Lift, V), Moment (Lift * Arm, M), and Torsion (Pitching Moment, T) (all about elastic axis) are beamed to fuselage and balance tail load, inertia, and other side wing load.
M T V
Typical VMT for Horizontal Stabilizer
Shear (10^3 lbs), Moment (10^5 in lbs), Torsion (10^5 in-lbs) 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 -50 Percent Semispan 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Shear (V) Moment (M) Torsion (T)

V
Elastic Axis

Cabin Pressure

Negative Gust Engine Blade Out

Different Load Conditions are Critical for Different Areas

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Example: Continuous Wing Assume all Weight and Inertia Supported at Wing Elastic Axis (No Tail Loads) Elliptical Distribution W = 40,000 lbs Load Factor = 6gs Determine: Maximum Ultimate Bending Moment Ultimate Support Loads at Fuselage attach Points
360"

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

P/2 Centroid of Area

b M0

Quarter Ellipse Properties: A =Area = 0.7854 ab y = 0.4244a a = 360"

25"

25" R = P/2

Total Wing Force (Ultimate): P = 40,000 lbs (6g)(1.5) = 360,000 lbs

W

Each Fuselage Attach Must Resist of the Total Load: R = 360,000 lbs/2 = 180,000 lbs Moment at BL 0.0 is M0 = P/2 * y R * 25 = 180,000 lbs * [0.4244*(360)] 180,000 lbs (25) = 20.0E+06 in-lbs
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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Covers and Spar Webs form a Closed Box to Resist Torsion Shear Carried Primarily by Spar Webs Bending Carried Primarily by Covers or Cover Stringers with Effective Skin

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

Ribs

React and distribute air/fuel pressure

loads

Shear Tied Rib

FLOOR FITTING FLOOR FITTING FLOOR FITTING FLOOR FITTING

React panel crushing loads React curvature loads Maintain wing/stabilizer chordwise
contour
h

Limit skin or skin/stringer column

length
AFT FITTING

MACHINED RIB

Up FORWARD FITTING Aft

May Act as Fuel Boundaries

Rear Spar
V M

Intermediate Rib
Stringer Tie Spar Tie Front Spar

V M T

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

Emergency Landing (Crashworthy) Fuel Loads
If the time T for fuel to flow from the upstream side of the barrier to fill a volume of air defined in the 1g flight condition is greater that 0.5 second, the internal baffle can be considered to be a solid pressure barrier. Conversely, an internal baffle may not be considered as a pressure boundary if the volume of air in the fuel cell downstream of the barrier is not adequate to meet the above criteria. In such cases, the pressures due to the hydrostatic fuel head must be calculated without consideration of this internal baffle.
Rib 2

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

Crushing Loads due to Wing Deflections (Brazier Loading) Reacted by Ribs Self Balancing (Do not Beam to Spars) Loads are Non-Linear

Rib 8

136.3"

83.0" 219.3"

P = 0.34 * K * L

(6.5 pound/gallon fuel density)

Fuel Loading - Roll Rate

r F = Mr2

Where: P = design pressure at location a; L = reference distance, feet, between the point of pressure and the farthest tank boundary in the direction of loading; K is defined in the table.
Loading Condition Forward Aft Inboard Outboard Downward Upward

P L1 P

P Q Q P L2

K 9 1.5 1.5 1.5 6 3

Q = PM (L1 + L2) EI 2

F = Mr

Crushing Loads on a Rib

= angular acceleration = angular velocity

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

Prib i = Pseg i * (sin 2 - sin 1 )i

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

1 , 2 are the "as built" angles Pseg i is load at ribi

Built-In Curvature Loads Gathered by Ribs and Beamed to Spars

External + Internal Pressures + Inertia

Stringer

Effective Area

2 Pseg i 1 Pseg i Prib i Rib Mid-span between ribs

Ribs

Covers
bs

Rib
Rib

Mid-span between ribs

Rib

Pressure + Inertia Loads

Pst g upr

Effective Area for Pressure Loads s = rib spacing bs = stringer spacing

Mid-span between ribs Mid-span between ribs Rib

Rib

Rib

HSRP

Prib i Pseg i

1 Pseg i 2

FRONT SPAR

Pstg lwr

REAR SPAR

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Ribs will Gather Loads and Beam to Spars

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Internal Loads/Load Paths Intermediate Ribs

Test Curvature Loads External Pressure andFlex + Taper Loads (RBS161.5) are Beamed to Ribs

Internal Loads/Load Paths Shear Tied Ribs

Internal + External Pressure, Inertia, Curvature, and Crushing Loads
.7 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.0 .8 1.0 1.3 1.6 5" .6 .4

Ribs redistribute pressure and inertia loads into cellular box structure.
qt qv

1112 789 929 927 1169

1260 1332

1987 1402 1594 1936 1995 1568 1931

645

653 657 681 655 729

FS
692

RS
15"
707 -1165 -1252 -1273 -1977 -1270 840 796 762 1094 877 948 984 972

V=19,200 #
10" 18" 21"

T=47,000 in-#
6.67" .1

14334 lbs
V

.3

.6

.9

.9 60"

.6

.6

.3

.1

7882 lbs 408,000 in-lbs

1.2

a. Applied Rib Loads (Load in 103 lbs) 3.3 3.0 2.4

Loads at Shear Center Balanced by Shear Flows

2.6

1.6

.7

q=-435 #/in

q=395 #/in

Pinned - Pinned 205,500 in-lbs

Fixity is Not Known. Typical Approach to Assume Both Simply Supported and Fully Fixed

S.C. V=19,200 #

T=47,000 in-#
Q=9275#

2.448" q=475 #/in

19,200 #

Q=8554#

.2

.6

1.1

.9

.8

.6

.2

q=-515 #/in q=-423 #/in q=383 #/in

b. Loads Resolved to Stiffeners and Reacted at Shear Center

Calculated Shear Flow Balance - Stiffened Skin

-218,800 in-lbs

Fixed - Fixed

-179,200 in-lbs

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

Ribs redistribute concentrated loads into cellular box structure.
Concentrated Loads
Engine Pylon
Front Spar Wing Elastic Axis

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Ribs

Trailing Edge and Control Surface Shear and Moment
L Rshear-tie P VFS VRS P a Rshear-tie h b V

Landing Gear Power Plant Fuselage Attachments Ailerons Flaps Ordnance

P = VL/h Rshear-tie = Ph/b VFS = -Rshear-tie b/a VRS = V + V FS

PP C.G.

Leading Edge and Trailing Edge Moments Balanced into Box by Ribs
Pst g upr

RP

FRONT SPAR

Pstg lwr

REAR SPAR

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Spars

Spars are Primarily Shear Beams 3 Basic Types of Spars
Fuel Loads Bird Strike Cost
Upright or Rib Post

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Spars

Web Type Spar
5.0" (5 PL)

Carry Wing Shear Loads With Covers, Carry Torsion React Local Concentrated Loads May Also Act as Fuel Boundaries
Exception to in-plane shear loading Fuel Pressures

Web Chord

Stiffened Web

Most Common Type (Usually Diagonal Tension) Light Weight/Low Cost Simple Internal Loads Poor Access Moderate to High Assembly Cost
Upper Chord

q1

q2

q3

20.0"

Chords: 2 Area =0.6 in 4 Iy =.20 in Web: t =0.1 in

Struts/Posts: 2 Area =0.45 in 4 Iy =.06 in q1 = 200 lbs/in q2 = 200 lbs/in q3 = 500 lbs/in

Example Geometry and Applied Loads

Thin Section Fighter Wing

L1

17500
Upper Sill

13000

9500

6000

2500

Sine wave
q = 900
L2
Rib Post

q=

900

q=

700

q=

700

q=

700

q=

500

Lower Sill

Lower Chord

q(applied) = 200

q(applied) = 200 9500

q(applied) = 500

wmax = (bs1/2 + bs2/2) * p

Framed Out Access Hole

bs1/2 + bs2/2
Chord Strut

17500

13000

6000

2500

Web Type Spar

Access
bs1

Truss Beam

For a shear beam, q = V/h (web shear flow) P = M/h (chord load) h = Distance between chord centroids 35 36

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Idealize the fuselage as a beam

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Bending moment is carried based on Mc/I distribution For a downward tail load, body will carry a shear and a bending moment

Lift
Crown Stringers / Longerons and skin carry tension loads due to bending moment

Balance Load

Moment

Weight

Lower Stringer / Longerons (with effective skin) carry compression axial loads due to bending moment

Keel Beam added to restore load path on lower surface (wing carry through and wheel well areas)

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Bruhn Section 21.12

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Crown Panel
d h d h

Longeron System d<h

Stringer System d>h

Stringers / Longerons carry axial loads Skins carry shear, torsion and tension Frames provided to reduce Stringer / Longeron column length

Frames also support cargo floor and passenger floor beams (react end loads into skins as shear) Seat rails run fore-aft and are supported by floor beams Skins carry shear load in-plane with VQ/I distribution Skins carry torsion load in-plane with T/2Aencl distribution

Floor beams tied to frames (react vertical load) and to a longitudinal beam to react forward loads (landing and crash)

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Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Body skins also carry external and compartment pressures as a membrane.

Preliminary Sizing
Considering How Little Time You Have, What Can You Do?
Develop External Loads Corners of V-N Diagram Provide Good Internal Load Paths Develop the Internal Loads at a Few Locations 2 Body Cuts Mc/(Ad2) VQ/(Ad2) or V/(h) T/(2Aencl) 2 Wing Cuts M/h Cover/Spar Cap Axial Loads Split V between spars (balance about SC or centroid) T/2Aencl Assume covers and outer spars carry all torsion Other, Special Locations e.g., Engine, LG, Payloads Size to Cut-Off Ultimate Stress or Strain Aluminum 40 ksi (compression) 40 ksi (tension) 25 ksi (shear) Advanced .004 in/in (compression) Composites .0045 in/in (tension)
Aencl is enclosed area
q = T/(2Aencl) T S.C.

Aencl

V - Va/L a

Va/L

For duel-lobe configurations, longitudinal beam (crease beam) and floor beams react out-of-plane load component at lobe intersection 41

A encl

42

What Do You Need to Consider?

You are responsible for assuring that the vehicle complies with all structural criteria and requirements. What would it take to convince you that the design was safe and should be certified? Are The External Loads Accurate And Complete? Are Good Internal Load Paths Provided? Load Paths Control Weight Efficiency of Structure Well Defined, Properly Placed Members Carry Load Efficiently Indirect, Poorly Defined Load Paths Not So Efficient Structural Arrangement (Load Paths) Are Not Always Optimum, Compromises Necessary to Meet All Requirements Are The Internal Loads Balanced For Each Component And Part? (Free Body Diagrams Are Best Way to Show This) Do The Material Allowables Meet The Criteria/Requirements? (Static Strength, D&DT, Thermal, Manufacturing/Processing Considerations) Does The Certification Basis Demonstrate Compliance With Criteria & Requirements Detail Analysis Notes Tests Reports
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Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements

Requirements Have Evolved With Experience/Lessons Learned
Flight Loads: Maneuver Gust Control Deflection Buffet Inertia Vibration Ground Loads: Vertical Load Factor Braking Bumps Turns Catapult Arrested Landing Aborted Takeoff Spin-Up Spring Back One Wheel/Two Wheel Towing Ground Winds Break Away Other Loads & Conditions: Fatigue Fail Safety Damage Tolerance Bird Strike Ditching Lightning Strike Windmilling Thermal Jacking Pressurization Power Plant Hail Ground Handling

Specific Conditions are defined per: CFR14 Parts 23 and 25(FAR).Commercial (Subpart C = Structures) Mil-A-8860-8870 and SD-24L. Military
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Engineering Requirements
One of the Great Laws of Engineeringand Life Good Judgment comes from Experience Experience comes from Bad Judgment If We Are Clever, We Try To Learn From Others Experience The Aviation Community Has Tried To Collect & Codify Its Experience

Evolution of Requirements

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Evolution of Requirements

Safe Life vs Fail-Safe

CFR 25.571 Amendment 25-0 12/24/64

http://accidents-ll.faa.gov/ll_main.cfm?TabID=1&LLID=28&LLTypeID=2
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12

Safe Life vs Fail-Safe

Fail-Safe vs Damage Tolerance

CFR 25.571 Amendment 25-45 12/1/78

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http://accidents-ll.faa.gov/ll_main.cfm?TabID=1&LLID=39&LLTypeID=2

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Damage Tolerance - Multi Site Damage

CFR 25.571 Amendment 25-96 4/30/96

Damage Tolerance - Multi Site Damage

http://accidents-ll.faa.gov/ll_main.cfm?TabID=3&LLID=20&LLTypeID=2
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13

Bird Strike
Pilot Window General Empennage Pilot Window CFR 23.775(H) Amendment 23-49 3/11/96 2lb Bird [Commuter Category] CFR 25.571(E) Amendment 25-45 12/1/78 4lb Bird CFR 25.631 Amendment 25-23 5/8/70 8 lb Bird CFR 25.775(B)(C) 2/1/65 4lb Bird

Bird Strike
RH Horizontal Stabilizer of Navy T-44A aircraft out of Corpus Christi, TX (October 2002)

How a goose at 185 knots can ruin your day. Pilot was injured but was able to land the aircraft (Beech Baron) safely.

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Ditching
CFR 25.801

Lightning Strike
CFR 25.581

Requirement is to assure no burn through or sparking in fuel tanks or areas where fuel vapors could be present due to leakage. This necessitates, among other things, a minimum skin thickness in fuel tank areas.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Airways_Flight_1549
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Lightening Striking All Nippon Airlines, Osaka, Japan 56

14

Aircraft

FAA Windmilling design requirements:

Sec. 33.63 Vibration. Each engine must be designed and constructed to function throughout its declared flight envelope and operating range of rotational speeds and power/thrust, without inducing excessive stress in any engine part because of vibration and without imparting excessive vibration forces to the aircraft structure. 3. A new section 33.74 is added to read as follows: Sec. 33.74 Windmilling. If the engine continues to windmill after it is shut down for any reason while in flight, continued Windmilling of that engine must not result in damage that could create a hazard to aircraft representing a typical installation during the maximum period of flight likely to occur with that engine inoperative.

747 China Airlines Flight 006

Lost power on outboard engine 19 February 1985 Windmilling of engine created dynamic wing oscillations Resulted in loss of aircraft control and extensive structural damage

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Evolution of FAA Requirements

FAA Regulations have changed over time. The Website below provides a summary of when each Regulation was revised along with an explanation for why each change was made.

References
Analysis & Design of Flight Vehicle Structures, Bruhn, E. F., Tri-State Offset Company. Aircraft Structures, Peery, D.J., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Airframe Structural Design, Niu, Michael C.Y., Conmilit Press LTD., 1988. Formulas for Stress and Strain, Roark, R.J. and Young, W.C., McGraw-Hill, Inc. The Correct Use of Finite Element Models for Stress Analysis of Aircraft, Vaughan R.E. and Daniel M.F., 2004

http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/MainFrame?OpenFrameSet

1) Click on Historical FAR by Part 2) Click on Part 23 or 25 3) Select the regulation of interest 4) Click on NPRM 5) Click on Final Rule

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Agenda
Propaganda Triumph Aerostructures - Vought Aircraft Division Overview Material Selection Criteria Material Types

Material Selection for Aerospace Applications

Ken Homeyer
1

Material Forms Examples

2

Evolution Of The Company

1917 1922 1935 1939 1961 1965 1976 1983 1986 1992 1994 2010 2000
Vought benefits from an industry legacy going back to the first producers of military aircraft in the United States. Our name extends to the company founded by aviation pioneer, Chance Milton Vought.

Triumph Aerostructures Vought Aircraft Division

Corporate Overview

Triumph Group, Inc.

12,000+ employees
Everett, WA Triumph Structures Everett Redmond, WA Triumph Aerospace Sys Spokane, WA Triumph Composite Sys Albany, OR Triumph Northwest Forest, OH Triumph Thermal Sys E. Alton, IL Triumph Fabrications Grandview, Mo Triumph Structures Wichita, KA Triumph Structures Triumph Aerospace Sys Triumph Wichita Support Cntr Pittsburgh, PA Triumph Interiors

44 companies

64 locations
Wayne, PA Triumph Group Corporate Office

Who We Are - Design

Triumphs engineers provide a full range of product development core competencies
Design Concept/ Preliminary / Detailed Verification & Validation Knowledge Based Engineering Methods Legacy Data Conversion Drawing Maintenance Analysis Retrofit Design Test Material Properties and Development Structures Components Aircraft Certification DocumentsStatic and Fatigue Structure Repair Manual- Static and Full Scale Static, Fatigue & Drop Ground and Flight Test Instrumentation Prototyping Product Support Sustaining Engineering In Service Repairs Tech Pubs Testing Support

Macomb, MI Triumph Gear Sys Shelbyville, IN Triumph Fabrications Triumph Controls

Bloomfield, CT East Lyme, CT Redding, CT Triumph Actuation Sys Long Island, NY Triumph Structures Freeport, NY Triumph Actuation Sys North Wales, PA Triumph Controls Newport News, VA Triumph Aerospace Sys Clemmons, NC Triumph Actuation Sys Orangeburg, SC Triumph Fabrications Milledgeville, GA Triumph Aerostructures Vought Aircraft Div

Los Angeles, CA Area Triumph Actuation Sys Triumph Instruments (2) Triumph Processing Triumph Structures LA Triumph Structures Brea Triumph Insulation Sys Triumph Aerostructures Vought Aircraft Div San Diego, CA Triumph Fabrications-SD

Park City, UT Triumph Gear Sys

Kilgore, TX Triumph Structures Dallas, TX Triumph Interiors Triumph Accessory Svcs Nashville, TN Triumph Aerostructures Triumph Aerostructures Vought Aircraft Div Phoenix, AZ Area Vought Aircraft Div Triumph Engines - Tempe Fort Worth, TX Triumph Fabrications Triumph Fabrications Hot Springs, AR Area Triumph Air Repair Triumph Airborne Structures Triumph Logistics Round Rock, TX Triumph Fabrications Triumph Instruments San Antonio, TX Triumph San Antonio Support Cntr Stuart, FL Triumph Aerostructures Vought Aircraft Div Ft Lauderdale, FL Triumph Instruments

Static / Dynamic Analysis Durability & Damage Tolerance Analysis

Europe
Heiligenhaus, Germany Triumph Controls Basildon, England Triumph Controls Buckley, England Triumph Actuation & Motion Control Systems

Asia
Thailand Triumph Aviation Services Asia, Ltd. Beijing, China Triumph Insulation Systems

Mexico
Mexicali Triumph Insulation Systems Zacatecas Triumph Group, Inc (future)

Fatigue and Justification Reports

Alfortville, France Construction Brevities dAlfortville (CBA)

Major Design Programs

1987
B-2 BOMBER

Who We Are - Build

Triumph Aerostructures is a major subcontracting partner on many commercial and military aircraft programs. A Tier 1 Integrator, Vought Aircraft Division fills the gap between prime contractors and traditional subcontractors by providing large, complex aerostructures on a turnkey basis.
Fuselage Sections Wings Cessna Citation Columbus Wing Cessna Citation X Wing Panels Gulfstream G450 Wings Gulfstream G550/G500 Wings AB A330/A340 Wing Components RQ-4 Global Hawk Wings Nacelles Hawker Nacelle Components Gulfstream G450 Nacelle Details C-17 Globemaster III Nacelle Boeing 767 Nacelles MRAS CF6 Engine Transcowls (MVO)

B-2 Intermediate Wing A330/340 Wing Control Surfaces V-22 Empennage Gulfstream GV Wing Boeing 747 AFA (Accurate Fuselage Assembly) Lockheed C-5 Flaps, Ailerons, Spoilers 787 Sections 47 and 48 Cessna Columbus 850 Wing

1989 1993 1994

AIRBUS A340

1997 2005

V-22

2007 2009

Boeing 767 Aft Fuselage Panels Boeing 747 Fuselage Panels Boeing 787 Aft Fuselage Barrels

GV

H60 Black Hawk Cabin Structure

Capabilities enhanced on these programs:

Boeing 787

V-22 Osprey Side Panels Empennages Boeing 767 Tail Section Assy C-17 Globemaster III Tail Section C-17 Rudder, Elevator, Ailerons

3-D Digital Product Definition FAA Certification Experience Virtual Co-Location Experience in Low-Cost Environment

Cessna Columbus

V-22 Osprey Tail Section

Slide 8 C-130J Hercules Tail Section

Current Programs

Who We Are - Test

Since 1948, our test laboratories consistently offer customers cost-effective, state-of-the-art capabilities in a fully-equipped and certified facility centrally located in Dallas, Texas. With U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification and Department of Defense security clearances, our labs are the only testing facilities not operated by prime aerospace original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) with full life-cycle testing capabilities including fullscale structures.

B747 Since 1966

A340-300/-500/-600 Since 1988

G450 Since 1983

C-17 Since 1983

V-22 Osprey Since 1993

B767 Since 1980

A330 Since 1988

G500/550 Since 1993

C-5 Since 2002

H-60 Black Hawk Since 2004

787 Fuselage Panel Combined Loading

B777 Since 1993

Citation X Since 1992

Citation Columbus Since 2008

C-130J Since 1953 Global Hawk Since 1999

Our testing capabilities include: Test plan development Test fixture and system design and fabrication Material Properties Structural component new and SLEP Full-scale structures new and SLEP Land gear dynamic and carrier suitability Ground and flight test instrumentation FAA Type certification and military qualification Advanced development Prototyping

Hawker 800 Since 1981

: Vought Manufactured Structures

Global Hawk Wing Proof Load

KC-45A tanker

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Designed and Manufactured by Vought

Our Customers

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Strong Relationships With OEMs And Other Tier 1s

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Tomorrow. Where We Are Focusing

Material Technology

Higher performance materials, high temperature systems and complex product forms Out-of autoclave, lower process temperature materials Specialty material solutions for embedded electronics, altered electrical properties Rapid proto-typing production processes Affordable survivable structures fabrication methods and processes Processes that reduce non-recurring costs How do we make complex stuff cheaper? Advanced tools to support increasing part complexity & new materials and processes Elimination of conservatism in analytical methods trust empirical data No black aluminum, pick the right stuff! Adaptability and flexibility for short run, low rate production High rate production with increased accuracy Faster, better and cheaper!

UCAS-EW

SOF Cargo/Gunship

Manufacturing Technology

Material Selection Criteria

HALE-ISR NGLRS

Analytical Tools

Factory Technology

SS Cruise

NGSA

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020
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Static Strength
Material
Must Support Ultimate Loads Without Failure Must Support Limit Loads Without Permanent Deformation

Stiffness
Deformation of Material at Limit Loads Must Not Interfere With Safe Operation
There are cases where meeting the static strength requirement results in a component that has unacceptable deflections The component is a Stiffness driven design

Static Strength is the Initial Evaluation for Each Component Aluminum Is Usually the Initial Material Selection
If aluminum cannot support the applied load within the size limitation of the component, titanium or steel should be considered If aluminum is too heavy to meet the performance requirements, composites or next generation materials should be considered
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Fatigue (Crack Initiation)

Fatigue
Cracks start on the surface Tension Driven Phenomenon Spectrum Dependant
Number of Take-offs and Landing, Number of Gusts, etc. Vibration (Hz)

Damage Tolerance (Crack Growth)

The Ability of a Material to Resist Crack Propagation Under Cyclical Loading
Slow Crack Growth Design
Design in Pad-up areas Ensure proper fastener spacing and countersink depths

Stress Concentrations Accelerate

Filled and Unfilled Holes Sharp Corners

Fatigue Resistant Design

Choose materials that resist cracking under cyclical loading Limit component to a certain stress level based on the required life of the airframe Further processing may improve fatigue properties such as shot peening or cold working
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Use of Alloys With Increased Fracture Toughness

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Weight
Low Weight Is Critical to Meeting Aircraft Performance Goals
Materials are tailored for specific requirements to minimize weight Materials with higher strength to weight ratios typically have higher acquisition costs but lower life cycle costs (i.e. Lower Fuel Consumption)
Surface Corrosion

Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion of Dissimilar Metals (see Chart) Surface Treatments
Paint Sealant

Proper Drainage

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Corrosion due to specific internal stress being exceeded Certain alloys are more susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (see Chart) Especially severe in the short transverse grain direction (see Grain Direction)

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Corrosion - Dissimilar Metal Chart

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Chart

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Producibility
Commercial Availability Lead Times Fabrication Alternatives (see Material Forms)
Built Up Machined From Plate Machined From Forging Casting
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Cost
Raw Material Cost Comparisons
Aluminum Plate = $2 - $3 / lb. Steel Plate = $5 - $10 / lb. Titanium Plate = $15 - $58 / lb. Fiberglass/Epoxy Prepreg = $15 - $25 / lb. Graphite/Epoxy Prepreg = $50 - $100 / lb. Graphite/Specialized Resin Prepreg = $250 - $500 / lb.

Detail Fabrication Costs Assembly Costs Life Cycle Costs

Cost of Weight (Loss of Payload, Increased Fuel Consumption) Cost of Maintenance
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Specialized Requirements
Temperature Lightning and Static Electricity Dissipation Erosion and Abrasion Marine Environment Impact Resistance Fire Zones Electrical Transparency
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Performance vs. Cost Dilemma

Highest Performance For The Lowest Cost Is the Goal of Every Airplane Material Selection.
Compromise Is Required Define the Cost of Weight to the Aircraft L = (W)

D = (L)

T = (D) = (fuel) = $$$$ W = (fuel)

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Aluminum
Accounts for ~80% of the structural material of most commercial and military transport aircraft Inexpensive and easy to form and machine Alloys are tailored to specific needs
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Material Types

Aluminum Alloys
2000 Series Alloys (Al-Cu-Mg)
Medium to High Strength Good Fatigue Resistance Low Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance in ST Direction 2024-T3 Is the Yardstick for Fatigue Properties Use in Tension Applications
Fuselage (Bending and Hoop loads) Lower Wing Skin

Aluminum Alloys
7000 Series Alloys (Al-Zn-Mg-Cu)
High Strength Comparable Fatigue Properties to 2000 Series Improved Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance 7050 and 7075 Alloys Are Widely Used 7475 Alloy Provides Higher Fatigue Resistance Similar to 2024T3 Use in Compression Applications like Upper Wing Skin
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5000 and 6000 Series Alloys

Low to Medium Strength Easily Welded

Aluminum Tempers

Aluminum Tempers

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Aluminum Tempers

Aluminum Comparison Chart

Material
2024-T3 2024-T351 2024-T42

Typical Application

High Strength Tension Applications. Best Fracture Toughness / Slow Crack Growth Rate. Good Fatigue Life. Thick forms have Low Short Transverse Properties including Stress Corrosion Cracking. 2324-T3 8% Improvement in Strength over 2024-T3 with Increased Fatigue and Toughness Properties. 7075-T6 High Strength Compression Applications. 7075-T651 Higher Strength but Lower Fracture Toughness than 2024-T3. 7075-T7351 Excellent Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance and Better Fracture Toughness, but Lower Strength and 7075-T6. 7050-T7451 Better Properties than 7075-T7351 in Thicker Sections.
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Titanium
Better strength to weight ratio than aluminum or steel Typically comprises ~5% by weight in commercial aircraft and up to ~25% by weight for high performance military aircraft Good corrosion resistance Good temperature resistance Good fatigue & damage tolerance properties in annealed form Typical alloy is Ti 6Al-4V either annealed or solution treated and aged High cost for metals
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Steel
Select when tensile strengths greater than titanium are necessary Usually limited to a few highly loaded components such as landing gear There are many steel alloys from which to choose. Select the one that is tailored for your application.
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Steel (cont.)
MIL-HDBK-5 List of Aerospace Steel Alloys:

Composite Materials
Definition: Two or more distinct materials combined together to form a useful material with all the best qualities of the constituents and possessing some qualities not found in the constituents, but derived solely from their combination.

Fiber/Filament Reinforcement
High Strength High Stiffness Low Density

Matrix
Good Shear Properties Low Density

Composite
High Strength High Stiffness Good Shear Properties Low Density
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Evolution of Design
Material Substitution
Composite materials combined with metals design and manufacturing methods Black Aluminum Least Efficient Method, <10% Weight Savings, High Costs

B-2 Intermediate Wing Composite Usage

Substitution of Composites Into Intermediate Wing Minimizes Weight Savings
Substitute current composites usage into Intermediate wing B-2 sized with all-metal intermediate wing

Component Replacement
Redesign using composite materials and technology Moderate weight savings 20-25%, Moderate costs Most widely used method

6,400 Pounds Saved

Average 16% saving per installation Observables saving Vehicle same size

Vehicle Resizing
Extensive use of composites throughout airframe allows reduction of vehicle size, engine, thrust, etc. Requires at least 20-30% composite utilization Limited application to date

Vehicle Sizing with Intermediate Wing Composites Maximizes Weight Savings

Assume current composites usage in intermediate wing prior to sizing aircraft

16,000 Pounds Saved

Receive substitution payoff plus: Smaller vehicle Lighter vehicle Less fuel required

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Composite Materials
Fibers
Forms
Fabric Tape Tow and Slit Tape

Laminate Design

Materials
Graphite (High Strength, Stiffness) Fiberglass (Fair Strength, Low Cost, Secondary Structure) Kevlar (Damage Tolerant) Astroquartz (Transparency)

Matrix
Epoxy (Primary Matrix Material) to 250F Service Temp. Bismaleimide (High Temp Applications) to 450F Service Temp. Polyimide (High Temp Applications) to 650F Service Temp.
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Affect of Tailored Design on Graphite/Epoxy Tape

Common Integral Stiffener Configurations

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General Sandwich Stiffened Construction

Sandwich Construction. Panels composed of a lightweight core material to which two relatively thin, dense, high-strength or high-stiffness faces or skins are adhered. Core. The central member, usually foam or honeycomb, of a sandwich construction to which the faces of the sandwich are attached or bonded.

Durability of Composite Materials

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Composite Issues
Limitations
Size is limited by available facilities Areas without splices are limited to raw material width Shape is limited to material drapability
Drape the ability of a fabric or prepreg to conform to a contoured surface. Small radii and abrupt changes cause bridging

Material Comparison
Selecting Materials for Design involves 2 questions
Is a composite or metal the best suited material? If a composite, which one?

Joining
Dimensional inaccuracies in bolt patterns cause higher than anticipated bearing stresses on any one bolt
Metals deform to distribute load to other fasteners Composites load a single fastener to failure and then distribute entire load to remaining fasteners

Lightning Strike
Need copper mesh or aluminum flame spray to protect
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Experience shows parts having the same configuration as conventional machined metal parts like lugs, bathtub fittings, etc., are generally considered not to be good application for composite materials.
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Material Properties Comparison

Material
2024-T3 Aluminum 7075-T6 Aluminum 6Al-4V Titanium Annealed 6Al-4V Titanium Solution Treated and Aged 15-5PH Stainless Steel (H1025) Fiberglass Epoxy (Unidirectional) Graphite Epoxy (Unidirectional)

Next Generation Materials

Aluminum Lithium GLARE (Fiberglass Reinforced Aluminum) TiGr (Graphite Reinforced Titanium) Thermoplastics Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Stitched Resin Fusion Injected (Stitched RFI)

Ftu (ksi)
64 78 134 150 154 80 170

Fty (ksi)
47 71 126 140 145

Density Fcy E (ksi) (106psi) (lb/in3)

39 70 132 145 152 60 140 10.5 10.3 16.0 16.0 28.5 5 22 .101 .101 .160 .160 .283 .065 .056
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Grain Direction

Basis of Properties
Material property selection is dependant on the criticality of the structural component
Critical Single Load Path Structure
A Basis (99% Probability of Exceeding) S Basis (Agency Assured Minimum Value)

Other Primary Structure With Redundant Load Paths

B Basis (90% Probability of Exceeding) Without a Test, A or S Basis May Be Required

Secondary Structure
B Basis (90% Probability of Exceeding)
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Material Properties Example

Type

Material Forms

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Sheet
Rolled Flat Metal Thickness Less Than .25
Fuselage Skin Fuselage Frames Rib and Spar Webs Control Surfaces Pressure Domes

Plate
Rolled Flat Metal Thickness Greater Than .25
Wing and Tail Skins Monolithic Spars and Ribs Fittings

Good Grain Orientation Many Parts and Fasteners Fit Problems

Straighten Operations Shims Warpage
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Unitized Structure; Fewer Fasteners Grain Orientation Can Be a Problem High Speed Machining Has Lowered Fab Costs

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Extrusion
Produced By Forcing Metal Through a Forming Die At Elevated Temperature To Achieve The Desired Shape
Stringers Rib and Spar Caps Stiffeners

Forging
Produced by impacting or pressing the material into the desired shape
Large Fittings Large Frames/Ribs Odd Shapes

Grain Is Aligned in The Lengthwise Direction Additional Forming and Machining Required Used In Conjunction With Sheet Metal Webs

Control grain orientation Residual stresses can cause warpage during machining Tooling can be difficult

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Casting
Produced By Pouring Molten Metal Into A Die To Achieve The Desired Shape
Nacelle/Engine Components Complex Geometry

Composite
Produced By Laying Fabric, Laying Tape, Winding, Tow Placement and 3D Weaving or Stitching
Skins Trailing Edge Surfaces Interiors and Floors

Dramatically Lowers Part and Fastener Counts Poor Fatigue And Damage Tolerance Properties High Tooling Costs

Properties Can be Oriented To Load Direction Excellent Strength To Weight Ratio High Cost Of Material and Processes Poor Bearing Strength
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Upper Wing Cover

Compression Dominated Skin - 7075-T651 Aluminum Plate After Machining; Age Creep Formed To -T7351/-T73511
Reduces Compressive Yield Strength Greatly Increases Stress Corrosion Resistance

Examples

Stringers - 7075-T6511 Aluminum Extrusion

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Lower Wing Cover

Tension Dominated Skin - 2024-T351 Aluminum Plate Good Ultimate Tensile Strength Very Good Fatigue and Damage Tolerance Properties Stringers - 7075-T73511 Aluminum Extrusion High Ultimate Tensile Strength Good Damage Tolerance Properties

Spars
7050-T7451 Aluminum Plate High Tensile and Compressive Strength in Thick Sections Good Stress Corrosion Resistance

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Fixed Trailing Edge Surface

2024-0 Clad Aluminum

Leading Edge
Heat Treated to -T62 After Stretch Forming to Shape Clad For Corrosion Resistance Polished For Appearance De-icing by Hot Air/Bird Strike Resistance

Graphite/Epoxy Fabric Aramid/Phenolic Honeycomb Fiberglass/Epoxy Fabric Corrosion Barrier Secondary Structure Stiffness Design
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Landing Gear Support Beam

Titanium 6Al-4V Annealed Forging Annealed Form Is Good For Fatigue And Damage Tolerance High Strength and Stiffness Critical Lug Design Height is Limited By Wing Contours

Wing to Body Attachments

PH13-8Mo Cres Steel Bar Critical Lug Design High Strength Requirement Good Corrosion Resistance

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Flap Tracks
PH13-8Mo Cres Steel Bar Geometry Is Very Limited By Requirement To Be Internal To The Wing Results In Very High Stress Levels High Stiffness Is Required To Meet Flutter and Flap Geometry Criteria Good Corrosion Resistance
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