Rational Man

Her., Bn!oI VenL

Rational Man
A Modern Interpretation
of Aristotelian Ethics
Henry B. Veatch
Piclacc anu Annoiaicu BilIiogiahy
ly DougIas B. Rasmusscn
amagi
Iilciiy Iunu
InuianaoIis
Amagi looIs aic ulIishcu ly Iilciiy Iunu, Inc.,
a lounuaiion csialIishcu io cncouiagc siuuy ol ihc
iucaI ol a sociciy ol licc anu icsonsilIc inuiviuuaIs.
Thc cunciloim insciiiion ihai acais in ihc Iogo anu
scivcs as a ucsign cIcmcni in aII Iilciiy Iunu looIs
is ihc caiIicsi-Inown wiiiicn acaiancc ol ihc woiu
liccuom (nn. ), oi Iilciiy. Ii is iaIcn liom a cIay
uocumcni wiiiicn aloui :oo v.t. in ihc Sumciian
ciiy-siaic ol Iagash.
1g6: ly Inuiana Univcisiiy Picss
Piclacc anu annoiaicu lilIiogiahy :oo ly Iilciiy Iunu, Inc.
Iioniisiccc 1gSo ly ihc Insiiiuic loi Humanc Siuuics
AII iighis icscivcu
Piinicu in ihc Uniicu Siaics ol Amciica
o o6 o oq o v q : 1
Iiliaiy ol Congicss CaiaIoging-in-PulIicaiion Daia
Vcaich, Hcniy BalcocI.
RaiionaI man: a moucin iniciiciaiion ol AiisioicIian cihics J
Hcniy B. Vcaich; iclacc ly DougIas B. Rasmusscn.
. cm.
OiiginaIIy ulIishcu: BIoomingion: Inuiana Univcisiiy Picss, 1g6:.
Wiih ncw icl. anu annoiaicu lilIiogiahy.
IncIuucs lilIiogiahicaI iclcicnccs (. ) anu inucx.
isv o-S6g-g-S (lI.: aII. aci)
1. Eihics. :. AiisioiIc. I. TiiIc.
v .vq :oo
11'.uc:1 :oo:o:g61
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S AIIison Poinic TiaiI, Suiic oo, InuianaoIis, Inuiana q6:o-16Sq
To . s. v. nrn i. v. i. v.
.r Le Loe Ln oe nn,
Le, LouIn ee ..L Le.. e,e
nrn Len. ..L Le.. en.
nrn LouIn urne.nrn ..L Le.. Len.
Contents
Piclacc .:
Annoiaicu BilIiogiahy :.:
Ioicwoiu ::...
1. In Qucsi ol EihicaI KnowIcugc 1
:. Thc Examincu Iilc:
BacI io Sociaics anu AiisioiIc zj
. Why Noi Rcgaiu MoiaIs anu Eihics as
SimIy an Aii ol Iiving. jo
q. Why MoiaIs anu Eihics Aic Noi SimIy an Aii ol Iiving 0B
. IaiIuic anu Unhaincss:
Aic Thcy Oui Own RcsonsiliIiiy. Bj
6. Bau IucI anu ihc Ioicc ol Ciicumsianccs
as ihc Causcs ol IaiIuic 1og
. Bui Whai Il Gou Is Dcau. 1zg
S. ExisicniiaIism anu ihc CIaims ol IiiaiionaI Man 1B
Noics 101
AnaIyiicaI TalIc ol Conicnis 10j
Inucx 10g
Preface
Fn.ornI Anr, which isi acaicu in 1g6:, liings AiisioicIian cihics
aIivc io ihc conicmoiaiy icauci. Iis auihoi, Hcniy BalcocI Vcaich,
was a Icauing nco-AiisioicIian ol ihc iwcniicih ccniuiy. Boin in Evans-
viIIc, Inuiana, in 1g11, Vcaich was cuucaicu ai Haivaiu Univcisiiy,
liom which hc icccivcu his uocioiaic in 1g6. His mcnioi ai Haivaiu
was ]ohn WiIu, anu hc was inucnccu ly ihc iwcniicih-ccniuiy nco-
Thomisis ]acqucs Maiiiain anu Eiicnnc GiIson. Vcaich iaughi loi
iwcniy-cighi ycais ai Inuiana Univcisiiy, loi cighi ycais ai Noiihwcsi-
cin Univcisiiy, anu loi moic ihan icn ycais ai Gcoigciown Univcisiiy.
Vcaich was a ioIic wiiici, an ouisianuing icachci, a sIiIIluI uclaici,
anu, alovc aII, a cicciivc hiIosohci. Ai uicicni iimcs, hc scivcu
as icsiucni ol loih ihc Amciican PhiIosohicaI Associaiion (Wcsi-
cin Division) anu ihc Amciican CaihoIic PhiIosohicaI Associaiion. To
ihosc who Incw him, Vcaich was a man ol cncigy, goou humoi, anu
giaciousncss. Mosi ol aII hc was a gcniIcman. Hc iciiicu in 1gS lui
was aciivc hiIosohicaIIy ihioughoui his iciiicmcni ycais. Hc uicu
in 1ggg. A Icsischiili
*
acaicu ai ihc iimc ol his iciiicmcni liom
Gcoigciown Univcisiiy.
Vcaich was an AiisioicIian ihiough anu ihiough, lui anyonc lamiI-
iai wiih his woiI wouIu scc immcuiaicIy ihai hc was convcisani wiih
ihc Iaicsi conicmoiaiy issucs in hiIosohy. Vcaich was wcII Inown
loi chamioning his AiisioicIianismagainsi conicmoiaiy hiIosohi-
caI lashions. Inuccu, Fn.ornI Anr is lui onc ol a sciics ol woiIs in
which Vcaich chaIIcngcu many ol ihc icvaiIing lcIicls ol his iimc,
cscciaIIy ihosc ol AngIo-Amciican hiIosohy. Thosc inicicsicu in
Vcaichs oihci majoi looIs anu aiiicIcs may wish io consuIi ihc anno-
*Rocco Poiicco, cu., TLe Ceo.eo.r S,o.u or EL.: En, .r Horo. o
Her., Bn!oI VenL (Ianham, Mu.: Univcisiiy Picss ol Amciica, 1gSq).
[ x | P.ene
iaicu lilIiogiahy ihai loIIows ihis iclacc. Thcsc woiIs icvcaI a
ihinIci wiih an cyc loi whai is ciuciaI hiIosohicaIIy anu a hiIoso-
hci who was conccincu wiih ihc iiuih ol ihingsnoi ihc Iaicsi inicI-
IcciuaI siyIcs.
Fn.ornI Anr is, howcvci, ihc mosi uisiinciivc ol aII ol Vcaichs
woiIs; ii accomIishcs whai is ncaiIy imossilIc io achicvc. Ii cngagcs
loih ihc cxcii anu ihc lcginnci. Boih can icau anu ioi liom ihis
woiI. Thcic is sulsianiiaI schoIaishi anu hiIosohicaI sohisiicaiion
in ihcsc agcs, lui ihc woiI is ncvci uiy oi hcavy-hanucu. Vcaichs
hiIosohicaI Icaining uocs noi gci in ihc way ol ihc mcssagc. Thc ai-
gumcnis aic ciis; ihc icauing is IivcIy; anu ihc cxamIcs aic numci-
ous, aiiicuIaiIy ihosc liom Iiiciaiuic.
Vcaichs aigumcnis in Fn.ornI Anr wcic noi onIy in conici wiih
scvciaI uominani hiIosohicaI vicws ol his iimc, lui ihcy aIso icmain
in conici wiih many ol ihosc iouay. His aigumcnis soughi io csialIish
ihicc cIaims: (1) ihai cihicaI InowIcugc is ossilIc; (:) ihai cihicaI
InowIcugc is giounucu in human naiuic; anu () ihai ihc uiosc
ol cihics is io show ihc inuiviuuaI human lcing how io scIl-cilcci,
which was Vcaichs way ol wiiiing aloui eunn.or.n in AiisioicIian
moiaI ihcoiy. Moicovci, ihcsc moiaI cIaims wcic uclcnucu wiihoui
acaI io icIigious icvcIaiion lui soIcIy on whai uscu io lc Inown
as ihc naiuiaI Iighi ol icason. Vcaich was an auvocaic ol whai is
commonIy caIIcu naiuiaI Iaw moiaI ihcoiy; such a ihcoiy was loi
Vcaich, howcvci, noi io lc conluscu wiih whai is iouay caIIcu uivinc
commanu ihcoiy. AccoiuingIy, cihics is lascu on ihc icquiicmcnis
loi human moiaI ucvcIomcniwhai Vcaich anu oihcis caII scIl-
cilcciionanu ncvci mcicIy on whai is commanucu ly a uciiy. This
uocs noi mcan, howcvci, ihai cihics anu icIigion wcic ncccssaiiIy in-
comaiilIc loi Vcaich; iaihci, ii mcans onIy ihai Fn.ornI Anr is simIy
a looI on cihics wiihoui icIigion.
Vcaichs usc ol ihc woius scIl-cilcciion, cilcciion, anu ci-
lcci may noi lc lamiIiai io conicmoiaiy icaucis. Pcilcci comcs
liom ihc Iaiin e.eu anu iis GiccI couniciaii eIe.o. Pe.eu im-
Iics ihai a ihing is comIcicu oi nishcu; ihis invoIvcs ihc iuca ol a
ihings having a naiuic ihai is iis cnu (eIo) oi lunciion (e.or). Thus,
ii shouIu lc cIcai ihai, whcn Vcaich soIc ol how io cilcci oncscIl,
hc uiu noi mcan ihai onc shouIu lccomc GouIiIc, immunc io ucgcn-
P.ene [ xi |
ciaiion, oi incaalIc ol haim. Raihci, ii is io luIII ihosc oicniiaIiiics
anu caaciiics ihai maIcs onc luIIy human.
Vcaichs unucisianuing ol naiuiaI Iaw shouIu lc siiuaicu. Pcihas
ihc lcsi way io uo ihis is io consiuci onc ol Vcaichs lavoiiic ciiaiions,
which is lounu in ihc wiiiing ol ihc EIizalcihan uivinc Richaiu
HooIci. HooIcis chaiaciciizaiion ol Iaw in gcnciaI is lounu in his
cIassic woiI, O Le 1n. o EIe.n.nI PoI.,.
Thai which uoih assign unio cach ihing ihc Iinu, ihai which uoih
mouciaic ihc loicc anu owci, ihai which uoih aoini ihc loim
anu mcasuic ol woiIing, ihc samc wc icim n 1n..
Ioi Vcaich, ihc concci ol naiuiaI Iaw is lascu on ihc iuca ihai a
ihings naiuic is noi onIy ihai in viiiuc ol which a ihing acis oi lchavcs
ihc way ii uocs, lui ii is aIso ihc sianuaiu oi mcasuic in icims ol which
wc juugc whcihci ihc ihings aciion oi lchavioi is aII ihai ii mighi oi
couIu havc lccn. Ii is ihc sianuaiu in icims ol which wc juugc whcihci
ii is lunciioning wcII oi aioiiaicIy. In oihci woius, noi onIy uo wc
ihinI ihai ihings, cscciaIIy human lcings, havc a naiuic ihai govcins
how ihcy aci oi lchavc lui ihai ihc luIIImcni oi cilcciion ol ihcii
naiuic is ihcii cnu oi lunciion.
Wc commonIy ihinI ol human aiiilacis as having a ioci lunciion.
Ioi cxamIc, ihc ioci lunciion ol a Inilc is io cui. To cIaim ihai
an cniiiy has a rnu.nI lunciion, howcvci, is io cIaim ihai an cniiiy has
a ioci lunciion lccausc ol whai ii is, noi lccausc ol iis lcing uc-
signcu ly somconc loi a cciiain aciiviiy. In ihis casc, ioci mcans
csscniiaI io ihc cniiiy. An cniiiy ihai luIIIs iis ioci lunciion is an
cniiiy ihai lunciions wcII oi cxccIIcniIyinuccu, as ihc ancicni GiccIs
wouIu say, wiih n.ee, which was ihcii icim loi viiiuc. Thc cIaim ihai
an cniiiy has a naiuiaI lunciion, howcvci, uocs noi sio hcic. Ii icsis
on ihc luiihci cIaim ihai an cniiiy has an cnu in vicw ol whai ii is.
Thus, ihc naiuiaI lunciion ol a ihing is ucicimincu lccausc ol iis naiu-
iaI cnu. In ihis conicxi, cnu mcans ihai-loi-ihc-saIc-ol-which; ii
uocs noi ncccssaiiIy mcan conscious uiosc. NaiuiaI Iaw cihics is
loi Vcaich uIiimaicIy a naiuiaI-cnu cihics.
Many mcmlcis ol ihc moucin inicIIcciuaI communiiy hoIu ihai lc-
Iicving in naiuiaI cnus oi lunciions is lcyonu ihc hiIosohicaI, as
wcII as ihc scicniic, aIc. TcIcoIogy is oui ol uaic in ihis scicniic
[ xii | P.ene
uay anu agc. Vcaich aigucu, howcvci, ihai onc cannoi inlci ihai ihcic
aic alsoIuicIy no naiuiaI cnus simIy lccausc conicmoiaiy scicn-
iic mcihouoIogy uocs noi havc a Iacc loi ihcm. Iuiihci, hc aigucu
ihai naiuiaI cnus aic noi casiIy cIiminaicu. Thioughoui Fn.ornI Anr,
Vcaich suggcsis ihai naiuiaI cnus aic aii ol oui oiuinaiy, common-
scnsc unucisianuing ol ihc ioccss ol changc. In auuiiion, Iaici in
his caicci Vcaich camc io lcIicvc ihai ihc ncw ucvcIomcnis in con-
icmoiaiy lioIogicaI anu cvoIuiionaiy ihcoiy oinicu io ihc iuca ihai
Iiving ihings osscss an iiicuucilIc oicniiaI loi ihcii maiuic siaic ihai
cannoi lc cxIaincu simIy ly acaIing io chcmisiiy anu hysics. Rc-
uuciionism was, loi him, ihcoiciicaIIy unsounu. In oihci woius, con-
icmoiaiy lioIogy suoiis ihc iuca ol naiuiaI lunciions oi cnus loi
Iiving ihings; cvoIuiionaiy ihcoiy, ihcicloic, nccu lc sccn in conici
onIy wiih an nrL.ooo.L. concciion ol icIcoIogy.
RcgaiuIcss ol hownaiuiaI icIcoIogy mighi lc uclcnucu, Vcaich hcIu
ihai ihcic aic naiuiaI cnus. Thcic aic ai Icasi somc ways ol lcing ihai
aic inhcicniIy vaIualIc oi goousccicaIIy, ihosc ihai consiiiuic ihc
cilcciion ol a Iiving ihings naiuicanu whcn such ways ol lcing aic
aciuaIizcu ihiough choicc, ihcy aic choicc-woiihy anu ihc lasis loi
cihics. In ihc Ianguagc ol his uay, Vcaich hcIu ihai noi aII lacis aic
vaIuc licc. Hc aigucu in ihc chaici Bui Whai Il Gou Is Dcau ol
Fn.ornI Anr ihai goouncss is, ne G. E. Mooic, ucnalIc. Accoiu-
ing io Vcaich, wc can say whai goouncss is loi a human lcing, anu wc
can uo ihis ly unucisianuing oui naiuiaI cnu. Aiiaining oui naiuiaI
cnu is oui uIiimaic goou. Vcaich ihus chaIIcngcu ihc vciy concci ol
ihc so-caIIcu naiuiaIisiic laIIacy, which was (anu is) ihc vciy coic oi
aiauigmol whai olicn has lccn caIIcu anaIyiic cihics. Vcaichs Iaici
woiI, Fo. nr OroIo, o Ao.nI, cxIoicu ihcsc maiicis in cvcn gicaici
uciaiI.
Thc ccniiaI issuc in Fn.ornI Anr is, noncihcIcss, ihc cIaim ihai oui
naiuic as human lcings can ioviuc us wiih guiuancc icgaiuing how
wc shouIu conuuci oui Iivcs. Vcaichs aioach io ihis issuc cciiainIy
lcIongs io ihc naiuiaI Iaw cihicaI iiauiiion; ihioughoui his wiiiings,
hc ooscu loih a ucsiic- anu a uuiy-lascu cihics. His aioach is
aIso maiIcuIy uicicni in somc icsccis liom ihc naiuiaI Iaw iiaui-
iion oi, ai Icasi, liom how ihai iiauiiion is olicn ciccivcu. Thc mosi
uiicci way io aicciaic ihosc uicicnccs anu so Iocaic Vcaich in ihc
P.ene [ xiii |
naiuiaI Iaw iiauiiion is io consiuci whai hc hau io say aloui ihc loI-
Iowing qucsiions: Whai is oui human goou. anu How uo wc go aloui
aiiaining ii.
Vcaichs answci io ihcsc qucsiions icIicu on AiisioiIc. Oui goou is
whai AiisioiIc caIIcueunn.or.n. Though ihc iiauiiionaI EngIish iians-
Iaiion ol ihis icim is haincss, Vcaich olicn simIy caIIcu ii Iiving
iaiionaIIy oi inicIIigcniIy. Iaici in his caicci, hc auoicu ihc icim
human ouiishing. Ioi Vcaich, ihc human goou is ncvci mcicIy uo-
ing whaicvci onc wanis. Yci, Vcaichs answci aIso uicicu liom Aiis-
ioiIcs. Vcaich iooI issuc wiih AiisioiIcs cIaim, lounu in chaicis scvcn
anu cighi ol BooI X ol ihc N.onLenr EL., ihai ihc human goou
consisis icciscIy in a Iilc ol conicmIaiion (Leo..n)ihai is, in ihc
uisuii ol InowIcugc loi InowIcugcs saIc. Insicau, Vcaich chosc io
loIIow AiisioiIcs cIaim ol BooI I ol ihc EL.. Oui human goou is
ihc iaciicaI Iilc ol man osscssing icason. Ii consisis in oui Iiving
in accoiuancc wiih a iaiionaI iinciIc, anu iaiionaI iinciIc, in
iuin, is io lc unucisioou lioauIy as inicIIigcncc: inicIIigcncc ihai may
lc aIicu io aii, ciali, scicncc, hiIosohy, oIiiics, oi any aica ol
human cnucavoi. Such Iiving incIuucs caaciiics osscsscu ly oihci
animaIs, such as ihosc loi Icasuic anu hcaIih anu many oihci ihings
as wcII. Oui uisiinguishing chaiaciciisiic, oui caaciiy io icason anu
choosc, chaiaciciizcs ihc onnI., ihiough which ihc ucvcIomcni ol
ihcsc oihci lacuIiics wiII lc succcssluI.
Vcaichs icason loi uivciging liom AiisioiIc is signicani anu ic-
vcaIing.
Thc lasis loi oui uisagiccmcni is simIy oui unshaIcalIc convic-
iion ihai Iiving is noi loi ihc saIc ol Inowing, lui iaihci ihai ii is
iowaiu inicIIigcni Iiving ihai aII oui owcis anu caaciiics aic uIii-
maicIy uiiccicu, incIuuing oui owcis ol InowIcugc, anu ihai ii is
ihc man himscIl who counis moic ihan aII his InowIcugc, no maiici
how gicai ihc Iaiici may lc.
Basic goous, IiIc InowIcugc, aic loi ihc saIc ol ihc luIIImcni ol in-
uiviuuaI human lcings; inuiviuuaIs aic noi loi ihc saIc ol achicving
lasic goous. Ii is ihc cilcciion ol ihc inuiviuuaI human lcing, noi
uiscmlouicu icasoning, ihai maiicis uIiimaicIy. Oui iiuc cnu oi goou
consisis, Vcaich cmhasizcu, in I...r inicIIigcniIy.
[ xiv | P.ene
AccoiuingIy, human ouiishing is noi, loi Vcaich, a singIc uomi-
nani aciiviiy ihai icuuccs aII oihci aciiviiics io mcic insiiumcniaI
vaIuc. Insicau, ii is a way ol Iiving ihai is an incIusivc aciiviiy. Ii cn-
comasscs such lasic goous as InowIcugc, hcaIih, liicnushi, cicaiiv-
iiy, lcauiy, anu Icasuic. Aiiaining ihosc goous is loih iouuciivc anu
cxicssivc ol human ouiishing. Thcy aic ihus vaIualIc noi as mcic
mcans io human ouiishing lui as aiiiaI icaIizaiions ol ihai ouiish-
ing. Thc cniiic ioccss icquiics ihc inicIIcciuaI viiiuc ol iaciicaI wis-
uomwhai AiisioiIc caIIcu L.ore .anu ihc ucvcIomcni ol iaiio-
naI moiaI uisosiiions, oi moiaI viiiucs.
PiaciicaI wisuom is Le inicIIcciuaI viiiuc loi Vcaich. Ii is ncvci
mcicIy cIcvcincss oi mcans-cnu icasoning. Raihci, ii is ihc aliIiiy ol
ihc inuiviuuaI ai ihc iimc ol aciion io uisccin in aiiicuIai anu coniin-
gcni ciicumsianccs whai is icquiicu moiaIIy. PiaciicaI wisuom is ihc
inicIIigcni managcmcni ol oncs Iilc so ihai aII ihc ncccssaiy goous
aic cohcicniIy achicvcu, mainiaincu, anu cnjoycu in a mannci ihai is
aioiiaic loi ihc inuiviuuaI human lcing.
MoiaI viiiucs aic whai loim oncs moiaI chaiacici. Thcy aic con-
ccincu wiih ihc usc anu coniioI ol oncs cmoiions. Thcii aim, accoiu-
ing io Vcaich, is io hcI csialIish a haimony lciwccn whai onc oughi
io ucsiic anu whai onc in laci uocs ucsiic. Such viiiucs as inicgiiiy,
couiagc, icmciancc, anu honcsiy ihus assisi ihc inuiviuuaI in using
iaciicaI wisuom io maIc ihc ioci choiccs. Howcvci, ihcic is moic
io human ouiishing ihan simIy maIing ioci choiccs. Human
ouiishing is ihc cnacimcni ol .n.ornI ne..e. PiociIy choosing somc-
ihing is noi scaiaic liom ucsiic. PiaciicaI wisuom anu moiaI viiiuc
musi woiI iogcihci so ihai ihc inuiviuuaI human lcing acis wiih iaiio-
naI ucsiicihai is, whcic oncs cmoiions anu inicIIcci aic onc. This is
a way ol lcing anu a maiici ol chaiacici. Ii occuis onIy whcn ii can lc
saiu ol a cison inicichangcalIy, Hc is uoing whai hc oughi io uo
anu Hc is uoing whai hc wanis io uo.
In iiuc AiisioicIian lashion, Vcaich uiu noi ihinI ihai ii was ihc
iasI ol iaciicaI wisuom io ucvcIo n ..o.. univcisaI iuIcs ihai uiciaic
ciihci Le ioci laIancc (oi wcighiing) ol lasic goous oi Le ioci
cmoiionaI icsonsc io a siiuaiion. Thc coniingcni siiuaiion, ihc ai-
iicuIai ciicumsianccs, anu ihc inuiviuuaI him- oi hciscIl aic aIways
icIcvani laciois in ucicimining ihc ioci choicc. Whai was cIcai loi
P.ene [ xv |
Vcaich was ihai ihc cihicaI Iilc icquiics ihai inuiviuuaIs Inow ihcm-
scIvcs anu ihcii siiuaiions anu uiscovci ihc ioci laIancc anu cmo-
iionaI icsonsc o. LeeI.e. Alici aII, AiisioiIc uiu scaI ol ihc mcan
icIaiivc io us.
Vcaichs cmhasis on ihc inuiviuuaI aIso hau anoihci uimcnsion.
Human ouiishing musi lc aiiaincu ihiough oncs own coiis anu
cannoi lc ihc icsuIi ol laciois ihai aic lcyonu oncs coniioI. Human
ouiishing is, as Vcaich wouIu icmaiI in onc ol his Iaici woiIs, a uo-
ii-youiscIl jol. Thcic is no such ihing as scIl-cilcciion il ihc inui-
viuuaI human lcing is noi ihc agcni. Inuccu, iaciicaI wisuom uocs
noi lunciion wiihoui cisonaI coii oi cxciiion on ihc aii ol ihc
inuiviuuaI. Thcic is noihing auiomaiic aloui ii. MoiaI viiiuc Icaus io
chaiacici, anu chaiacici musi lc ucvcIocu ihiough ihc iaciicc ol
moiaIIy viiiuous aciiviiics.
Vcaichs cmhasis on ihc inuiviuuaI Iaccu himin conici wiih loih
ihc uiiIiiaiian iuIc-lascu aioach io cihics as wcII as ihc Kaniian
noiion ol univcisaIizaliIiiy. Onc cannoi, loi Vcaich, aiicmi io uc-
vcIo cihicaI iuIcs oi iinciIcs ihai iicai inuiviuuaIs as inicichangc-
alIc, as il inuiviuuaIiiy uiu noi maiici moiaIIy. Thc inuiviuuaI uocs
maIc a moiaI uicicncc. Vcaichs aioach io cihics in ihc 1g6os was
in many ways icaiing ihc hiIosohicaI woiIu loi ihc ciiiicisms ol
imcisonaIismihai wouIu comc Iaici in ihc iwcniicih ccniuiy. Fn.ornI
Anr was in scvciaI ways a hailingci ol whai Iaici moiaI hiIosohcis
wouIu caII viiiuc cihics.
Vcaich aigucu in Fn.ornI Anr ihai an acaI io human naiuic io-
viucs ihc conicmoiaiy icauci wiih InowIcugc ol ihc lasic goous ol
human ouiishing, an awaicncss ol ihc ccniiaIiiy ol iaciicaI wisuom
anu moiaI viiiuc, anu an aicciaiion ol ihc imoiiancc ol inuiviuuaI
choicc. Yci, such an acaI ncvci ioviucs a iccic ly which onc
guiucs oncs conuuci. Onc cannoi uciciminc whai onc oughi io uo
mcicIy ly acaIing io an alsiiaci unucisianuing ol human ouiish-
ing. Eihics is noi an aimchaii aii. Thus, Vcaichs AiisioicIian cihics is
lunuamcniaIIy ooscu io ihis soii ol cihicaI iaiionaIism.
In a IivcIy anu iicnchani way, Vcaich soughi io ichaliIiiaic ihc naiu-
iaI Iaw iiauiiion ly showing ihai cihicaI InowIcugc can lc lascu on
human naiuic wiihoui icquiiing ihc auoiion ol a onc-sizc-is-aII
aioach io human conuuci. Human ouiishing is noi somcihing mo-
[ xvi | P.ene
nisiic oi simIc, anu ii is aIways ihc goou o. somc inuiviuuaI oi oihci.
Vcaich aIIowcu loi uicicni wcighiings ol lasic goous wiihoui su-
osing ihai human naiuic is iiicIcvani io cihicaI InowIcugc. Hc ihus
occuicu ihc miuuIc giounu lciwccn Gcimain Giiscz anu ]ohn Iinnis
(anu ihc so-caIIcu ncw naiuiaI Iaw ihcoiisis who aiguc ihai cihics ic-
quiics no onioIogicaI giounuing) anu ihc moic iiauiiionaIIy minucu
naiuiaI Iaw ihcoiisis (usuaIIy ncoschoIasiic hiIosohcis) who sccm-
ingIy ihoughi ihai onc couIu icau-o ihc ioci couisc ol conuuci
liom an anaIysis ol human naiuic aIonc. Vcaich was cciiainIy an auvo-
caic ol naiuiaI Iaw cihics, lui his unucisianuing ol ii was suliIc anu
nuanccu.
In Fn.ornI Anr, Vcaich mci hcau-on ihosc who soughi io giounu
cihicaI InowIcugc simIy in an acaI io ucsiics oi uuiy loi uuiys
saIc. Thc human goou has io lc moic ihan uoing mcicIy whai wc lccI
IiIc uoing, anu cihics musi maIc somc soii ol uicicncc as io how
wc Iivc oui Iivcs. Il ii uocs nciihci, ihcn quiic simIy why loihci oui-
scIvcs wiih cihics. Dcsiic ihcii sianuing in acaucmc, such aioachcs
io cihics icaIIy havc noihing io oci ihc oiuinaiy man oi woman who
is iiying io nu a woiihwhiIc Iilc oi, ai Icasi, iiying noi io maIc a mcss
ol ii.
Vcaich conlionicu vigoiousIy ihosc who lcIicvcu ihai a jusiica-
iion loi liccuom anu ioIciancc couIu lc lounu ly icjcciing aII moiaI
sianuaius. Hc noicu ihai MussoIinis lascism was as much a Icgiiimaic
inlcicncc liom ihc icjcciion ol moiaI sianuaius as any caII loi human
Iilciiy. Hc mauc cIcai ihc gIaiing non scquiiui in aII aiicmis io icc-
ommcnu a couisc ol conuuci liom ihc icmisc ihai no couisc ol
aciion is icaIIy suciioi io any oihci. Hc aIso noicu ihai, io ihc cx-
icni human lcings choosc onc couisc ol conuuci ovci anoihci, ihcy
manilcsi a iclcicncc ihai is inconsisicni iaciicaIIy wiih ihc icjcciion
ol aII moiaI sianuaius. Vcaichs ciiiicisms ol mosi osimoucinism aic
cquaIIy iicnchani.
Coniiaiy io much icvaIcni ihoughi, Fn.ornI Anr was noi wiiiicn
cxIiciiIy as a oIcmicaI icsonsc io WiIIiam Baiiciis wiucIy icau 1.-
.n.ornI Anr (1gS). Vcaich was conccincu io show, ly uusiing o ihc
insighis ol AiisioicIian icaIisi ihcoiy, ihai human lcings uo havc an
aIicinaiivc io lcing iiiaiionaI anu ihai ihcy uo noi lacc a mcaningIcss
anu alsuiu cxisicncc. PhiIosohicaI icaIisi ihai hc was, Vcaich aigucu
P.ene [ xvii |
ihai ihcic is a scnsc anu mcaning io ihings anu ihai ihc human minu
can Inow ihis mcaning. Knowing ihis uocs noi icquiic ihai onc lc
GouIiIc oi incaalIc ol ciioi. Yci, ii uocs icquiic ocnIy anu honcsiIy
lacing oncscIl, anu ihc woiIu, anu cngaging ihoioughIy in ihc cxami-
naiion Sociaics iccommcnucu so Iong ago.
DougIas B. Rasmusscn
:oo:
An Annotated Bibliography of
Henry B. Veatchs Major Works in
Chronological Order
vooxs
1rer.ornI 1o.: A 1o. Bnen or PL.IooL.nI FenI.
Ncw Havcn, Conn.: YaIc Univcisiiy Picss, 1g:
This owciluI woiI is lunuamcniaI io Vcaichs ihoughi anu is ai Icasi as icIc-
vani iouay as whcn ii isi acaicu. This woiI iicais Iogic as AiisioiIc uiu
namcIy, as an o.nror, ihai is, as a iooI loi InowIcugc. Ii chaIIcngcs many ol
ihc conicmoiaiy osiiions lounu in anaIyiic hiIosohy icgaiuing ihc na-
iuic ol Iogic. Iiomissucs ciiaining io ihc chaiacici ol IogicaI loims anu icIa-
iions io ihc aIIcgcu iimacy ol ihc anaIyiic-synihciic accouni ol ioosiiions,
ihis looI aigucs ihai ihc laiIuic io unucisianu ihc inicniionaI chaiacici ol
Iogic Iics ai ihc vciy hcaii ol many ol ihc lasic conlusions anu iolIcms ol
conicmoiaiy anaIyiic hiIosohy.
FenI. nrn No.rnI. Fe...en
MiIwauIcc: Maiquciic Univcisiiy Picss, 1gq
This iighiIy aigucu anu cIcaiIy wiiiicn woiI was ihc Aquinas Icciuic loi 1gq
ai Maiquciic Univcisiiy. Vcaich iooI issuc wiih GoiiIol Iicgcs anu W. V. O.
Quincs chaiaciciizaiions ol Iogic anu accuscu loih ol icsuiicciing ihc an-
cicni iolIcm ol univcisaIsa iolIcm loi Vcaich ihai hau iis soIuiion in
Aquinas mouciaic icaIism.
1o. n n Hunr 1r.uer
Wiih IianI PaiIci. Ncw YoiI: Haici anu Row, 1gg
Thc woiI is loi cIassioom usc as a Iogic icxi, lui ii uscs insighis liom 1r-
er.ornI 1o. io cxIain conccis, ioosiiions, anu aigumcnis. Chaici 1s
uiscussion ol ihc naiuic ol signs is vciy imoiiani io unucisianuing noi onIy
Vcaichs ihoughi lui aIso hiIosohicaI icaIism in gcnciaI. Thc uiscussion
ol ihc AiisioicIian, as ooscu io ihc MiIIcan, accouni ol inuuciion is vciy
insiiuciivc icgaiuing somc ol ihc ccniiaI issucs in ihc so-caIIcu iolIcm ol
inuuciion.
Fn.ornI Anr: A Aone.r 1re..en.or o A..oeI.nr EL.
Ionuon anu BIoomingion: Inuiana Univcisiiy Picss, 1g6:. TiansIaicu ly ]. M.
Gaicia ucI Ia Moia as E.n neI e. .n.oreI. BaiccIona, 1g6
T.o 1o.: TLe Cor. !e.eer CIn.nI nrn Neo-nrnI,. PL.IooL,
Evansion, III.: Noiihwcsicin Univcisiiy Picss, 1g6S
Vcaich aigucu ihai ihc nco-anaIyiic vicw ol conccis anu ioosiiions is un-
alIc io ioviuc a InowIcugc ol whai ihings aic, whiIc ihc nco-AiisioicIian
[ xx | Arronen B.!I.o.nL,
vicw ol conccis anu ioosiiions can ioviuc such InowIcugc. In somc ways,
Vcaichs uiscussion ol nco-anaIyiic hiIosohy icuicicu ihc ucconsiiuciion-
ismol SianIcy Iish anu Richaiu Roiiy. Thcic aic aIso imoiiani uiscussions ol
ihc uicicnccs lciwccn scicniic anu humanisiic Inowing, whai csscniiaIism
is anu is noi, anu ihc signicancc ol laIIiliIism.
Fo. nr OroIo, o Ao.nI: A C...que o Coreo.n., EL.nI TLeo.,
Evansion, III.: Noiihwcsicin Univcisiiy Picss, 1g6S
This sohisiicaicu anu imoiiani woiI uocs ihicc ihings: (1) ii conicnus ihai
nco-anaIyiic anu cxisicniiaIisi cihics ioviuc us wiih no iccouisc lui cihicaI
nihiIism; (:) ii aigucs ihai ihc Kaniian hiIosohicaI ucvicc, ihc iiansccnucn-
iaI iuin, uIiimaicIy ioviucs no hcI io ihc anaIysis anu cxisicniiaIisis; anu
() ii uclcnus ihc ihcsis ihai onIy an onioIogicaI iuin in cihics can avoiu cihi-
caI nihiIism. Thc ihiiu ihcsis invoIvcs a lascinaiing accouni ol goouncss as an
oljcciivc anu naiuiaI, lui aIso sucivcnicni anu icIaiionaI, iociiy as wcII as
a uclcnsc ol naiuiaI Iaw cihics againsi uiiIiiaiianism anu Kaniian uuiy cihics.
1rer.ornI 1o.: A 1o. Bnen or PL.IooL.nI FenI., 1go
UnaIicicu anu unaliiugcu iciini ly Aichon BooIs, Hamucn, Conn.
A..oIe: A Coreo.n., A.e.n.or
Ionuon anu BIoomingion: Inuiana Univcisiiy Picss, 1gq
Vcaich was a Iuciu anu Icaincu mcnioi ol AiisioiIc, anu ncvci moic so ihan in
ihis woiI, which ioviucs maivcIousIy cIcai accounis ol AiisioiIcs uociiinc
ol ihc loui causcs, ihc souI, anu lcing qua lcing, aIong wiih iniiouucioiy uis-
cussions ol AiisioiIcs EL., PoI.., anu Poe.. Vcaich aigucu ihai AiisioiIc
is ihc hiIosohci ol common scnsc n. e:eIIere.
Hunr F.L: Fn o. Fnr,
Baion Rougc anu Ionuon: Iouisiana Siaic Univcisiiy Picss, 1gS
This woiI hoIus ihai onIy a naiuiaI Iaw cihics ihai lascs iiscIl on icIcoIogy
can ioviuc a giounu loi naiuiaI iighis; nciihci a ucsiic noi a uuiy cihics wiII
succ. Vcaichs concciion ol ihc lasic iighis ol Iilc, Iilciiy, anu iociiy
is ncgaiivc, noi osiiivc. Iuiihci, Vcaich hcIu ihai ihc common goou ol ihc
oIiiicaI communiiy has io lc iiuIy goou loi cvciy inuiviuuaI. Thus, whai ihc
siaic couIu cIaim as iis lunciion on lchaIl ol ihc common goou was scvcicIy
Iimiicu, sincc ihc human goou loi Vcaich was ncvci somc PIaionic loim.
S...r nn.r Le Cu..er .r Coreo.n., PL.IooL,: On.ornI Pne. nrn En,
Siuuics in PhiIosohy anu ihc Hisioiy ol PhiIosohy, voI. :o, cu. ]uuc P.
Doughciiy. Washingion, D.C.: CaihoIic Univcisiiy Picss ol Amciica, 1ggo
This coIIcciion incIuucs many ol Vcaichs mosi imoiiani aiiicIcs, cscciaIIy
liom ihc 1gSos. Thc vicws ol such conicmoiaiy hiIosohcis as Quinc,
Roiiy, AIan Donagan, anu AIan Gcwiiih comc in loi somc imoiiani ciiii-
cism. Thcic aic aIso uiscussions ol ihc iinciIc ol univcisaIizaliIiiy, iighi
icason, cihicaI cgoism, naiuiaI iighis, anu Iilciiaiian oIiiicaI ihcoiy. IinaIIy,
ihcic aic cssays on ihc vaIuc ol humanisiic Icaining anu cssays chaIIcnging
]ohn Iinnis anu ihc ncw naiuiaI Iaw ihcoiisis.
Arronen B.!I.o.nL, [ xxi |
siiit+ir .v+itiis
Conccining ihc OnioIogicaI Siaius ol IogicaI Ioims
Fe..e. o AenL,. : (1gqS): qo6q.
AiisioicIian anu MaihcmaiicaI Iogic
TLe TLo. 1 (1go): og6.
In Dclcnsc ol ihc SyIIogism
Aone.r SLooInr :6 (1go): 1Sq:o:.
Basic Conlusions in Cuiicni Noiions ol PioosiiionaI CaIcuIi
TLe TLo. 1q (1g1): :S:S.
Discussion: RcIy io Piolcssoi Coi
PL.IooL, nrn PLeroeroIo.nI Feen.L 11 (1g1): .
IoimaIism anuJoi InicniionaIiiy in Iogic
PL.IooL, nrn PLeroeroIo.nI Feen.L 11 (1g1): qS6.
Thc icccuing aiiicIcs cxicss in uicicni ways, anu somciimcs wiih gicaici
uciaiI ihan 1rer.ornI 1o., ihc naiuic ol Vcaichs comIaini againsi so-caIIcu
maihcmaiicaI Iogic.
On Tiying io Say anu Know Whais Whai
PL.IooL, nrn PLeroeroIo.nI Feen.L :q (1g6): Sg6.
Thc Tiuihs ol Mciahysics
Fe..e. o AenL,. 1 (1g6q): :g.
Si. Thomas anu ihc Qucsiion How aic Synihciic ]uugmcnis a Piioii PossilIc.
Aone.r SLooInr q: (1g6): :g:6.
Thc icccuing aiiicIcs iaIc u an ongoing ihcmc ol Vcaichs hiIosohicaI
caiccinamcIy, ihc uicicncc lciwccn ihc concciion ol ihc ioosiiion
in AiisioicIian ihoughi anu ihai ol conicmoiaiy anaIyiic hiIosohy. Thcsc
aiiicIcs aic woiih icauing il loi no oihci icason ihan io aicciaic Vcaichs
uiaIcciicaI movcs.
Non-cogniiivism in Eihics: A Moucsi PioosaI loi Iis Diagnosis anu Cuic
EL. 6 (1g66): 1o:116.
This cssay ocis ciiiicism ol G. E. Mooics ocn-qucsiion aigumcni anu a
cIcai uiscussion ol Vcaichs cIaim ihai goouncss is a naiuiaI, lui sucivcnicni
anu icIaiionaI, iociiy.
Kani anu Aquinas: A Conlioniaiion on ihc Conicmoiaiy Mcia-cihicaI IicIu
ol Honoi
Ne. SLoIn.. qS (1gq): gg.
This woiI uiscusscs how Aquinas lounu ii ossilIc loi ihc goou io lc an ol-
jcci ol ucsiic anu so uciciminc ihc wiII in ihc mannci ol icasons ihai scivc
io waiiani oi jusiily choiccs.
Thc RaiionaI ]usiicaiion ol MoiaI PiinciIcs: Can Thcic Bc Such a Thing.
Fe..e. o AenL,. :g (1g): :1:S.
This cssay consiucis ihc qucsiion, Why lc moiaI. anu aigucs ihai nciihci a
uuiy cihics noi a ucsiic-lascu cihics can ioviuc a saiislacioiy answci. Bui il
[ xxii | Arronen B.!I.o.nL,
goouncss is an oljcciivc lcaiuic ol ihings in ihc icaI woiIu anu aIso ihc oljcci
ol ucsiics anu inicicsis, ihcn wc can havc loih a icason anu a moiivaiion loi
lcing moiaI.
On ihc Usc anu ihc Alusc ol ihc PiinciIc ol UnivcisaIizaliIiiy
P.oeen.r o Le Ae..nr CnLoI. PL.IooL.nI Ao.n.or 1 (1g): 16:1o.
This woiI uisiinguishcs ihc iinciIc ol univcisaIizaliIiiy liom imaiiiaIisi
anu aIiiuisiic iniciiciaiions ol ii.
Is Kani ihc Giay Emincncc ol Conicmoiaiy EihicaI Thcoiy.
EL. go (1gSo): :1S:S.
Kanis inucncc in conicmoiaiy cihics is shown in ihis woiI io lc ihc souicc
ol ihc cgoism-aIiiuism aiauigm. AIso, Aquinas vicw ol iaiionaI agcncy is
coniiasicu io Kanis.
A Non-Caiicsian Mcuiiaiion uon ihc Dociiinc ol Bcing in ihc AiisioicIian
Mciahysics
In C.neuI Fenor: En, .r Ar.er nrn Aen.e.nI PL.IooL, P.eeren o JoeL
O.er, CSSR, cu. IIoyu P. Gcison, 1oo. Pacis in McuiacvaI Siuuics q.
Toionio: PoniicaI Insiiiuic ol McuiacvaI Siuuics, 1gS.
This cssay ocis a iolounu accouni ol csscncc anu sulsiancc in AiisioiIcs
mciahysics. Ii aIso shows how ihc concciion ol Iogic uscu ly mosi conicm-
oiaiy hiIosohcis icvcnis ihcmliomunucisianuing ihc ccniiaI insighi ol
AiisioiIcs mciahysicsnamcIy, ihai inuiviuuaI ihings can aciuaIIy !e whai
ihcy aic as ooscu io having ihcii naiuic ucicimincu ly somc e..u qu.n.
Moucin Eihics, TcIcoIogy, anu Iovc ol ScIl
TLe Aor. (1gg:): :o.
This cssay ioviucs an aigumcni showing how an cihics ol scIl-Iovc, il icIco-
IogicaIIy consiiucu, can lc univcisaIizalIc lui noi imcisonaI oi agcni-
ncuiiaI.
Foreword
A lcw ycais ago ihcic was ulIishcu in ihis couniiy an aiicsiing looI
cniiiIcu 1..n.ornI Anr. Thc aim ol ihc auihoi, Mi. WiIIiam Baiicii,
was noi io show ihai human lcings aic in laci iiiaiionaI much ol ihc
iimc, cihas mosi ol ihc iimc. Evciy onc has lccn so acuicIy awaic
ol ihis loi so Iong ihai ii scaiccIy nccus wiiiing a looI aloui. Insicau,
Mi. Baiiciis uiosc was io show ihai man has no aIicinaiivc lui io lc
iiiaiionaI, sincc ihc siiuaiion in which human lcings nu ihcmscIvcs
is csscniiaIIy mcaningIcss anu alsuiu. To lc iaiionaI icsuoscs ihai
onc can nu somc scnsc anu mcaning in ihings. Bui il ihings havc no
scnsc oi mcaning, whai ihcn.
Thc inicni ol ihc icscni cssay is in no wisc oIcmicaI, aiiicuIaiIy
noi iowaiu Mi. Baiicii. Bui wc aic cniiiIcu io asI, lcloic wc sciiIc loi
iiiaiionaIiiy: Whai uocs ihc aIicinaiivc ol iiying io Iivc iaiionaIIy anu
inicIIigcniIy icaIIy mcan. Whai is ii IiIc io lc iaiionaI. In oiuci io
answci such a qucsiion onc nccu noi laII lacI on his own uniuioicu
cxciicncc; cvcn il hc is hay cnough (oi icsumiuous cnough) io
uiaw on his own cxciicncc, ii wiII scaiccIy lc an oiiginaI oi novcI cx-
ciicncc. AII ol us who aic iouucis ol Wcsicin cuIiuic havc, ciihci
consciousIy oi unconsciousIy, lccn io schooI io ihc GiccIs, io Socia-
ics, io PIaio, anu io AiisioiIc.
Whai loIIows, ihcicloic, is an accouni ol ihc cihics ol iaiionaI man,
an cihics ihai owcs iis insiiaiion anu aiiicuIaiion IaigcIy io ihc N.o-
nLenr EL. ol AiisioiIc. Bui ihis looI is no schoIaiIy iicaiisc. Mou-
cin acaucmic schoIais in ihc cIu ol GiccI hiIosohy may lc hoi-
iicu ai ihc cavaIici way in which noiions vagucIy icminisccni ol ihc
Siagiiiic aic hcic sciamlIcu anu iwisicu, iuncu anu amIicu. Ioi
ihis ihc auihoi maIcs no aoIogy His uiosc has lccn noi io cx-
ounu AiisioiIc lui io usc him in a moucin coii io sci loiih anu jus-
iily a iaiionaI sysicm ol cihics. Anyonc who has icau AiisioiIcs EL.
musi havc asIcu himscIl how ihosc insighis anu cihicaI counscIs ihai
[ xxiv | Fo.e.o.n
wcic so icIcvani io louiih-ccniuiy Aihcns wouIu aIy in ihc cuIiuiaI
anu moiaI siiuaiion ol ihc icscni uay. Whai wouIu ihc icccis ol
AiisioiIcoi ol Sociaics anu PIaiomcan, how wouIu ihcy aIy,
whai wouIu ihcy cniaiI il onc soughi io Iivc ly ihcm iouay.
Wiih an oljcciivc ihai is ihus iaciicaI anu cvcn cisonaI, ii lc-
comcs ossilIc io cxIain, anu cihas io jusiily, cciiain oihci sins
ol omission anu commission in whai loIIows. Iiom ihc sianuoini ol
conicmoiaiy acaucmic cihics ihis looI is hocIcssIy oui ol sic anu
oui ol lashion. To oini ihc coniiasi wc may quoic ihc ocning aia-
giahs ol onc ol ihc moic signicani iicaiiscs on cihics io acai in
ihc Iasi lcw ycais:
This looI ucaIs noi wiih ihc whoIc ol cihics, lui wiih a naiiowIy
scciaIizcu aii ol ii. Iis isi oljcci is io cIaiily ihc mcaning ol ihc
cihicaI icimssuch icims as goou, iighi, jusi, oughi, anu
so on. Iis scconu oljcci is io chaiaciciizc ihc gcnciaI mcihous ly
which cihicaI juugmcnis can lc iovcu oi suoiicu.
Such a siuuy is icIaicu io noimaiivc (oi cvaIuaiivc) cihics in
much ihc samc way ihai concciuaI anaIysis anu scicniic mcihou
aic icIaicu io ihc scicnccs. Onc wouIu noi cxcci a looI on sci-
cniic mcihou io uo ihc woiI ol scicncc iiscIl; anu onc musi noi
cxcci io nu hcic any concIusions aloui whai conuuci is iighi oi
wiong. Thc uiosc ol an anaIyiic oi mcihouoIogicaI siuuy, whcihci
ol scicncc oi ol cihics, is aIways inuiicci. Ii hocs io scnu oihcis io
ihcii iasIs wiih cIcaici hcaus anu Icss wasicluI haliis ol invcsiiga-
iion. This ncccssiiaics a coniinuaI sciuiiny ol whai ihcsc oihcis aic
uoing, oi cIsc anaIysis ol mcanings anu mcihous wiII iocccu in a
vacuum; lui ii uocs noi icquiic ihc anaIysi, as such, io aiiiciaic
in ihc inquiiy ihai hc anaIyzcs. In cihics any uiicci aiiiciaiion
ol ihis soii mighi havc iis uangcis. Ii mighi uciivc ihc anaIysis ol
iis uciachmcni anu uisioii a icIaiivcIy ncuiiaI siuuy inio a Ica loi
somc scciaI couc ol moiaIs. So aIihough noimaiivc qucsiions con-
siiiuic ly lai ihc mosi imoiiani lianch ol cihics, civauing aII ol
common-scnsc Iilc, anu occuying mosi ol ihc iolcssionaI aiicn-
iion ol IcgisIaiois, cuiioiiaIisis, uiuaciic novcIisis, cIcigymcn, anu
moiaI hiIosohcis, ihcsc qucsiions musi hcic lc Icli unanswcicu.
Fo.e.o.n [ xxv |
Thc icscni voIumc has ihc Iimiicu iasI ol shaicning ihc iooIs
which oihcis cmIoy.
*
This looI, howcvci, uocs noi aiicmi io shaicn any iooIs. Ii uocs
noi iolcss io sianu ouisiuc cihics anu mcicIy io anaIyzc iis mcanings
anu mcihous. Insicau, ii aiicmis icciscIy ihai uiicci aiiiciaiion
in cihics which Mi. Sicvcnson wains mighi havc iis uangcis. Ii is iiuc
ihai ihc jol ihai is hcic lcing unuciiaIcn may lc such as io uciivc
ihc anaIysis ol iis uciachmcni. SiiII, onc wonucis whcihci, whcn ihc
housc is luining oi ihc shi sinIing, uciachmcni is quiic ihc ioci
aiiiiuuc. I am cvcn wiIIing io aumii ihai whai loIIows wiII in a scnsc
invoIvc a Ica loi somc scciaI couc ol cihics. Bui I wouIu noi IiIc
io aumii ihai a scciaI Ica musi ncccssaiiIy invoIvc scciaI Icauing.
I am noi suic ihai ihc anaIogy icaIIy hoIus lciwccn whai has comc
io lc Inown as ihc hiIosohy oi Iogic ol scicncc, invoIving anaIysis
ol ihc conccis anu mcihous uscu in ihc scicnccs (as uisiinci liom ihc
scicnccs ihcmscIvcs), anu whai mighi lc caIIcu ihc hiIosohy oi Iogic
oi cihas mcia-cihics ol cihics, invoIving ihc siuuy ol ihc Iogic anu
Ianguagc ol moiaIs oi cihics (as uisiinci liom moiaIs oi cihics ihcm-
scIvcs).
I wonuci ioo whcihci ihcic may noi lc somcihing sIighiIy scIl-
iighicous in ihc usuaI osc ol ihc conicmoiaiy cihicaI hiIosohci,
who moucsiIy cIaims io connc his aiicniion cniiicIy io qucsiions ol
ihc Ianguagc oi Iogic ol cihics, Icaving aII sulsianiivc cihicaI qucsiions
io IcgisIaiois, cuiioiiaIisis, uiuaciic novcIisis, cIcigymcn, anu moiaI
hiIosohcis. Ii musi lc vciy icassuiing io ihc comIaccncy ol ihc
icscni-uay iolcssoi ol cihics io iocIaim ii lcncaih his scicniic
caIIing io givc iaciicaI auvicc in ihc mannci ol an cuiioiiaI wiiici oi
a cIcigyman. As loi ihc hiIosohcis ol scicncc, ihcy show icscci,
noi io say vcnciaiion, loi ihc scicniisis. Bui ihc hiIosohcis ol cihics
icnu io icgaiu anyonc Iaying ihc ioIc ol moiaIisi as no lciici ihan
a hony. As a icsuIi, ihai lianch ol cihics which in ihc loicgoing
quoiaiion is uullcu ihc mosi imoiiani is ihc aii which is mosi nc-
*ChaiIcs I. Sicvcnson, EL. nrn 1nrune, Ncw Havcn: YaIc Univcisiiy Picss,
1gqq, . 1.
[ xxvi | Fo.e.o.n
gIccicu in iouays acaucmic woiIu. Piolcssois no Iongci iolcss ii anu
siuucnis no Iongci siuuy ii.
Ici ii ihcn lc lianIIy acInowIcugcu ihai ihis looI wiII havc io uo
wiih jusi such noimaiivc qucsiions as ihc cuiicniIy icgnani inicIIigcni-
sia has comc io icgaiu as noi hiIosohicaIIy icsccialIc. Thc icauci
nccu noi lc suiiiscu il hc laiIs io nu hcic ihc Iinu ol schoIasiic uis-
cussion ihai icnus io uiviucanu, onc is icmicu io auu, io conquci
Iaiici-uay iolcssois ol cihics in ihis couniiy. Noi ihai such uiscussions
aic noi nccucu. Bui cvcn il I hau ihc comcicncc loi ihc unuciiaIing,
I shouIu scaiccIy havc ihc wiII loi ii. As a iolcssoi, onc may icIish
coniiovcisy wiih oihci iolcssois; as a icachci, onc may nccuIc anu
cajoIc oncs siuucnis; lui as a human lcing onc lccIs a icsonsiliIiiy io
cngagc in lianI anu ocn uiscussion wiih oihci human lcings aloui
ihosc moiaI anu cihicaI qucsiions ihai havc Iagucu ihoughiluI mcn
ol aII agcs. In whai loIIows, ihcicloic, my conccin wiII lc io consiuci
hiIosohicaI uicuIiics anu ciIcxiiics in common human icims,
iaihci ihan in ihc icchnicaI icims ol acaucmic coniiovcisy.
PoIiiicaI anu sociaI qucsiions aic noi ucaIi wiih in ihis looI. Ii is ihc
inuiviuuaIs icsonsiliIiiy io himscIl, noi his icsonsiliIiiy io sociciy,
ihai is hcic lcing invcsiigaicu. This omission is ucIilciaic, anu noi
mcicIy loi icasons ol cconomy, lui aIso loi ihc saIc ol a much nccucu
icuicssing ol ihc laIancc. Nowauays mosi ol us sccm io havc laIIcn
inio ihc halii ol gauging a mans woiih soIcIy in icims ol ihc coniii-
luiion hc maIcs io ihc communiiy. Wc iaIc ii loi gianicu ihai a lig
lusincss cxccuiivc is moic imoiiani ihan a Ialoici, a lamous suigcon
ihan an oiuinaiy houscwilc, a liiIIiani hysicisi ihan a Ialoiaioiy as-
sisiani. Bui wouIu wc noi aII agicc ihai howcvci uisiinguishcu a ulIic
ociaI oi man ol aaiis may lc, howcvci signaI his coniiiluiions io
scicncc oi io ihc naiionaI cconomy, yci, consiucicu jusi as a cison, as
a human lcing, oui man ol uisiinciion may iuin oui io lc lai liom au-
miialIc. Thcic is no ncccssaiy coiicIaiion lciwccn a mans coniiilu-
iion io sociciy anu his woiih as an inuiviuuaI. This looI is conccincu
wiih a mans woiih in himscIl, icgaiuIcss ol any uiiIiiaiian csiimaic
ihai may lc Iaccu uon him in viiiuc ol his sciviccs io ihc Icviaihan
ol moucin sociciy.
Noi uocs ihis looI ucaI wiih icIigion oi ihc icIaiion ol icIigion
io cihics. Ii is noi jusi in ihc ouIai minu ihai moiaIs sccm io lc
Fo.e.o.n [ xxvii |
inscaialIy lounu u wiih icIigious iohiliiions anu sanciions. Evcn
in ihc acaucmic minu, ii asscs aImosi loi a iiuism ihai whcn onc
movcs liom ihcoiics aloui cihics io aciuaI cihicaI conviciions, ihc Iai-
ici can lc IiiiIc moic ihan maiicis ol laiih anu lcIicl, noi maiicis ol
cviucncc anu InowIcugc. Bui ihis looI iolcsscs io lc ihiough anu
ihiough a looI ol hiIosohy; ihcicloic iis aigumcni musi icIy noi
on any acaIs io icvcIaiion, lui soIcIy on whai uscu io lc Inown as
ihc naiuiaI Iighi ol icason.
I lcIicvc ihai cihics can lc lascu on cviucncc anu ihai ii is a maiici
ol InowIcugc; lui I uo noi cIaim ihai ihis is ihc whoIc sioiy. Howcvci
ii may havc lccn wiih a hiIosohci IiIc AiisioiIc, mosi ol us oiuinaiy
moiiaIs cannoi cvcn Inow ihc goou Iilc, much Icss iaciicc ii, wiih-
oui somc aiu liom a souicc ouisiuc ouiscIvcs. Such an associaiion ol
cihics wiih icIigion is, I lcIicvc, cniiicIy comaiilIc wiih ihc soii ol
AiisioicIian cihics icscnicu hcic. Bui ii is noi ihis siuc ol ihc sioiy
ihai I ioosc io icII. I wish io sci loiih a looI simIy on cihics, cihics
wiihoui icIigion, il you wiII.
H. B. V.
Rational Man
1
In Quest of
Ethical Knowledge
1. VLn . eL.
]usi whai soii ol cniciiisc is cihics. Is ii ihc wcaiisomc onc ol icII-
ing coIc whai ihcy oughi oi oughi noi io uo. Oi cihas ihc gia-
iuiious, cvcn icsumiuous, onc ol Icciuiing ihcm on whai ihc goou
Iilc loi man musi nccus consisi in. SuicIy no onc lui a looI wouIu
Ici himscIl in loi any such unuciiaIing as ihis. Evcn ihc iolcssois ol
cihics nowauays havc hau ihc wii io avoiu any scmlIancc ol icaching.
Thcy wouIu noi loi a minuic consiuci ii ihcii lusincss io insiiuci siu-
ucnis in such iimc-honoicu ihcmcs as ihc uicicncc lciwccn iighi
anu wiong, ihc goou Iilc loi man, oi ihc olIigaiion ol lcing loi
Gou, loi couniiy, anu loi YaIc. No, ihciis, ihcy wouIu cIaim, is ihc
moic moucsi, anu, il you wiII, ihc moic iociIy hiIosohicaI, iasI ol
cIaiilying ihc mcanings anu uscs ol chaiaciciisiic woius anu hiascs
ihai occui in ihc Ianguagc ol moiaIs anu cihics. Thus a siaicmcni io
ihc ccci ihai onc oughi io ay oncs uclis iuins oui io lc an assci-
iion ol a uicicni soii liom ciihci v gi oi ]acI Siai couIu cai no
lai. Ii isni IiIc a siiaighiloiwaiu siaicmcni ol laci, anu ii isni IiIc a
Iaw ol naiuic ciihci. Is ii, ihcn, moic on ihc oiuci ol an cxIicii oi im-
Iicii commanu io somconc io uo somcihing. Oi maylc ii is an assci-
iion ol ihc cxisicncc ol a somcwhai mysiciious, non-naiuiaI iociiy
ol olIigaioiincss which is hcIu io aiiach io such couiscs ol aciion as
aying youi uclis oi scaIing ihc iiuih.
Wiih ihcsc anu IiIc qucsiions as io ihc Ianguagc ol moiaIs, ihc cui-
icni acaucmic siuuy ol cihics sccms IaigcIy io conccin iiscIl. This may
lc aII io ihc goou. To Icc iolcssois occuicu wiih mcic qucsiions
[ : | v.+i o.i x.
ol Ianguagc, as uisiinci liom qucsiions ol sulsiancc, couIu aciuaIIy lc
vciy much in ihc ulIic inicicsi, many coIc mighi say. Thc onIy
iioulIc is ihai io mosi coIc ii musi sccm ihai cihics has io uo wiih
moic ihan jusi ihc mcanings ol woius anu uscs ol Ianguagc. Inuccu,
io ihc siuucni who navcIy anu ingcnuousIy iuins his aiicniion io ihc
siuuy ol cihics, ii musi suicIy sccm ihai whai hc is sccIing io nu oui
is noi so much whai ihc woiu goou mcans, as whai ihc goou Iilc
is, noi whcihci ihc vcil oughi is moic iociIy uscu in an imcia-
iivc oi an inuicaiivc scnsc, as whcihci hc himscIl oughi io uo ihis oi
ihai. Alici aII, loi a man waniing io Icain io uiivc a cai, ii wouIu lc a
iaihci liusiiaiing cxciicncc il his insiiucioi consisicniIy icluscu io
icII him whai io uo, conning his icmaiIs cniiicIy io an anaIysis ol ihc
Ianguagc uscu in ihc uiivcis manuaIs anu icliaining liom any com-
mcni as io whcihci ihc aciuaI insiiuciions ol ihc manuaIs wcic io lc
loIIowcu oi noi.
Vciy wcII, ihcn, il onc lccIs ihai cihics has moic io uo ihan mcicIy
anaIyzc ihc Ianguagc ol moiaI uiscouisc, uocs ihai mcan ihai in oncs
own uiscouiscs on cihics hc wiII havc io Ici himscIl in loi cuilying
uisquisiiions on ihc goou Iilc, oi cihas loi ncai, wcII-acIagcu in-
siiuciions on how io lc goou, in icn casy Icssons. Ii is haiu io imaginc
anyihing siIIici, oi moic icicniious.
z. VL, ro or.ne. eL. nr n. o I...r
Thc comaiison wiih Icaining io uiivc a cai may iovc io lc un-
cxccicuIy aosiic loi an unucisianuing ol cihics. Ioi whai aloui
such ihings as Icaining io Iivc oi Icaining how io lc human. Aic noi
ihcsc ihings ihai wc havc io Icain how io uo, jusi as wc havc io Icain
how io uiivc oi io Iay liicIs oi io Icc accounis oi io luichci hogs.
Iis iiuc ihai woius aic somcwhai amliguous anu misIcauing in ihis
conncciion. Thus ii wiII no uouli lc icmaiIcu ihai as Iong as onc ic-
mains aIivc, onc uocs Iivc; anu il onc lcIongs io ihc sccics man onc
cani vciy wcII hcI lcing a human lcing. In ihis scnsc, Iiving oi lcing
human aic noi so much ihings ihai wc Icain how io no, as ihings ihai
wc ciihci n.e oi aic noi.
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ |
Ai ihc samc iimc, ii cciiainIy maIcs scnsc io scaI ol Iiving wcII, as
coniiasicu wiih maIing a mcss ol oncs Iilc. Who is ihcic who is noi
conccincu, in somc way oi oihci anu howcvci hc may cxicss ii, wiih
somc such ihing as gciiing somcihing oui ol Iilc, achicving haincss,
maIing ihc ioci aujusimcni io Iilc, lcing succcssluI, oi cihas jusi
simIy gciiing aIong, oi maylc cvcn Iiving ii u. Moicovci, whaicvci
loim ihis conccin wiih oui own Iivcs may iaIc, wc suicIy iccognizc
ihai in ihis cniciiisc ol Iiving wc may, anu iolalIy wiII, maIc mis-
iaIcs. Bui siiII wc can aIways Icain. Inuccu, ihc vciy laci ihai wc scc
ihai wc uo maIc misiaIcs mcans ihai wc havc ihcicly comc io havc ai
Icasi somc noiion ol whai noi maIing misiaIcs wouIu lc IiIc. In oihci
woius, cxciicncc wouIu sccm io lc a icachci in Iilc, jusi as ii is in
lusincss oi in mcuicinc oi in uiiving a cai.
Why noi, ihcn, suosc ihai liomcxciicncc in Iilc ihcic can lc uc-
vcIocu somcihing IiIc an aii ol Iiving, jusi as liomhuman cxciicncc
ol vaiious Iinus ihcic havc ucvcIocu ihc vaiious aiis ol mcuicinc, ol
managing iociiy, ol luiIuing liiugcs, ol waIIing iighiiocs, anu ol
uiiving cais. Caiiying ihc anaIogy siiII luiihci, jusi as no onc is loin a
goou uocioi oi liicIIayci oi oiaioi oi iauio icchnician, lui musi isi
Icain ihc icquisiic aii oi icchniquc, so why noi say ihai no onc is loin
a goou man, ihai onc musi isi Icain ihc aii ol Iiving. Iiving wcII, in
oihci woius, is IiIc uiiving wcII oi iiying a casc wcII oi ciloiming an
acnucciomy wcII: iis an aii oi icchniquc ihai onc musi masici, a
sIiII ihai onc musi acquiic lcloic onc can uo ii wcII, oi cihas cvcn
uo ii ai aII.
j. Bu . I...r oeL.r Ln ore nr Ien.r Lo. o no
Ai ihis oini ihc icauci may lc saying io himscIl: Thc whoIc iuca
ol moiaIs oi cihics lcing an aii comaialIc io ihc aiis ol mcuicinc
anu cngincciing is simIy icosicious. Ioi unIiIc any ol ihc gcnu-
inc aiis oi icchniqucs, any icicnucu aii ol Iivingsuosing ihai ii
is Icgiiimaic cvcn io usc such a icimcan lc onIy a maiici ol oinion,
anu noi a maiici ol InowIcugc. Thai ii is lciici io ciloim a suigicaI
ociaiion in onc way iaihci ihan anoihci, oi ihai ii is lciici io con-
[ q | v.+i o.i x.
siiuci a liiugc using cciiain iycs ol maiciiaIs iaihci ihan oihcis
ihcsc aic juugmcnis ihai can lc ui io ihc icsi anu shown io lc coi-
icci oi incoiicci. Bui how is onc io icsi a juugmcni io ihc ccci ihai
ihc way ol Iilc in ihc so-caIIcu Iicc WoiIu is lciici ihan ihai in ihc
Communisi woiIu. How couIu onc cvci csialIish oljcciivcIy ihc coi-
iccincss ol a juugmcni io ihc ccci ihai lcing honcsi wiih oncscIl is
lciici ihan looIing oi ucIuuing oncscIl .
. TLe .o.e o nnnee: Le n..o.e !e.eer Ien.r.r nrn I...r
Suosing ihis io lc ihc juugmcni ol ihc icauci, ihcic is no ucny-
ing ihc couniIcss coIu, haiu lacis ihai wouIu sccm io waiiani cvcn
haishci juugmcnis. Chicl among ihcsc is ihc aiicsiing anu cmlaiiass-
ing laci ol moucin scicncc anu schoIaishi iiscIl. Ioi Icis lacc ii: mou-
cin Icaining uocs noi havc anyihing io uo wiih Iiving, oi lcing Icaincu
wiih lcing human. Thai is io say, il ihcic wcic such a ihing as a gcnuinc
aii ol Iiving, wouIu noi ihis mcan ihai ihcic wouIu havc io lc a Icgiii-
maic anu iccognizcu louy ol InowIcugc unuciIying such an aii anu
maIing ii ossilIc. Bui whcic is onc io nu any such louy ol InowI-
cugc ihai couIu coiicsonu io ihc aii ol Iiving, in ihc way in which, say,
moucin hysics coiicsonus io moucin cngincciing. Suosc ihai
onc wcic io ihuml ihiough ihc voIuminous iinicu couisc ociings
ol a moucin coIIcgc oi univcisiiy. Whcic wouIu onc nu a couisc on
how io Iivc. Anu il onc uiu nu such a couisc, ihc concIusions onc
wouIu uiaw wouIu noi lc vciy comIimcniaiy io any ucaiimcni oi
schooI ihai icsumcu io uiscnsc InowIcugc on any such ioic as ihai.
Oi IooI ai ihc maiici in ihis way, ihis iimc noi wiih icscci io aicas
ol scicniic anu schoIaiIy InowIcugc, lui wiih icscci io ihc scicniisis
anu schoIais ihcmscIvcs: Is ihcic any noiiccalIc, io say noihing ol any
ioci, coiicIaiion lciwccn whai a man Inows anu whai hc is, ihai is,
his chaiacici as a human lcing. TaIc moucin hysics again: uocs a
mans sIiII anu comcicncc as a hysicisi havc ihc sIighicsi lcaiing on
ihc Iinu ol cison hc is. May a man noi lc a liiIIiani hysicisi anu ai
ihc samc iimc lc mcan anu cnvious, oi vain anu concciicu, oi a laIsc
liicnu, oi a ]cw-laiici. I icmcmlci liom siuucni uays in HciucIlcig,
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ |
jusi ai ihc ouisci ol ihc Nazi icgimc, hcaiing siuucnis iaII ol a uisiin-
guishcu iolcssoi ol hysics ai ihc Univcisiiy who uscu io ocn his
Icciuics wiih ihc ihicaicning qucsiion: Is ihcic a ]cw anywhcic in ihc
ioom.
Noi nccu onc imaginc ihai ihc siiuaiion is so lai uicicni in ihc
humaniiics liom whai ii is in ihc scicnccs. Thcic, ioo, ihc lacis sccm
cquaIIy incscaalIc. A man may lc an cxcccuingIy csiimalIc cison
in cvciy waya goou comanion, a IoyaI liicnu, a icsonsilIc ciiizcn,
a conscicniious woiIcianu siiII lc onIy a vciy mcuiocic Chaucciian
schoIai. Anu vicc vcisa, no maiici whai a mans aiiicuIai aica ol schoI-
aiIy comcicncc may lc, whcihci in mcuicvaI hisioiy, oi EngIish Iii-
ciaiuic, oi musicoIogy oi whainoiany anu aII such ciuuiiion sccms
io havc no vciy uiicci lcaiing on ihc mans own woiih anu cxccIIcncc
as a human lcing.
Thc aicni iiicIcvancc ol Icaining io Iilc has lccomc ihc occasion
ol somc ol ihc mosi oinicu anu amusing cxisicniiaIisi saiiic.
Such an alsiiaci ihinIci, onc who ncgIccis io iaIc inio accouni ihc
icIaiionshi lciwccn his alsiiaci ihoughi anu his own cxisicncc as
an inuiviuuaI, noi caicluI io cIaiily ihis icIaiionshi io himscIl,
maIcs a comicaI imicssion uon ihc minu cvcn il hc is cvci so uis-
iinguishcu, lccausc hc is in ioccss ol ccasing io lc a human lcing
. . . such an alsiiaci ihinIci is a uuIcx lcing: a laniasiic cicaiuic
who movcs in ihc uic lcing ol alsiiaci ihoughi, anu on ihc oihci
hanu, a somciimcs iiiluI iolcssoiiaI guic which ihc loimci uc-
osiis, aloui as whcn onc scis uown a waIIing siicI. Whcn onc icaus
ihc sioiy ol such a ihinIcis Iilc (loi his wiiiings aic cihas cx-
ccIIcni), onc iicmlIcs io ihinI ol whai ii mcans io lc a man. Il a
Iacc-maIci wcic io iouucc cvci so lcauiiluI Iaccs, ii ncvciihcIcss
maIcs onc sau io conicmIaic such a ooi siunicu cicaiuic. Anu
so ii is a comicaI sighi io scc a ihinIci who in siic ol aII icicn-
sions, cisonaIIy cxisicu IiIc a nincomoo; who uiu inuccu maiiy,
lui wiihoui Inowing Iovc oi iis owci, anu whosc maiiiagc musi
ihcicloic havc lccn as imcisonaI as his ihoughi; whosc cisonaI
Iilc was ucvoiu ol aihos oi aihoIogicaI siiuggIcs, conccincu onIy
wiih ihc qucsiion ol which univcisiiy ocicu ihc lcsi IivcIihoou.
1
[ 6 | v.+i o.i x.
j. 1 . ro n n.nno: Ln Ien.r.r ee
re.e. o !e Ien.r.r Lo. o I..e
Thc samc oini can lc lioughi homc cvcn moic loicilIy whcn a-
ioachcu liom a sIighiIy uicicni angIc. In ihc casc ol ihosc ol us who
havc gonc in loi scicniic oi schoIaiIy caiccis, suosc wc simIy asI
ouiscIvcs, why uisuc Icaining. C. P. Snow has onc ol his chaiacicis
lacc u io ihis qucsiion, anu his answci noi onIy has ihc iing ol iiuih;
ii is aIso cxcccuingIy icvcaIing:
Whai hau I ioIu Auuicy wcic ihc icasons why mcn uiu scicncc.
I shouIu siiII say much ihc samc, cxcci ihai nowauays I shouIu
aIIow moic loi acciucni; many mcn lccomc scicniisis lccausc ii
hacns io lc convcnicni anu ihcy may as wcII uo ii as anyihing
cIsc. Bui ihc icaI uigcni uiivcs icmain: ihcic sccmcu io lc ihicc
Iinus. Thicc Iinus ol icason io givc io oncscIl, ihai is. Onc can uo
scicncc lccausc onc lcIicvcs ihai iaciicaIIy anu ccciivcIy ii lcnc-
is ihc woiIu. A gicai many scicniisis havc hau ihis as ihcii chicl
conscious icason: loi mc ii ncvci was anu ai ihiiiy ii sccmcu moic
looIish ihan icn ycais lcloic. . . .
Onc can uo scicncc lccausc ii icicscnis ihc iiuih. Thai oi somc-
ihing IiIc ii, was ihc icason I hau givcn in ihc asi. So lai as I hau
a conscious jusiicaiion, ii wouIu aIways havc lccn ihis. Yci ii was
noi goou cnough, I ihoughi, waiching a icu-saiIcu loai iunning
lciwccn an isIanu anu ihc shoic. Scicncc was iiuc in iis own cIu;
ii was cilcci wiihin iis icsiiiciions. Onc scIccicu oncs uaiasci
oncs uzzIc loi oncscIl, as ii wcicanu in ihc cnu soIvcu ihc uzzIc
ly showing how ihcy iicu oihci uaia ol ihc samc Iinu. Wc Inow
cnough ol ihc ioccss now io scc ihc quaIiiy ol ihc icsuIis ii can
givc us; wc Inow, ioo, ihosc siucs ol cxciicncc ii can ncvci iouch.
Howcvci much Iongci scicncc is uonc, sincc ii scis iis own Iimiis lc-
loic ii can lcgin, ihosc Iimiis musi icmain. Ii is iaihci as ihough
onc was aviuIy inicicsicu in aII ihc couniiysiuc lciwccn ihis iown
anu ihc ncxi: onc gocs io scicncc loi an answci, anu is givcn a ioau
lciwccn ihc iwo. To ihinI ol ihis as ihc iiuih, io ihinI ol ihc iiuih
ai aII as a uniquc iucaI, sccmcu io mc mcniaIIy naivc io a ucgicc. . . .
Onc can aIso uo scicncc lccausc onc cnjoys ii. NaiuiaIIy anyonc
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ |
who lcIicvcs whoIchcaiicuIy, ciihci in iis usc oi iis iiuih, wiII ai ihc
samc iimc cnjoy ii. Consianiinc, loi cxamIc, gains moic simIc hc-
uonisiic cnjoymcni liomicscaich ihan mosi mcn liomihcii choscn
Icasuics; anu ihough hc is ihc mosi ucvoicu scicniisi I Inow, ihcic
aic many mcn io whom cnjoymcni comcs as a conscqucncc ol laiih.
Bui I ihinI ii is aIso ossilIc io cnjoy scicncc wiihoui lcIicving ovci-
much in iis usc, oi having any vicws uon ihc vaIuc ol iis iiuihs.
Many coIc IiIc uniavcIIing uzzIcs. Scicniic uzzIcs aic vciy
goou oncs, wiih icasonalIc iizcs. So ihai ciihci wiihoui cxamin-
ing ihc lunciions ol scicncc, lcing inuicicni io ihcm oi iaIing
ihcmloi gianicu, a numlci ol mcn go in loi icscaich as ihcy wouIu
loi Iaw; Iiving ly ii, olcying iis iuIcs, anu ihoioughIy cnjoying ihc
iolIcm-soIving ioccss. Thai is a cilcciIy vaIiu Icasuic; among
ihcm you can nu somc ol ihc mosi ccciivc ol scicniisis.
2
In ihc conicxi ol oui icscni invcsiigaiion, ihc inicicsiing ihing
aloui ihcsc icasons loi uoing scicncc, oi, moic gcnciaIIy, loi ucvoi-
ing oncs Iilc io scicniic anu schoIaiIy icscaich, Iics noi so much in
whai such icasons cxIiciiIy aim, as in whai ihcy laiI io mcniion oi
cvcn hini ai. Isni ii signicani ihai nonc ol ihc icasons hcic givcn loi
ihc uisuii ol InowIcugc has anyihing io uo wiih whai InowIcugc can
uo loi ihc cison oi chaiacici ol ihc Inowci himscIl . Alici aII, oncs
Iilc as a scicniisi can lc ol ihc gicaicsi lcnci io manIinu, ii can cvcn
lc a Iilc ucvoicu io ihc uisuii ol iiuih loi iis own saIc, ycs, ii can
lc a Iilc iaIcn u wiih uoing icciscIy whai onc mosi cnjoys uoing;
anu yci nonc ol ihcsc aciiviiics oi achicvcmcnis in a Iilc ol scicncc
anu Icaining ioviucs any guaianicc ihai ihc onc who Iivcs such a Iilc
wiII lc anyihing lui omous anu looIish, cihas uuII anu uial, a
mcic hoIIow man, in laci. Why, ihcn, shouIuni onc sccI InowIcugc
icciscIy loi ihc icason ihai ihiough such InowIcugc onc may Icain
how io avoiu lcing a hoIIow man. Pcihas such InowIcugc wiII hcI
him uiscovci whai Poc oncc lcIiciiousIy icimcu ihai sccici io cach
looI ihai hcs an ass. Bui somchow, moucin scicniic anu schoIaiIy
InowIcugc uocs noi sccm io Icnu iiscIl io any such cniciiisc.
Why shouIuni ii, ihough. Ioi ii has noi aIways lccn so wiih InowI-
cugc. On ihc coniiaiy, in ihc casc ol Sociaics, loi cxamIc, ihc uisuii
ol InowIcugc was loi no oihci uiosc ihan ihai ol nuing oui how
[ S | v.+i o.i x.
io Iivc. Know ihyscIl was ihc insciiiion liom ihc OiacIc ol DcIhi
which Sociaics iooI as ihc moiio ol his own qucsi loi InowIcugc. In
laci, as is wcII Inown, hc comIcicIy gavc ovci his own caiIici inicicsi
in ihc cosmos anu ucvoicu himscIl cniiicIy io ihis uisuii ol a InowI-
cugc which hc caIIcu scIl-InowIcugc. Noi onIy ihai, lui hc consianiIy
cxhoiicu his lcIIow Aihcnians ihai ihcy iuin liomihcii cusiomaiy ui-
suiis anu occuy ihcmscIvcs wiih ihcmscIvcs anu wiih ihc goou ol ihcii
own souIs:
. . . anu whiIc I havc Iilc anu siicngih I shaII ncvci ccasc liom ihc
iaciicc anu icaching ol hiIosohy, cxhoiiing any onc whom I
mcci anu saying io him alici my mannci: You, my liicnua ciii-
zcn ol ihc gicai anu mighiy anu wisc ciiy ol Aihcns,aic you noi
ashamcu ol hcaing u ihc gicaicsi amouni ol moncy anu honoui
anu icuiaiion, anu caiing so IiiiIc aloui wisuom anu iiuih anu ihc
gicaicsi imiovcmcni ol ihc souI, which you ncvci icgaiu oi hccu
ai aII.
. . . I say again ihai uaiIy io uiscouisc aloui viiiuc, anu ol ihosc
oihci ihings aloui which you hcai mc cxamining myscIl anu oihcis,
is ihc gicaicsi goou ol man, anu ihai ihc uncxamincu Iilc is noi
woiih Iiving. . . .
3
Moicovci, whcn onc sios io ihinI aloui ii, ii acais ihai ncaiIy
aII ol ihc gicai woiIu icIigions havc IiIcwisc hau loi ihcii ccniiaI con-
ccin ihc uiscIosuic io mcn ol whai onc mighi ucsignaic quiic simIy
as ihc way io Iivc, ihc vciy woiu way lcing iiscIl ccuIiaiIy signi-
cani anu iccuiicni in ihis conncciion. Diu noi Chiisi uccIaic, I am
ihc way, ihc iiuih anu ihc Iilc. Anu IiIcwisc, in loih Taoismanu Con-
lucianism ihc ccniiaI icoccuaiion is wiih ihc Tao oi ihc way. In
Buuuhism, ii is ihc aih, ihc nolIc cighiloIu aih.
0. 1 Le.e ro en.r L. n.nno:
Whai aic wc io maIc ol aII ihis. Aic wc io say ihai ihc whoIc ol
moucin acaucmic Icaining has somchow iaIcn a wiong iuining, ihai
insicau ol lcing conccincu wiih nuing loi us anu ucmonsiiaiing io
us ihc way wc shouIu Iivc, ii has Ici iiscIl lc lcguiIcu inio uisuing a
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ g |
iyc ol InowIcugc ihai has no icIcvancc io us as human lcings, oi,
lciici, no icIcvancc io ihc Inowci, i.c., io ihc scicniisi anu schoIai
himscIl . Oi musi wc say ihai ii is Sociaics who was misiaIcn, iaihci
ihan oui moucin schoIais anu scicniisis, ihai ihc cniiic Sociaiic qucsi
loi a InowIcugc which, io usc a ihcoIogicaI icim, wouIu lc a saving
InowIcugc, which wouIu aciuaIIy ioviuc ihc Inowci himscIl wiih a
vision ol ihc way, ihc iiuih, anu ihc Iilcihai ihis Sociaiic qucsi was
loih misuiiccicu anu hocIcss. Pcihas Sociaics misiaIc consisicu
icciscIy in his assumiion ihai scIl-InowIcugc in his scnsc couIu aciu-
aIIy lc a maiici ol InowIcugc, ihai ii wouIu lc ossilIc loi human
lcings ihiough invcsiigaiion anu iccciion io uiscovci ihc way in
which ihcy shouIu Iivc. Coniinuing in ihc samc vcin, wc mighi luiihci
icmaiI ihai such a ihing as ihc way mighi lc icvcaIcu io a man in a
icIigious conicxi, as somcihing ihai hc mighi iaIc on laiih; lui ihai ii
is anyihing ihai onc can Iro. in any ol ihc usuaI scnscs ol Inow
ihis wouIu sccm io lc quiic oui ol ihc qucsiion, io juugc liom ihc
cxamIc ol icscni-uay acaucmic InowIcugc.
. A u..erI, nen!Ie nrn nnre.ouI,
ur...nI .n, ou: n Iro.Iene o !eLn..o.
Howcvci, ihcic is anoihci lacci io ihis whoIc qucsiion ol ihc os-
siliIiiy ol gcnuinc cihicaI oi moiaI InowIcugc, on which moucin sci-
cncc anu icchnoIogy can cihas shcu a cciiain Iighi. Ii wiII lc ic-
mcmlcicu ihai ai ihc ouisci ol oui uiscussion, ihc suggcsiion was
ihiown oui ihai cihas moiaIs anu cihics mighi lc unucisioou on
ihc anaIogy ol ihc vaiious aiis anu icchniqucs, ihai jusi as onc has io
Icain how io waII oi io icau oi io Iay liicI, so aIso onc has io Icain
how io Iivc anu io lc human. Bui no soonci uo wc iccci a IiiiIc on ihc
cxamIc ol moucin icchnoIogy, ihan ii lcgins io IooI as il ihc aIi-
caiion ol scicniic InowIcugc wcic ihc vciy Iasi ihing ihai couIu scivc
as a moucI loi ihc soii ol ihing which wc wani io caII moiaI oi cihicaI
InowIcugc.
Il such moiaI oi cihicaI InowIcugc musi nccus invoIvc a InowIcugc
ol oncscIl, in Sociaics scnsca icIaiing ol oncs alsiiaci ihoughi io
oncs own cxisicncc as an inuiviuuaI, io aiahiasc ihc caiIici quoicu
[ 1o | v.+i o.i x.
hiasc liomKiciIcgaaiu
4
suicIy ihis is somcihing ihai moucin icch-
noIogy ncvci uocs, anu is in iinciIc incaalIc ol uoing. Tiuc, il wc
iaIc IooscIy cnough ihc somcwhai laiuous hiasc, ihc icIcvancc ol
InowIcugc io Iilc, ihcic is no uouli ihai moucin icchnoIogy ioviucs
a iiuIy amazing cxamIc ol ihc icIcvancc ol InowIcugc io Iilc. Ioi jusi
ihinI ol ihc human nccus anu ihc human wanis ihai can now lc luI-
IIcu in moucin inuusiiiaI sociciy anu ihai wcic simIy incaalIc ol
lcing luIIIcu in anyihing IiIc ihc samc ucgicc oi wiih anyihing IiIc
ihc samc cxciincss in oihci agcs ol ihc woiIus hisioiy.
Yci whai is nccucu loi cihics is InowIcugc noi ol how io coniioI
naiuic, lui ol how io coniioI oncscIl.
Bui inicicsiingIy cnough, no soonci uocs onc, in ihc siiii ol mou-
cin icchnoIogy, lcgin io auuicss oncscIl io ihc iasI ol coniioIIing ihc
human scIl, ihan onc icnus io iuin ihc human scIl inio jusi onc moic
oljcci among oihcis in ihc naiuiaI woiIu; anu lcloic onc is ihiough,
onc wiII lc ucvising schcmcs loi maniuIaiing anu coniioIIing human
scIvcs, much as onc maniuIaics anu coniioIs iais, liuii ics, anu coaI
iai iouucis. Noi onIy uo human scIvcs ccasc io lc scIvcs in such a
conicxi, lcing iicaicu as no moic ihan jusi so many naiuiaI oljccis,
lui aIsoanu ihis is cvcn moic sciious, so lai as cihics is conccincu
ihc oiiginaI cniciiisc ol coniioIIing oncscIl is Iosi sighi ol comIcicIy,
anu oui wouIu-lc cxcii in how io Iivc iuins oui io lc noi a masici
ol his own Iilc, lui onIy a masici in conuiiioning anu coniioIIing ihc
Iivcs ol oihcis.
Wc havc lui io iuin io GaliicI MaiccI io icau a vciy icvcaIing ac-
couni ol how aII ol us icnu io vicw oui lcIIow human lcings, oncc wc
laII inio ihc cuiicni halii ol consiuciing ways anu mcans ol aIying
moucin scicniic InowIcugc io ihc conuuci ol Iilc, alici ihc mannci
ol moucin icchnoIogy.
Thc chaiaciciisiic lcaiuic ol oui agc sccms io mc io lc whai
mighi lc caIIcu ihc misIaccmcni ol ihc iuca ol lunciion, iaIing
lunciion in iis cuiicni scnsc which incIuucs loih ihc viiaI anu ihc
sociaI lunciions.
Thc inuiviuuaI icnus io acai loih io himscIl anu io oihcis as
an aggIomciaiion ol lunciions. As a icsuIi ol ucc hisioiicaI causcs,
which can as yci lc unucisioou onIy in aii, hc has lccn Icu io scc
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ 11 |
himscIl moic anu moic as a mcic asscmlIagc ol lunciions, ihc hici-
aichicaI iniciicIaiion ol which sccms io himqucsiionalIc oi ai Icasi
suljcci io coniciing iniciiciaiions.
MaiccI ihcn gocs on io mcniion isi ihc so-caIIcu viiaI lunciions, alici
ihis ihc sociaI lunciionsihosc ol ihc consumci, ihc iouucci, ihc
ciiizcn, cic.anu naIIy ihc sychoIogicaI lunciions. Hc ihcn con-
iinucs:
So lai wc aic siiII ucaIing onIy wiih alsiiaciions, lui noihing is
casici ihan io nu concicic iIIusiiaiions in ihis cIu.
TiavcIIing on ihc Unucigiounu, I olicn wonuci wiih a Iinu ol
uicau whai can lc ihc inwaiu icaIiiy ol ihc Iilc ol ihis oi ihai man
cmIoycu on ihc iaiIwayihc man who ocns ihc uoois, loi in-
siancc, oi ihc onc who unchcs ihc iicIcis. SuicIy cvciyihing loih
wiihin him anu ouisiuc him consiics io iucniily ihis man wiih his
lunciionsmcaning noi onIy wiih his lunciions as woiIci, as iiauc
union mcmlci oi as voici, lui wiih his viiaI lunciions as wcII. Thc
iaihci hoiiilIc cxicssion iimc ialIc cilcciIy ucsciilcs his Iilc.
So many houis loi cach lunciion. SIcc ioo is a lunciion which musi
lc uischaigcu so ihai ihc oihci lunciions may lc cxciciscu in ihcii
iuin. Thc samc wiih Icasuic, wiih icIaxaiion; ii is IogicaI ihai ihc
wccIIy aIIowancc ol iccicaiion shouIu lc ucicimincu ly an cxcii
on hygicnc; iccicaiion is a sycho-oiganic lunciion which musi noi
lc ncgIccicu any moic ihan, loi insiancc, ihc lunciion ol scx. Wc
nccu go no luiihci; ihis sIcich is sucicni io suggcsi ihc cmci-
gcncc ol a Iinu ol viiaI schcuuIc; ihc uciaiIs wiII vaiy wiih ihc coun-
iiy, ihc cIimaic, ihc iolcssion, cic., lui whai maiicis is ihai ihcic
is a schcuuIc.
Ii is iiuc ihai cciiain uisoiuciIy cIcmcnissicIncss, acciucnis ol
cvciy soiiwiII licaI in on ihc smooih woiIing ol ihc sysicm. Ii is
ihcicloic naiuiaI ihai ihc inuiviuuaI shouIu lc ovcihauIcu ai icgu-
Iai inicivaIs IiIc a waich (ihis is olicn uonc in Amciica). Thc hosi-
iaI Iays ihc aii ol ihc inscciion lcnch oi ihc icaii sho. . . .
As loi ucaih, ii lccomcs, oljcciivcIy anu lunciionaIIy, ihc scia-
ing ol whai has ccascu io lc ol usc anu musi lc wiiiicn o as ioiaI
Ioss.
5
[ 1: | v.+i o.i x.
Such a icnucncy io uisinicgiaic oncs lcIIow man inio a mcic asscm-
lIagc ol lunciions sccms io lc ihc incviialIc accomanimcni ol oui
coiis io aIy oui scicniic InowIcugc in ihc managcmcni ol mcns
Iivcs. Bui ii musi noi lc suoscu ihai such a uIvciizaiion anu uis-
inicgiaiion musi ncccssaiiIy Icau io ihc inuiviuuaIs unhaincss. On
ihc coniiaiy, MaiccIs man in ihc Unucigiounu may wcII lc ihc mosi
conicnicu anu scIl-saiiscu ol mcn, cihas cvcn uisiicssingIy so. Ioi
as HuxIcy has uouiIy olscivcu:
Thcic is, ol couisc, no icason why ihc ncwioiaIiiaiianisms shouIu
icscmlIc ihc oIu. Govcinmcni ly cIuls anu iing squaus, ly aiii-
ciaI laminc, mass imiisonmcni anu mass ucoiiaiion, is noi mcicIy
inhumanc (nolouy caics much aloui ihai nowauays); ii is ucmon-
siialIy inccicnianu in an agc ol auvanccu icchnoIogy, inc-
cicncy is ihc sin againsi ihc HoIy Ghosi. AicaIIy ccicni ioiaIiiaiian
siaic wouIu lc onc in which ihc aII-owciluI cxccuiivc ol oIiiicaI
losscs anu ihcii aimy ol managcis coniioI a ouIaiion ol sIavcs
who uo noi havc io lc cociccu, lccausc ihcy Iovc ihcii sciviiuuc.
To maIc ihcmIovc ii is ihc iasI assigncu, in icscni-uay ioiaIiiaiian
siaics, io minisiiics ol ioaganua, ncwsaci cuiiois anu schooI-
icachcis. Bui ihcii mcihous aic siiII ciuuc anu unscicniic.
6
B. Au .e n!nrnor Le Loe Ln
eL. nr !e nr n. o. n .ere
Bui cnough ol ihis. Whai moic is nccucu io show ihc loIIy anu lu-
iiIiiy ol iiying io icgaiu cihics as an aii ol Iiving. So lai liom moiaIs
anu cihics lcing in any way IiIc ihc aiis, ii wouIu now sccm ihai ihc
vciy iuca ol aIying InowIcugc io Iilc, in ihc mannci ol aii oi icch-
noIogy, wouIu lc alsoIuicIy iuinous io cihics. Insicau ol human lcings
Icauing cxamincu Iivcs as was cnvisagcu ly Sociaics, any so-caIIcu aii
ol Iiving sccms io Icau io a siiuaiion in which human lcings wouIu
lccomc IiIc so many caiiIc, hciucu anu icnucu ly vaiious lchavioiaI
cnginccis anu cxciis on Iiving.
Why say moic. Why noi jusi acInowIcugc ihai ihcic is no usc ic-
icnuing io any so-caIIcu moiaI oi cihicaI InowIcugc. Sociaics iojcci
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ 1 |
ol an cihicaI InowIcugc ihai wouIu lc a scIl-InowIcugc sccms com-
IcicIy oui ol Iinc wiih oui moucin concciion ol InowIcugc, as ihis
manilcsis iiscIl in icscni-uay scicncc anu schoIaishi. Anu as loi ihc
iojcci ol an aii ol Iiving oi an aii ol lcing human, comaialIc io ihc
oihci aiis anu icchniqucs, ihis wouIu acai io lc noi mcicIy luiiIc,
whcn vicwcu in ihc Iighi ol moucin icchnoIogy, lui aciuaIIy uangcious
anu wiong-hcaucu.
Bcsiucs, isni ii a iiuism nowauays ihai moiaIs anu cihics aic icIa-
iivc maiicis, ihai is io say, maiicis ol oinion, noi ol InowIcugc. Oi
cihas ii mighi lc moic accuiaic io say ihai cihicaI icIaiivism has
lccomc aImosi a .re qun ror ol ihc cuucaicu man, a soii ol laugc ol
ihc moucin inicIIcciuaI. Onc can siiII, cihas, vcniuic wiih imuniiy
io aumiic cxamIcs ol couiagc oi inicgiiiy oi ucccncy, lui onc can
haiuIy sianu u anu cIaim io Inow whai is iighi anu whai is wiong
wiihoui lcing Iaughcu oui ol couii, oi ai Icasi oui ol a cocIiaiI aiiy.
g. BnI o AeLueInL nrn no.r ..L .eIn...
Pcihas ihcic aic woisc laics. Ai any iaic, I musi asscii uncquivo-
caIIy ihai I loi onc ihinI ihai ii . ossilIc loi mcn io Inow whai is
iighi anu whai is wiong. I wouIu cvcn go so lai as io say ihai io asscii
anyihing cIsc can onIy Icau onc inio a quiic unicnalIc, cvcn il olicn
unnoiiccu, inconsisicncy. EihicaI icIaiivism, in oihci woius, is, I lc-
Iicvc, noi jusi an inuclcnsilIc osiiion in hiIosohy; ii is unicnalIc
in Iilc iiscIl.
To ihc cnu, howcvci, ol liinging o a luII-uicss icluiaiion ol cihi-
caI icIaiivism, wc shouIu cihas isi iaIc iimc io consiuci liicy jusi
whai ihc souiccs aic ol such an aiiiiuuc iowaiu cihics. Il I misiaIc noi,
ihcsc souiccs aic iwo, ihc onc invoIving whai mighi lc caIIcu laciuaI
consiuciaiions, ihc oihci IogicaI oi Iinguisiic consiuciaiions.
Thc so-caIIcu laciuaI consiuciaiions aic in a way so olvious in ihis
uay ol highci cuucaiion anu acaucmic sohisiicaiion as scaiccIy io uc-
scivc mcniion: ii is a laci ihai mcns moiaI anu cihicaI juugmcnis uo
sccm io lc icIaiivc io ihcii civiIizaiion, ihcii cuIiuic, ihcii sociaI cIass,
ihcii hysicaI cnviionmcni, ycs, cvcn io ihc lioIogicaI anu sycho-
IogicaI uisosiiions ol ihc inuiviuuaIs ihcmscIvcs. Noi is ihis laci ai-
[ 1q | v.+i o.i x.
icsicu io mcicIy ly ihc uaia ol anihiooIogy anu socioIogy. In auui-
iion, couniIcss sychoIogicaI icsis havc lccn ucviscu, ihc icsuIis ol
which acai io conim unqucsiionalIy ihc icIaiiviiy ol mcns vaIuc
juugmcnis.
Dcsiic ihis imicssivc aiiay ol sccmingIy inconiiovciiilIc cvi-
ucncc, ihcic is ai Icasi onc icscci in which ihis cviucncc is noi con-
cIusivc. Thc mcic laci ol uivcisiiy in human moiaI sianuaius uocs noi
in iinciIc iccIuuc ihc ossiliIiiy ol ai Icasi somc ol ihcsc sianuaius
lcing coiicci anu oihcis incoiicci. Ioi insiancc, consiuci a somcwhai
anaIogous siiuaiion in ihc moucin naiuiaI scicnccs. Ii wouIu noi lc
uicuIi io show ihai in ihc couisc ol ihc woiIus hisioiy ihcoiics ol
ihc hysicaI univcisc havc lccn aImosi as many anu as vaiicu anu as
icIaiivc as sysicms ol moiaIs anu cihics. Thc ancicni Egyiians uouli-
Icss gavc cniiicIy uicicni cxIanaiions ol hysicaI changc liom ihosc
ocicu ly conicmoiaiy hysicisis. Anu loi aII I Inow ihc asiionomy
ol ihc ancicni BalyIonians was as uicicni liom ihai ol ihc Chincsc
in ihc Ming uynasiy as ihc PioIcmaic asiionomy ol mcuicvaI Euioc is
uicicni liom ihc asiionomy ol ihc icscni-uay Einsicinian univcisc.
Yci no onc wouIu concIuuc liom such cviucncc ihai ihcic is no lasis
in laci loi a icaI scicncc ol hysics oi asiionomy. Why, ihcn, liom ihc
mcic uivcisiiy ol moiaI coucs anu sysicms ol cihics, uo wc icnu io con-
cIuuc ihai moiaIs anu cihics cannoi lc gcnuinc aiis oi scicnccs having
a icaI lasis in laci.
Onc mighi icIy io ihis ihai whiIc in loimci iimcs ihcoiics ol ihc
hysicaI univcisc wcic no uouli a icIaiivc maiici, lcing mcic iuIc
sccuIaiions, ucicimincu ly ihc ccuIiai icjuuiccs ol ihc agc, ihc
cIass, ihc cuIiuic, oi ihc aiiicuIai asiionomci oi hysicisi, in ihc
moucin ciiou aII ihis has changcu: scicniic ihcoiics now havc a
iiuIy oljcciivc lasis, as wiincss ihc cxiiaoiuinaiy unanimiiy ol scicn-
iisis ihc woiIu ovci. Thai is io say, no maiici whai ihc cuIiuic oi ihc
couniiy oi ihc cconomic sysicm in which ihc moucin scicniisi Iivcs,
hc can siiII, as a scicniisi, unucisianu anu aicciaic ihc achicvcmcnis
ol oihci scicniisis cvciywhcic.
This laci ol comaiaiivc unanimiiy among scicniisis ai icscni
mighi ioviuc ai Icasi somc giounu loi suosing ihai scicncc hau ai
Iasi lccn ui on an oljcciivc lasis, whiIc moiaIs oi cihics hau noi; lui
cvcn so, such cviucncc is siiII noi icaIIy concIusivc. To suosc ihai ii
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ 1 |
was wouIu lc ianiamouni io hoIuing ihai ihc uciciminaiion ol iiuih
in scicncc is no moic ihan an aaii ol couniing noscs among scicn-
iisis. Anu onc couIu ihcn go on io aiguc ihai sincc a Iclisciic among
moiaIisis wouIu yicIu noihing IiIc ihc imicssivc icsuIis ol a Iclisciic
among scicniisis, ihc aIm ol InowIcugc wouIu havc io lc accoiucu
io scicncc, whcicas cihics couIu cIaim io lc no moic ihan a maiici ol
oinion.
1o. TLe Io.nI n.uI.e o In..r
n nunI Iro.Iene .r ne. o eL.
Thc mcic laci ol uivcisiiy in moiaI anu cihicaI oinion uocs noi sul-
cc io iovc ihc imossiliIiiy in iinciIc ol moiaI anu cihicaI InowI-
cugc: ihc whoIc woiIu mighi lc wiong anu a singIc inuiviuuaI iighi.
Howcvci, ihc casc loi cihicaI icIaiivism nccu noi icsi on mcic laciuaI
consiuciaiions; on ihc coniiaiy, ihcic aic any numlci ol consiuci-
aiions ol a vciy uicicni soii ihai Iic icauy ai hanu loi ihc uclcnsc
ol such icIaiivism. Ioi ii has lccomc aImosi a uogma ol ihc cuiicni
inicIIcciuaI sccnc io suosc ihai a iauicaI uisiinciion musi aIways lc
uiawn lciwccn lacis anu vaIucs, lciwccn is anu oughi, lciwccn ihc
icaI anu ihc iucaI. Sincc cihics ly ucniiion musi icsumalIy conccin
iiscIl wiih vaIucs, as coniiasicu wiih lacis, ihc concIusion sccms incs-
caalIc ihai cihics is wiihoui oljcciivc oi laciuaI lasis. Inuccu, givcn
ihcsc icsuosiiions, cihics has noihing io uo wiih ihc icaI oiuci, lui
onIy wiih ihc iucaIwiih whai oughi io lc, iaihci ihan wiih whai is.
In luiihci conimaiion ol ihis concIusion, onc has onIy io consiuci
ihc IogicaI uicuIiy, noi io say imossiliIiiy, ol cvci csialIishing a noi-
maiivc oi cihicaI juugmcni. Ioi so lai as cmiiicaI cviucncc gocs, ihis
is aIways cviucncc ol whai is so, ol whai aciuaIIy is ihc casc. Bui ihc
iucaI, oi ihai which onIy ouL io lc, is in iinciIc ncvci olscivalIc.
Evcn il ii lc suoscu ihai in a givcn insiancc ihc iucaI has noi ic-
maincu a mcic iucaI, lui has aciuaIIy lccn icaIizcu, ii wouIu siiII sccm
ihai iis chaiacici ol lcing iucaI wouIu lc somcihing quiic alovc anu
aaii liom iis aciuaI iociiics.
Ioi is ii noi iiuc ihai scicniic ucsciiiions ol aciuaI ihings anu
cvcnis in ihc icaI woiIu ncvci sccm io iaIc accouni ol whcihci ihcsc
[ 16 | v.+i o.i x.
naiuiaI hacnings aic iighi oi wiong, goou oi lau. Thus ihai waici
ows uownhiII may lc iaIcn io lc a laci ol ihc naiuiaI woiIu. Bui ihai
ii is iighi oi wiong, oi goou oi lau, ihai waici shouIu lchavc in ihis
wayany such consiuciaiion ol a moiaI oi cihicaI naiuic sccms noi
onIy iiicIcvani in ihis conncciion, lui uowniighi siIIy.
Ioi ihai maiici, cvcn ihc sociaI scicnccs anu scicnccs ucaIing wiih
human lchavioi usuaIIy iiuc ihcmscIvcs on lcing sciuuIous in ihcii
oljcciiviiy; anu ihis is iniciicicu io mcan ihai ihcy icliain liom any
anu aII vaIuc juugmcnis. An cconomisi may siuuy ihc hcnomcnon ol
sIavc Ialoi, oiniing oui ihc vaiious conscqucnccs ol cmIoying ihis
mcans ol iouuciion, anu whcihci anu unuci whai ciicumsianccs such
loiccu Ialoi mighi oi mighi noi coniiiluic io gicaici naiionaI io-
uuciiviiy. Bui as io whcihci human sIavciy is iighi oi wiong, moiaIIy
uclcnsilIc oi inuclcnsilIcon ihis suljcci, whiIc ii mighi lc hocu
ihai as a human lcing ihc cconomisi wouIu havc his iivaic oinion,
as an cconomisi hc can onIy ioicsi ihai hc has no oljcciivc InowI-
cugc onc way oi ihc oihci. IiIcwisc, in anihiooIogy, socioIogy, anu
sychoIogy, ihc uisiinciion is consianiIy lcing mauc lciwccn ucsciil-
ing human lchavioi in oncs ioIc as a scicniisi anu assing juugmcni
uon such lchavioi in oncs ioIc as a cison oi as a ciiizcn, ihc loimci
lcing in ihc naiuic ol oljcciivcIy vciialIc InowIcugc, whcicas ihc
Iaiici is hcIu io lc no moic ihan mcic cisonaI, iivaic oinion.
Onc may ucIoic ihis cihicaI ncuiiaIiiy ol moucin scicncc anu com-
Iain ihai ii has ihc ccci ol maIing scicniisis anuci aIiIc io uicia-
iois anu io ucmociacics. Bc ihis as ii may, how is onc io gci iounu ihc
laci ihai vaIuc juugmcnis uo sccm io lc ol a vciy uicicni IogicaI iyc
liom laciuaI juugmcnis. Thcic is no way in which ihcy can lc oljcc-
iivcIy icsicu anu vciicu. Noi uocs ii sccm ossilIc cvcn io maIc ii
inicIIigilIc jusi how ihc vaIucs which aic asciilcu io ihings can aciu-
aIIy inhcic in ihc ihings io which ihcy aic asciilcu. Things aic whai
ihcy aic oljcciivcIy anu in laci, lui ihc vaIucs which ihcy aic saiu io
havc, ihcy aaicniIy can havc onIy in ihc minus ol ihc cisons who
juugc ihcm io lc vaIualIc.
IiiiIc wonuci, ihcn, ihai ihc moiaI oi cihicaI uimcnsion ol ihings
is noi amcnalIc io scicniic invcsiigaiion oi vciicaiion. Bc ihc lacis
whai ihcy may, onc can nciihci nu vaIucs in ihcm noi inlci vaIucs
liom ihcm. Anu as loi whai is so lcing ianiamouni io whai oughi io
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ 1 |
lc so, ihc is ncvci ioviucs ihc sIighicsi cIuc as io any Iinu ol an
oughi. Thc iwo lcIong io IogicaIIy quiic uicicni oiucis, anu ncvci
ihc iwain shaII mcci.
11. TLe .eun.or o .eIn...
Musi aII cihics, ihcn, lc wiiiicn o as a hoIIow sham. Pcihas noi.
Ioi ihc iiauiiionaI uisciIincs ol hiIosohy havc a way ol ouiuoing
cvcn oIu soIuicis: ihcy noi onIy ncvci uic; ihcy uoni cvcn lauc
away. Anu so ii may wcII iovc io lc wiih cihics.
Isni ihcic, inuccu, somc way in which ihc cuiicni ciiiicisms ol
cihics can lc mci anu answcicu, so as io ichaliIiiaic ihc suljcci oncc
moic anu maIc ii a icsccialIc scicniic uisciIinc. To ihis cnu, Ici us
again icminu ouiscIvcs ol jusi whai ihc ihiusi ol ihcsc ciiiicisms was.
Biicy, ii was io ihc ccci ihai cihicaI juugmcnis aic uIiimaicIy wiih-
oui any lasis in laci. Hcncc any anu aII human conviciions as io whai
is iighi oi wiong, goou oi lau, cannoi ossilIy lc oihci ihan icIaiivc
anu ailiiiaiy.
Vciy wcII; lui Ici us consiuci loi a momcni whai wouIu lc ihc iol-
alIc conscqucnccs ol such a icIaiivisiic ucsiiuciion ol cihics. Ohanu,
ii mighi lc suoscu ihai no soonci hau mcn lccomc convinccu ihai
moiaIs anu cihics wcic wiihoui lounuaiion anu ihai ihcii vaiious io-
hiliiions anu icsciiiions wcic no Iongci linuing, ihan ihc Iiu wouIu
lc o anu aII hcII wouIu licaI Ioosc. CciiainIy ii is noi haiu io imaginc
how, ai Icasi wiih cciiain inuiviuuaIs, ihis mighi lc ihc conscqucncc
ol cihicaI icIaiivism. Ioi cxamIc, iaIc a iccn-agc youih wiih noimaI
scx imuIscs, whosc siiici uliinging hau Icu him io lcIicvc ihai scx
icIaiions ouisiuc maiiiagc aic cviI anu wiong. Comcs now an u-io-
uaic moiaI hiIosohci who succccus in convincing ihc young man
ihai aII such moiaI icsiiainis sicm mcicIy liom his Puiiian uliinging
anu hcncc aic quiic wiihoui jusiicaiion; inuccu, ihcy aic lui icIaiivc
io ihis oIu-lashioncu anu now ouimoucu icIigious cuIiuic. Is ii haiu io
imaginc whai cccis such ncw-lounu conviciions wiII havc uon oui
young liicnus conscqucni lchavioi.
Onc has onIy io iccci a lii, howcvci, io icaIizc ihai an cxciicu casi-
ing o ol aII icsiiainis is noi a ncccssaiy oi incviialIc conscqucncc
[ 1S | v.+i o.i x.
ol lccoming convinccu ol ihc iiuih ol cihicaI icIaiivism. Il ii is iiuc
ihai aII moiaI noims anu sianuaius ol vaIuc aic icIaiivc anu, in ihis
scnsc, ailiiiaiy, ii loIIows ihai no onc sci ol vaIucs is suciioi io any
oihci: aII aic cquaIIy goou, oi cquaIIy woiihIcss, howcvci onc may ic-
lci io cxicss ii. Bui vicwcu in ihis Iighi, Iusi lcgins io acai as having
icaIIy no moic io iccommcnu ii ihan chasiiiy, noi uiunIcnncss ihan
soliiciy, noi iouigaIiiy ihan ihiili. Moic gcnciaIIy, inuccu, ii lcgins
io IooI as il a comIcic liccuom liom aII ihc Icis anu hinuianccs ol
sociaI convcniion wouIu noi icaIIy lc any lciici ihan olcuicncc anu
conloimiiy. AccoiuingIy, ihc wcaiicu moiaI sIciic, who ucciucs ihai
ii is Icss iioulIc alici aII simIy io go aIong wiih cvciyonc cIsc anu
aliuc ly ihc moiaI sianuaius ol ihc communiiy, is lcing jusi as consis-
icnioi inconsisicniin his cihicaI icIaiivism as is ihc iclcIIious anu
hoi-lIooucu youih whosc imuIsivc icaciion io icIaiivism is io icgaiu
ii as a licc assoii io winc, womcn, anu song.
Noi aic ihcsc ihc onIy vaiianis on ihc ossilIc conscqucnccs ol
cihicaI icIaiivism. Onc has lui io IooI ai ihai vciy icaualIc anu Iau-
silIc IiiiIc looI ol ihc Amciican anihiooIogisi, Di. Ruih Bcncuici.
EniiiIcu Pne.r o CuIu.e, ihc looI aiicmis io cxIoii somc ol ihc
wcaIih ol moucin anihiooIogicaI icscaich in suoii ol a ihcsis ol
ihoioughgoing cihicaI icIaiivism. Alici aII, Di. Bcncuici aigucs, uil-
lcicni human cuIiuics, wiih ihcii wiucIy vaiying aiicins, aic io lc ic-
gaiucu as iiavcIIing aIong uicicni ioaus in uisuii ol uicicni cnus,
anu ihcsc cnus anu ihcsc mcans in onc sociciy cannoi lc juugcu in
icims ol ihosc ol anoihci sociciy, lccausc csscniiaIIy ihcy aic incom-
mcnsuialIc.
7
Whai may wc suosc io lc ihc conscqucnccs ol such a iccogni-
iion ol icIaiivism in ihc cycs ol Piolcssoi Bcncuici. OuuIy cnough, as
shc vicws ihc maiici, cihicaI icIaiivism ocis io human lcings nciihci
an inviiaiion io Iiccnsc noi ihc iiicu counscIs ol sIciicaI cssimism;
insicau, ii ioviucs an imicssivc oljcci Icsson in ioIciancc.
Thc iiuih ol ihc maiici is iaihci ihai ihc ossilIc human insii-
iuiions anu moiivcs aic Icgion, on cvciy Ianc ol cuIiuiaI simIiciiy
oi comIcxiiy, anu ihai wisuom consisis in a gicaiIy incicascu ioI-
ciancc iowaiu ihcii uivcigcncics. No man can ihoioughIy aiiici-
aic in any cuIiuic unIcss hc has lccn lioughi u anu has Iivcu
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ 1g |
accoiuing io iis loims, lui hc can giani io oihci cuIiuics ihc samc
signicancc io ihcii aiiicianis which hc iccognizcs in his own.
8
Anu in hci naI chaici Piolcssoi Bcncuici sccms io iuin moiaIisi hci-
scIl, sicinIy Icciuiing hci icaucis ihai: ]usi as wc aic hanuicacu in
ucaIing wiih cihicaI iolIcms so Iong as wc hoIu io an alsoIuic ucni-
iion ol moiaIiiy,
*
so wc aic hanuicacu in ucaIing wiih human sociciy
so Iong as wc iucniily oui IocaI noimaIiiics wiih ihc incviialIc ncccs-
siiics ol cxisicncc.
9
Anu so on, iighi u io ihc naI cIoqucncc ol hci
concIuuing scnicnccs:
Thc iccogniiion ol cuIiuiaI icIaiiviiy caiiics wiih ii iis own vaIucs,
which nccu noi lc ihosc ol ihc alsoIuiisi hiIosohics. Ii chaIIcngcs
cusiomaiy oinions anu causcs ihosc who havc lccn licu io ihcm
acuic uiscomloii. Ii iouscs cssimism lccausc ii ihiows oIu loimu-
Iac inio conlusion, noi lccausc ii coniains anyihing iniiinsicaIIy uil-
cuIi. As soon as ihc ncwoinion is cmliaccu as cusiomaiy lcIicl, ii
wiII lc anoihci iiusicu luIwaiI ol ihc goou Iilc. Wc shaII aiiivc ihcn
ai a moic icaIisiic sociaI laiih, accciing as giounus ol hoc anu as
ncw lascs loi ioIciancc ihc cocxisiing anu cquaIIy vaIiu aiicins ol
Iilc which manIinu has cicaicu loi iiscIl liom ihc iaw maiciiaIs ol
cxisicncc.
10
WhiIc wc aic siiII laihing in ihc gcniIc waimih ol such nolIc an-
ihiooIogicaI scniimcnis, ii may lc insiiuciivc io iuin iighi aiounu
anu cxosc ouiscIvcs io somc iaihci moic haiu anu guisy uiicianccs ol
*A icmaiI mighi lc mauc in assing on Piolcssoi Bcncuicis usc ol ihc woiu
alsoIuic, in scaIing ol an alsoIuic ucniiion ol moiaIiiy. Ii is noi unusuaI
loi cihicaI icIaiivisis io IalcI ihcii ooncnis alsoIuiisis, ihc imIicaiion lcing
ihai cIaims io alsoIuiism in InowIcugc aic aloui as laniasiic anu oIu-lashioncu
as cIaims io alsoIuiism in monaichy. Noi is ihcic any uouli ihai, IinguisiicaIIy,
whcn onc scaichcs loi a woiu ihai onc can convcnicniIy oosc io icIaiivc,
ihc onIy woiu ihai icauiIy comcs io minu is alsoIuic. Anu yci ii is inicicsiing
ihai, so lai as scicniic InowIcugc is conccincu, no onc nowauays wouIu vcn-
iuic io say ihai such InowIcugc was a uicIy icIaiivc maiici. Bui uocs anyonc
loi ihis icason consiuci ihai scicniic InowIcugc is an alsoIuic InowIcugc, oi
ihai scicniisis ihcmscIvcs aic alsoIuiisis. Anu il scicniisis can cnjoy an immuniiy
liom ihc uiIcmma ol icIaiivism oi alsoIuiism, why may noi moiaI hiIosohcis
as wcII.
[ :o | v.+i o.i x.
ihai Iaic gicai masici ol cynicism anu lomlasi, Bcniio MussoIini. In-
uccu, MussoIinis woius (wiiiicn in 1g:1) mighi aIso scivc as an iionic
commcniaiy on Piolcssoi Bcncuicis icaching ol ioIciancc on ihc
icxi ol icIaiivism:
In Gcimany icIaiivism is an cxcccuingIy uaiing anu sulvcisivc
ihcoiciicaI consiiuciion (cihas Gcimanys hiIosohicaI icvcngc
which may hciaIu ihc miIiiaiy icvcngc). In IiaIy, icIaiivism is simIy
a laci. . . . Evciyihing I havc saiu anu uonc in ihcsc Iasi ycais is
icIaiivism ly iniuiiion. . . . Il icIaiivism signics conicmi loi xcu
caicgoiics anu mcn who cIaim io lc ihc lcaicis ol an oljcciivc, im-
moiiaI iiuih . . . ihcn ihcic is noihing moic icIaiivisiic ihan Iascisi
aiiiiuucs anu aciiviiy. . . . Iiom ihc laci ihai aII iucoIogics aic ol
cquaI vaIuc, ihai aII iucoIogics aic mcic ciions, ihc moucin icIaiiv-
isi inlcis ihai cvciylouy has ihc iighi io cicaic loi himscIl his own
iucoIogy anu io aiicmi io cnloicc ii wiih aII ihc cncigy ol which
hc is caalIc.
11
Bui why loihci wiih luiihci cxamIcs. Thcsc succ io inuicaic ihai
howcvci IausilIc anu cvcn unanswcialIc ihc cviucncc wouIu acai
io lc in suoii ol a uicIy icIaiivisiic aiiiiuuc in cihics, yci as soon
as onc asIs whai mcaning anu imoii such an aiiiiuuc wouIu havc loi
oncs own Iilc anu conuuci, ihc answcis iuin oui io lc ciIcxingIy
conluscu anu amliguous. Ioi onc cison, icIaiivism mcans iclcIIion
anu Iilciiinism; loi anoihci, conscivaiism anu conloimiiy. Ioi onc,
ii imIics a gicaici ioIciancc anu unucisianuing ol oncs lcIIow mcn;
loi anoihci, ii jusiics ihc mosi iuihIcss inioIciancc anu ihc ailiiiaiy
imosing ol oncs own wiII uon oihcis.
To maIc maiicis cvcn woisc, ihc conscqucnccs ol such icIaiivism
aic noi onIy amliguous, lui aIso on cIosci sciuiiny cach ol ihcm iuins
oui io invoIvc a cuiious inicinaI inconsisicncy. To iciuin loi a momcni
io Piolcssoi Bcncuici, is ii noi siiangc ihai having lcgun ly iocIaim-
ing ihc uiici icIaiiviiy ol aII sianuaius ol vaIuc, shc cnus ly icaching
ihc goscI ol ioIciancc. PicsumalIy, il Piolcssoi Bcncuici is io icmain
laiihluI io hci own iinciIcs, shc musi iccognizc ihai ihc vaIuc ol ioI-
ciancc is siiiciIy icIaiivc io ihc aiiicuIai cuIiuiaI lacIgiounu which
hacns io havc lccn hci own. Bui suosc somconc liom a uici-
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ :1 |
cni cuIiuiaI lacIgiounu has lccn lioughi u io lcIicvc ihai ioIciancc
is noi a viiiuc, lui iaihci a sign ol loIIy anu wcaIncss, ihc wisc anu
couiagcous couisc lcing onc ol siiici inioIciancc iowaiu aII uivcigcn-
cics liom oncs own cuIiuiaI noim. Whai couIu Miss Bcncuici say io
ihis. Shc couIu haiuIy uisagicc wiih such an auvocaic ol inioIciancc,
oi ciiiicizc him loi lcing misiaIcn, loi ihis wouIu lc ianiamouni io
juuging ihc vaIucs ol onc sociciy in icims ol ihosc ol anoihci. In laci,
any such ciiiicism wouIu iccci ihai vciy siiii ol inioIciancc iowaiu
coIcs ol oihci sociciics anu cuIiuics which Miss Bcncuici hciscIl
has mauc such a oini ol conucmning. On ihc oihci hanu, Miss Bcnc-
uici couIu no moic agicc wiih such a hyoihciicaI auvocaic ol inioI-
ciancc ihan shc couIu uisagicc. Ioi io agicc wouIu mcan ihai shc was
conccuing ihc suciioiiiy ol ihc vaIucs ol inioIciancc ovci ihosc ol
ioIciancca sianu which wouIu uouliIcss convici hci noi mcicIy ol
inconsisicncy, lui ol hyociisy.
Thc icuicamcni in which wc havc soughi io Iacc Piolcssoi Bcnc-
uici is icaIIy noi onc ol hci own maIing, lui isin aii ai Icasian
incscaalIc icuicamcni ol anyonc anu cvciyonc who wouIu lc a icIa-
iivisi in maiicis ol cihics. Ioi wc mighi as wcII comc iighi oui now anu
unmasI ihc laiiciy liom which wc havc lccn lomlaiuing ihc vaiious
osiiions ol icIaiivism. As wc scc ii, cihicaI icIaiivism in any loim is a
iauicaIIy inconsisicni anu ihoioughIy unicnalIc osiiion io iiy io hoIu
in hiIosohy.
Ii is imoiiani io x ihc iccisc naiuic ol ihc inconsisicncy ol such
icIaiivism. UnIiIc whai mighi lc caIIcu gcnciaI icIaiivism, oi oui-anu-
oui hiIosohicaI sIciicism, cihicaI icIaiivism is noi inconsisicni in
iis vciy siaicmcni anu loimuIaiion. Whcn gcnciaI hiIosohicaI sIc-
iicism is icuuccu io iis simIcsi anu ciuucsi icims, ihc sIciics osi-
iion comcs uown io assciiions ol ihis soii: I Inow ihai no onc Inows
anyihing oi Thc iiuih is ihai iiuih is unaiiainalIc. Assciiions such
as ihis aic manilcsi scIl-coniiauiciions.
*
Thai is why ii may quiic jusiIy
lc saiu ihai any osiiion ol ihoioughgoing icIaiivism oi sIciicism in
*I am uisicgaiuing hcic ihc so-caIIcu iyc uicuIiics which havc Icu somc
moucin Iogicians io icgaiu such siaicmcnis as lcing noi so much scIl-coniiauic-
ioiy as imiociIy loimcu anu hcncc noi ioci siaicmcnis ai aII.
[ :: | v.+i o.i x.
hiIosohy is unicnalIc cvcn in ihcoiy: ihc osiiion cannoi cvcn lc
loimuIaicu anu siaicu wiihoui coniiauiciion.
On ihc oihci hanu, whcn ihc icIaiivism in qucsiion is simIy a icIa-
iivismin icgaiu io maiicis ol cihics anu noi in icgaiu io human InowI-
cugc gcnciaIIy, ihcic uocs noi sccm io lc ihc samc inconsisicncy. Ioi
onc can cilcciIy wcII asscii wiihoui any manilcsi coniiauiciion such
ihings as I Inow ihai, whcn ii comcs io qucsiions ol cihics, no onc
Inows anyihing; oi Thc iiuih is ihai iiuih aloui vaIucs oi aloui uis-
iinciions lciwccn iighi anu wiong anu goou anu cviI, cic., is unaiiain-
alIc. Hcic, olviousIy, ihcic is no IogicaI inconsisicncy, i.c., no incon-
sisicncy in ihc vciy loimuIaiion ol ihc osiiion ol cihicaI icIaiivism
iiscIl.
Bui aIihough ihcic is no IogicaI inconsisicncy, ihcic is whai onc
mighi caII a iaciicaI inconsisicncy. TaIc ihc casc ol any convinccu
cihicaI icIaiivisi IiIc Piolcssoi Bcncuici oi ihc iccn-agc youih oi Mus-
soIini. Il ihc loicgoing anaIysis lc coiicci, ihcic is no inconsisicncy
invoIvcu in his mcicIy hoIuing oi sulsciiling io a osiiion ol icIaiivism
as such. Thc onIy iioulIc is ihai no human lcing can sio wiih jusi
having conviciions, hc aIso has io Iivc anu io aci. Bui io aci is io choosc
anu io choosc is io manilcsi somc soii ol iclcicncc loi onc couisc
ol aciion ovci anoihci. Howcvci, io manilcsi any such human iclci-
cncc mcans ihai, consciousIy oi unconsciousIy, imIiciiIy oi cxIiciiIy,
onc has mauc a juugmcni ol vaIuc as io which couisc ol aciion is ihc
lciici oi ihc wisci oi ihc moic suiialIc oi iclcialIc. Bui whai Iinu ol
a sianuaiu ol vaIuc couIu ihc cihicaI icIaiivisi cmIoy in maIing such
juugmcnis. Thc whoIc oini ol his icIaiivism Iics icciscIy in ihc laci
ihai hc inicnus io chaIIcngc ihc vaIiuiiy ol any anu cvciy sianuaiu ol
vaIuc. On whai ossilIc lasis, ihcn, can ihc icIaiivisi aci anu choosc
anu manilcsi his iclcicncc loi uoing onc ihing iaihci ihan anoihci.
Caughi u in such a icuicamcni, ihc icIaiivisi no uouli may iiy io
icason his way oui in somc such mannci as ihis. Hc may iiy io cmIoy
his vciy icIaiivism anu sIciicism in icgaiu io aII sianuaius ol vaIuc
as il ii wcic iiscIl a Iinu ol sianuaiu ol vaIuc. Thus wc can imaginc
himsaying io himscIl, in ccci: Sincc aII sianuaius ol vaIuc aic uiiciIy
wiihoui lounuaiion, sincc no way ol Iilc oi couisc ol aciion is icaIIy
suciioi io any oihci, ihcn ihc scnsilIc ihing loi mc io uo is
1r Que o EL.nI Kro.Iene [ : |
1. io cuIiivaic an aiiiiuuc ol gicaici ioIciancc iowaiu ihc vaiious
moucs ol Iilc anu aiicins ol lchavioi ihai mcn havc choscn
loi ihcmscIvcs (Miss Bcncuici), oi
:. io cicaic my own sci ol vaIucs anu aiicmi io cnloicc ihcm wiih
aII ihc cncigy ol which I am caalIc (MussoIini), oi
. io ihiow o aII moiaI sianuaius anu noims ol conuuci anu
simIy loIIow ihc Icau ol my imuIscs anu incIinaiions (ihc
Iilciaicu youih), oi
q. io go aIong wiih ihc ciowu anu mcicIy aliuc ly ihc sianuaius ol
ihc communiiy ol which I am a mcmlci, ihis lcing ihc Iinc ol
Icasi icsisiancc anu ihc onc Icasi IiIcIy io gci mc inio iioulIc
anu uicuIiy (ihc cynicaI sIciic).
Bui unhaiIy, assuming ihai ihc icIaiivisi uocs icason in somc such
way as ihis, ii is olvious ihai ihc icasoning wiII noi lcai sciuiiny cvcn
loi an insiani. Ioi ihc laIIacy is onIy ioo iiansaicni in ihc aiicmicu
inlcicncc liom ihc uiici icIaiiviiy ol aII moiaI noims anu sianuaius ol
vaIuc io a couisc ol aciion which ihc icIaiivisi consiucis io lc ihc wis-
csi anu mosi scnsilIc loi him io loIIow unuci ihc ciicumsianccs. Ioi
wisci anu moic scnsilIc in ihis conncciion aic lui synonyms loi
lciici oi iclcialIc. Hcncc, ui in iis laIucsi loim, ihc icIaiivisis
icasoning amounis io no moic ihan a gIaiing ror equ.u.: Sincc no
couisc ol aciion is icaIIy lciici oi suciioi io any oihci, I concIuuc
ihai ihc lciici couisc ol aciion loi mc io loIIow wouIu lc ihus anu so.
IiiiIc wonuci ihai unuci ihcsc ciicumsianccs ihc iaciicaI consc-
qucnccs ol cihicaI icIaiivism shouIu lc as vaiious anu as coniciing as
ihosc cxcmIicu ly Miss Bcncuici anu Signoi MussoIini. Inuccu, in
ihc Iighi ol ihc anaIysis wc havc jusi caiiicu oui, wc can now scc ihai
no maiici whai iaciicaI imIicaiions onc sccIs io uciivc liom such
icIaiivism, ihcy aic lounu io invoIvc onc in an inconsisicncy, ihcic
lcing no ossilIc way in which ihc vciy ucniaI ol aII sianuaius ol lciici
anu woisc can iiscIl lc iiansloimcu inio a Iinu ol sianuaiu ol lciici
anu woisc. Noi is ihcic any way in which ihc icIaiivisi can avoiu ihc
iaciicaI inconsisicncy ol his osiiion. Ioi howcvci convinccu hc may
lc ol ihc icIaiiviiy ol aII noims anu sianuaius ol choicc, hc musi nonc-
ihcIcss aci anu maIc choiccs himscIl. Inuccu, cvcn il e. .o.!.Ie hc
[ :q | v.+i o.i x.
wcic io iiy io cvauc cvci having io maIc any soii ol a choicc, his oIicy
ol cvasion wouIu iiscIl lc ihc icsuIi ol a Iinu ol choicc anu wouIu in-
voIvc ai Icasi an imIicii juugmcni io ihc ccci ihai such a couisc ol
cvasion was ihc lcsi onc oi ihc Icasi lau onc loi him io uisuc unuci
ihc ciicumsianccs.
Onc is aImosi icmicu io suggcsi ihai ihcic is no oihci way loi an
cihicaI icIaiivisi io cscac ihc inconsisicncy ol his osiiion ihan ly
having ihc goou loiiunc io lc siiucI ucau, oi io lc icnucicu ror o-
o er., immcuiaicIy uon lccoming convinccu ol ihc iiuih ol icIa-
iivism, anu lcloic hc has hau a chancc io maIc so much as a singIc
choicc oi uccision on ihc lasis ol his ncw-lounu conviciions. Such,
howcvci, wouIu sccm io lc a ciucI laic io wish cvcn uon an cihi-
caI icIaiivisi, anu suicIy a high iicc io ay mcicIy loi consisicncy.
WouIuni ii lc casici loi him io loigo his icIaiivism aIiogcihci.
2
The Examined Life:
Back to Socrates and
Aristotle
1. Feo..ern.or nrn re. nen.u.e
Oui isi chaici may havc Icli ihc icauci wiih an imicssion ol
conlusion woisc conlounucu. EihicaI InowIcugc, ii sccms, aIihough ii
may lc somcihing ucvouiIy io lc wishcu loi, is ai ihc samc iimc somc-
ihing haiuIy io lc icaIizcu, noi onIy in iaciicc, lui cvcn in iinciIc.
Inuccu, loi anyonc io cIaim ihai in ihc icscni uay mcn aciuaIIy uo
osscss an aii ol Iiving comaialIc io ihc aiis ol wai, ol mcuicinc, oi
ol mciaIIuigy wouIu lc simIy icosicious. Whais moic, ihcic a-
cais io lc no way ciihci in laci oi in Iogic loi us cvci io gci liom
a scicniic InowIcugc ol ihc lacis ol human lchavioi io any soii ol
moiaI oi cihicaI InowIcugc ol whai mighi lc caIIcu ihc oughis ol
human lchavioi. Thc vciy iojcci ol ucvcIoing such a ihing as a sci-
cniicaIIy giounucu aii oi sIiII ol Iiving anu ol lcing human sccms io
lc hocIcssIy imossilIc.
Anu yci no soonci uiu wc cxosc ihc aaicni imossiliIiiy ol cihi-
caI InowIcugc ihan wc acaicu suuucnIy io iuin ihc ialIcs anu io
aiguc ihai any ucniaI ol ihc ossiliIiiy ol cihicaI InowIcugc is iiscIl
imossilIc. Oi il noi cxaciIy imossilIc IogicaIIy, such a ucniaI ol cihi-
caI InowIcugc was ai Icasi sccn io Icau inio whai, loi wani ol a lciici
icim, wc chosc io caII a iaciicaI oi cxisicniiaI inconsisicncy.
Whcic, ihcn, uo wc go liom hcic. WcII, suosc wc iiy io go in a
uiicciion in which aImosi no oihci cihicaI wiiicis ol ihc icscni uay
aic woni io go. Suosc wc iaIc quiic sciiousIy ihis sccmingIy incs-
caalIc human siiuaiion in which wc human lcings nu ouiscIvcs anu
[ :6 | v.+i o.i x.
accoiuing io which wc cannoi vciy wcII ucny ihc ossiliIiiy ol cihicaI
InowIcugc wiihoui ihcicly invoIving ouiscIvcs in a iaciicaI oi cxis-
icniiaI inconsisicncy. Anu sincc wc cannoi avoiu an assumiion as io
ihc ossiliIiiy ol cihicaI InowIcugc, Ici us maIc a viiiuc ol ncccssiiy
anu assumc ii. Having mauc ihc assumiion ihai such InowIcugc is
ossilIc, Ici us aiicmi io convcii ihc ossiliIiiy inio an aciuaIiiy ly
showing whai ii aciuaIIy mcans io lc a human lcing anu whai lcing
human uocs in laci consisi in. In ihis way, wc shaII cihas lc alIc io
sIcich oui ai Icasi ihc iuuimcnis ol a gcnuinc aii ol Iiving.
Such a ioccuuic is noi ouIai among conicmoiaiy cihicaI wiii-
cis. On ihc coniiaiy, ii jusi isni uonc. Ii has lccomc commonIacc
iouay io consiuci ihai ihc onIy ioci siaiiing oini loi cihics is noi
ihc ossiliIiiy ol cihicaI InowIcugc, lui, iionicaIIy cnough, iis uiici
imossiliIiiy. Il ihis sccms aiauoxicaI, icmcmlci whai wc havc aI-
icauy lccn ai ains io oini oui, ihai a gcnciaI aiiiiuuc ol icIaiiv-
ism anu sIciicism in icgaiu io maiicis ol cihics is simIy iaIcn loi
gianicu as aii ol ihc hciiiagc ol moucin man. Noi is ii mcicIy iaIcn
loi gianicu; loi as wc havc sccn, ii icsis on ihc iwin lounuaiion sioncs
ol: (1) ihc sccmingIy olvious icIaiiviiy, simIy as a maiici ol laci, ol aII
Inown moiaI noims anu sianuaius ol vaIuc, anu (:) ihc cquaIIy olvi-
ous ncuiiaIiiyihis iimc as a maiici ol iinciIcol aII aciuaI lacis
anu occuiicnccs wiihin ihc icaI woiIu.
Bc ii noicu aIso ihai aIihough wc havc iiicu io show ihai such an
aiiiiuuc ol cihicaI icIaiivism anu sIciicism is unicnalIc, lccausc in-
consisicni, wc havc noi as yci uonc anyihing in ihc way ol uiicciIy
unucimining iis iwo lounuaiion sioncs: ihc laciuaI icIaiiviiy ol moiaI
noims anu ihc IogicaI imossiliIiiy ol giounuing such noims on scicn-
iicaIIy olscivalIc lacis. Noi uo wc cvcn ioosc io uo anyihing ol ihc
soii, ai Icasi noi jusi ai icscni. Raihci oui ioccuuic wiII lc simIy io
Icavc ihcsc uicuIiics on onc siuc, in ihc assuiancc ihai ihcic musi lc
somc way ol mcciing ihcm, howcvci much wc ouiscIvcs may lc in ihc
uaiI as io whai ihis way is. Thc giounu loi ihis assuiancc Iics in whai
shouIu ly now lc a cilcciIy cIcai awaicncss ihai onc cannoi wiih con-
sisicncy lc a ihoioughgoing icIaiivisi oi sIciic in icgaiu io maiicis
ol cihics.
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ : |
z. Doe ro nr Ln.e n rnu.nI ern
Givcn ihc assuiancc ihai cihicaI InowIcugc is ai Icasi ossilIc, Icis
uamn ihc ioicuocs anu saiI iighi inio ihc qucsiion ol whai wc uo
anu can Inow in cihics, ol whai is lcsi loi us as mcn, anu ol whai wc
oughi anu nccu io uo in oiuci io lc iiuIy human. This cniciiisc ol
ucicimining whai oui human uioscs anu goaIs aic may wcII iovc
io lc Icss uicuIi ihan onc mighi ai isi suosc. Sciiing asiuc loi
a momcni aII ol oui conicmoiaiy sohisiicaiion aloui ihc iauicaI
scaiaiion ol lacis liom vaIucs, whai moic aicni laci is ihcic aloui
human lcings, cihas cvcn aloui Iiving lcings gcnciaIIy, ihan ihcii
goaI-uiiccicu lchavioi. Inuccu, AiisioiIcs N.onLenr EL. quiic un-
lIushingIy lcgins wiih whai in many icsccis is no moic ihan a iiuism:
Evciy aii anu cvciy invcsiigaiion, anu IiIcwisc cvciy iaciicaI ui-
suii anu unuciiaIing, sccms io aim ai somc goou: hcncc ii has lccn
wcII saiu ihai ihc goou is ihai ai which aII ihings aim. . . . As ihcic aic
numcious uisuiis anu aiis anu scicnccs, ii loIIows ihai ihcii cnus
aic coiicsonuingIy numcious: loi insiancc, ihc cnu ol ihc scicncc
ol mcuicinc is hcaIih, ihai ol ihc aii ol shi luiIuing a vcsscI, ihai
ol siiaicgy vicioiy, ihai ol [uomcsiic cconomy| wcaIih.
1
Iiom ihis, AiisioiIc movcs io ihc naiuiaI concIusion:
Il ihcicloic among ihc cnus ai which oui aciions aim ihcic lc onc
which wc wish loi iis own saIc, whiIc wc wish oihcis onIy loi ihc
saIc ol ihis . . . , ii is cIcai ihai ihis onc uIiimaic Enu musi lc ihc
Goou, anu inuccu ihc Suicmc Goou. WiII noi ihcn a KnowIcugc
ol ihis Suicmc Goou lc aIso ol gicai iaciicaI imoiiancc loi ihc
conuuci ol Iilc. WiII ii noi lciici cnalIc us io aiiain whai is iiing,
IiIc aichcis having a iaigci io aim ai. Il ihis lc so, wc oughi io
maIc an aiicmi io uciciminc ai aII cvcnis in ouiIinc whai cxaciIy
ihis Suicmc Goou is, anu ol which ol ihc ihcoiciicaI oi iaciicaI
scicnccs ii is ihc oljcci.
2
Now ihc inicicsiing ihing aloui ihcsc assagcs, loi oui icscni ui-
osc, is ihai in AiisioiIcs cycs, aaicniIy, noihing is quiic so much
a laci ol naiuic as whai hc hcic icscnis as goaI-uiiccicu lchavioi oi
aciiviiy ihai aims ai somc cnu. Hcncc io suosc ihai such ihings as
[ :S | v.+i o.i x.
vaIucs, cnus, anu goaIs musi nccus lc cxiiinsic io oi ouisiuc ol na-
iuic, oi ihai vaIucs aic in no scnsc lacis ol naiuic, uocs sccm iaihci
lai-lcichcu. On ihc coniiaiy, noihing is moic naiuiaI, oi moic a aii
ol ihc woiIu ol naiuic, ihan a maniloIu vaiiciy ol naiuiaI changcs anu
icnucncics, aII ol ihcm oiucicu io ihcii aioiiaic cnus anu vaIucs.
Oi, so Iong as wc aic lcing ucIilciaicIy unsohisiicaicu anu iaIing
ihings simIy as wc nu ihcm, suosc wc choosc a iaihci uicicni
cxamIc io iIIusiiaic ihc samc oini. TaIc, say, an acoinai oncc a
homcIy anu a hacIncycu cxamIc, io lc suic, lui cihas a vciy ic-
vcaIing onc. May wc noi say ihai ihcic is somcihing aloui an acoin ihai
Icaus us io conncci oi associaic ii in somc way wiih a luiuic oaI iicc.
SuicIy, ihis uocs noi sccm io commii us io any vciy imaginaiivc, io say
noihing ol any vciy looIhaiuy oi iccIIcss, icasoning. Noihing is moic
naiuiaI ihan ihai an acoin shouIu ucvcIo inio an oaI; ihis is simIy a
laci ol naiuic; an oaI is ihc naiuiaI cnu ol an acoin. Il an acoin wcic io
ucvcIo inio somcihing cIsc, say a iauoIc oi a sIysciaci, wc shouIu
uouliIcss say ihai ihis was noi mcicIy unnaiuiaI, lui ihai wc hau hau
ioo much!
AII ihis is noi io say ihai mcicIy lccausc ihc acoin is ihus naiuiaIIy
oiicnicu oi oiucicu io iis own ioci anu chaiaciciisiic cilcciion, ii
musi ncccssaiiIy anu incviialIy aiiain ihai cilcciion. On ihc coniiaiy,
ihc acoin may laII on iocIy giounu anu so noi maiuic anu ucvcIo
iociIy. Ii may lccomc uiscascu, so ihai ihc young sioui wiihcis
anu uics. Ii may cvcn lc caicn ly a hog. Noi couIu any ol ihcsc somc-
whai uniowaiu cvcnis lc saiu io lc unnaiuiaI. Ai ihc samc iimc, so
lai as ihc acoin iiscIl is conccincu, ihcic is an cniiicIy ioci scnsc
in which such hacnings may lc saiu io lc lau loi ii, in ihai ihcy
icvcni oi imcuc ii liom aiiaining iis naiuiaI cilcciion oi cnu. Anu
coiicsonuingIy, ihosc ciicumsianccs anu cvcnis may lc saiu io lc
goou loi ii which luiihci iis naiuiaI giowih anu ucvcIomcni. Inuccu,
loIIowing AiisioiIcs iciminoIogy, ihc goou ol ihc acoin is simIy ihc
aiiainmcni ol iis naiuiaI cnu oi cilcciion, ihc goou ol anyihing lcing
ihai ai which ii naiuiaIIy aimsoi, sincc ihc woiu aims in EngIish
usuaIIy connoics conscious uiosc, wc mighi aiahiasc ihc Aiisio-
icIian uicium ly saying ihai ihc goou ol anyihing is simIy ihai iowaiu
which ii naiuiaIIy icnus oi io which ii is naiuiaIIy oiucicu in iis ucvcI-
omcni.
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ :g |
Thus liom AiisioiIcs oini ol vicw, ii is noi ncccssaiy io go oui-
siuc ihc woiIu ol naiuic in oiuci io uiscovci such ihings as goous anu
vaIucs. On ihc coniiaiy, vaIucs aic simIy lacis ol naiuic. To nu whai
ihc goou ol anyihing is oi whai is ol vaIuc loi ii, wc nccu noi go lc-
yonu oui oiuinaiy human cxciicncc, which succs io uiscIosc ihc
caaliIiiics anu oicniiaIiiics ol ihings, whai ihcii icnucncics aic, anu
hcncc whai ihc cnus oi goaIs aic iowaiu which ihcy aic naiuiaIIy oii-
cnicu in ihcii naiuiaI giowih anu ucvcIomcni.
Noi is ii haiu io scc how ihis whoIc ucsciiiivc aiahcinaIia
oicniiaIiiy, cnus, goaIs, icnucncy, naiuiaI cilcciion, naiuiaI giowih
anu ucvcIomcni, cic.which mighi lc consiucicu io lc oiiginaIIy
aioiiaic io ihc lioIogicaI icaIm, can quiic icauiIy anu iociIy
lc iianslciicu io ihc human icaIm. Ioi man is cciiainIy aii ol ihc
woiIu ol naiuic. AccoiuingIy, jusi as Ianis anu animaIs aII havc naiu-
iaI siaics ol cilcciion anu maiuiiiy, iowaiu which ihcii vciy lcing is
oiucicu anu oiicnicu anu in ihc uiicciion ol which ihcy wiII naiuiaIIy
icnu anu ucvcIo, ioviucu ihai auvcisc conuiiions uo noi inicilcic,
so aIso man may lc icsumcu io havc his chaiaciciisiic cnu oi naiu-
iaI cilcciion, iowaiu which his Iilc naiuiaIIy icnus anu ai which hc
aims naiuiaIIy; ihis may ihcicloic lc caIIcu ihc naiuiaI goou loi man
oi ihc human goou.
Ol couisc, sincc a human lcing is moic ihan jusi a Iiving oiganism,
ii may lc icsumcu ihai human cilcciion oi ihc human goou wiII in-
voIvc somcihing moic ihan mcic lioIogicaI maiuiiiy oi mcic hysicaI
hcaIih oi wcII-lcing, as in ihc casc ol Ianis anu animaIs. Raihci ihc
human goou wiII invoIvc whai mighi IooscIy lc caIIcu ihc maiuiiiy oi
hcaIihy conuiiion ol ihc whoIc man, oi ol man in his ioiaI lcing. IiIc-
wisc, sincc man is a lcing caalIc ol inicIIigcncc anu unucisianuing,
anu conscqucniIy ol Ianncu anu ucIilciaic lchavioi on ihc lasis ol
such unucisianuing, ii may aIso lc icsumcu ihai ihc way in which a
human lcing aiiains his aioiiaic goou oi naiuiaI cilcciion wiII
lc iaihci uicicni liom ihai ol a Iani oi an animaI. In ihc casc ol ihc
Iaiici, ihc oiganism wiII, as wc say, jusi naiuiaIIy giow anu ucvcIo
io maiuiiiy, il unlavoialIc conuiiions uo noi inicilcic. In coniiasi, a
human lcing can icsumalIy aiiain his cilcciion onIy ly a conscious
iccogniiion ol whai ihc human cnu is anu ly ucIilciaicIy aiming ai
ihis ioci cnu. In ihis scnsc, wc mighi say ihai ihioughoui aII ihc icsi
[ o | v.+i o.i x.
ol naiuic, naiuiaI cilcciion is aiiaincu naiuiaIIy anu ihiough naiu-
iaI ioccsscs, whcicas in ihc casc ol human lcings such cilcciion is
aiiaincu onIy ly aii anu ucsign. Bui in ciihci casc ihc cilcciion oi
ihc goou ihai is so aiiaincu is a naiuiaI onc, lcing ucicimincu ly ihc
vciy naiuic ol ihc lcing in qucsiion: ly ihc naiuic ol ihc acoin in ihc
casc ol ihc acoin anu ihc oaI, anu ly ihc naiuic ol man in ihc casc
ol human lcings.
j. VLn, Ler, . nr rnu.nI ern
Pcihas wc can uo no lciici ihan io Ici AiisioiIc icscni his own
accouni ol whai ihis naiuiaI cnu oi naiuiaI goou loi a human lcing
is. In his chaiaciciisiicaIIy icisc, lui iIIuminaiing, lashion, hc says:
Wc may now iciuin io ihc Goou which is ihc oljcci ol oui scaich,
anu iiy io nu oui cxaciIy whai ii can lc. Ioi goou acais io lc
onc ihing in onc uisuii oi aii anu anoihci in anoihci: ii is uil-
lcicni in mcuicinc liom whai ii is in siiaicgy, anu so on wiih ihc
icsi ol ihc aiis. Whai ucniiion ol ihc Goou ihcn wiII hoIu iiuc in
aII ihc aiis. Pcihas wc may ucnc ii as ihai loi ihc saIc ol which
cvciyihing cIsc is uonc. This aIics io somcihing uicicni in cach
uicicni aiiio hcaIih in ihc casc ol mcuicinc, io vicioiy in ihai ol
siiaicgy, io a housc in aichiicciuic, anu io somcihing cIsc in cach
ol ihc oihci aiis: Bui in cvciy uisuii oi unuciiaIing ii ucsciilcs
ihc cnu ol ihai uisuii oi unuciiaIing, sincc in aII ol ihcm ii is loi
ihc saIc ol ihc cnu ihai cvciyihing cIsc is uonc. Hcncc il ihcic lc
somcihing which is ihc cnu ol aII ihings uonc ly human aciion, ihis
wiII lc ihc iaciicalIc Goouoi il ihcic lc scvciaI such cnus, ihc
sum ol ihcsc wiII lc ihc Goou.
3
Piocccuing luiihci, hc ihcn asIs moic uiicciIy jusi whai ihc Su-
icmc Goou loi man may lc consiucicu io lc. Anu his answci is:
Pcihas ihcn wc may aiiivc ai ihis ly ascciiaining whai is mans
lunciion. Ioi ihc goouncss oi ccicncy ol a uic-Iayci oi scuIioi
oi cialisman ol any soii, anu in gcnciaI ol anylouy who has somc
lunciion oi lusincss io ciloim, is ihoughi io icsiuc in ihai lunc-
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ 1 |
iion; anu simiIaiIy ii may lc hcIu ihai ihc goou ol man icsiucs in
ihc lunciion ol man, il hc has a lunciion.
Aic wc ihcn io suosc ihai, whiIc ihc caicnici anu ihc shoc-
maIci havc ucniic lunciions oi lusincsscs lcIonging io ihcm, man
as such has nonc, anu is noi ucsigncu ly naiuic io luIII any lunc-
iion. Musi wc noi iaihci assumc ihai jusi as ihc cyc, ihc hanu, ihc
looi anu cach ol ihc vaiious mcmlcis ol ihc louy manilcsiIy has a
cciiain lunciion ol iis own, so a human lcing aIso has a cciiain lunc-
iion ovci anu alovc aII ihc lunciions ol his aiiicuIai mcmlcis.
Whai ihcn icciscIy can ihis lunciion lc. Thc mcic aci ol Iiving a-
cais io lc shaicu cvcn ly Ianis, whcicas wc aic IooIing loi ihc
lunciion ccuIiai io man; wc musi ihcicloic sci asiuc ihc viiaI ac-
iiviiy ol nuiiiiion anu giowih. Ncxi in ihc scaIc wiII comc somc loim
ol scniicni Iilc; lui ihis ioo acais io lc shaicu ly hoiscs, oxcn,
anu animaIs gcnciaIIy. Thcic icmains ihcicloic whai may lc caIIcu
ihc iaciicaI Iilc ol man as osscssing icason.
4
In oihci woius, ihc goou ol man, accoiuing io AiisioiIc, iuins oui
io lc noi simIy a maiici ol siaying aIivc anu ol ciloiming ihc vcgc-
iaiivc lunciions ihai aic chaiaciciisiic ol Ianis. Ii is noi cvcn a mai-
ici ol mcicIy cxcicising ihc oiuinaiy animaI lunciions, which man, ol
couisc, has, jusi IiIc any oihci animaI. Insicau, mans naiuiaI cilcc-
iion invoIvcs, in auuiiion, ihc cxcicisc ol ihosc owcis anu caaciiics
ihai aic uisiinciivcIy human, ihai is, inicIIigcncc anu iaiionaI unuci-
sianuing. Anu ihis liings us iighi lacI io Sociaics again, loi whom
ihc goou Iilc loi man is simIy ihc cxamincu Iilc, ihc so-caIIcu uncx-
amincu Iilc lcing jusi noi woiih Iiving.
. F.. o!e.or: L. . roL.r !u n Io o In.une
Now isni aII ihis simIc anu olvious cnough. Ai ihc samc iimc, un-
loiiunaicIy, ii musi sccm iiiic cnough ioo. Inuccu, so jaucu anu Iaii-
iuuinous musi cxicssions such as icason, inicIIigcncc, naiuiaI
cilcciion, human unucisianuing, ihc cxamincu Iilc, acai, ihai
io siaic oncs casc in such icims is io iisI Iosing ihc casc loiihwiih.
Anu yci ihc lauIi may Iic noi wiih oui Ianguagc lui wiih ouiscIvcs, ihai
[ : | v.+i o.i x.
mans iaiionaIiiy shouIu havc lccomc such a commonIacc as io Iosc
aII signicancc loi aciuaI Iiving mcn.
Suosc wc ui io ouiscIvcs ihc loIIowing hyoihciicaI casc. Su-
osc somconc ocis io maIc a ucaI wiih us, lc ii somc uiciaioi, oi ihc
Gicai Icviaihan, oi ihc ucviI himscIl. Hc icminus us ol how iccaii-
ous oui cxisicncc is: Wc aic ncvci licc liom woiiics, lcais, anxiciics,
uicau, insccuiiiy ol aII Iinusihc aiom loml, cconomic coIIasc, o-
IiiicaI icvoIuiion, cisonaI laiIuic, lamiIy iiagcuy. Whai wc aic ocicu,
ihcicloic, wiII lc liccuom liom aII ihis, liccuom liom lcai, liccuom
liom wani, liccuom liom woiiy. Thc iomisc is ihai wc shaII lc iaIcn
caic ol comIcicIy anu alsoIuicIyoui hysicaI nccus, oui lioIogicaI
nccus, in laci anyihing ihai wc wani. Anu ihc iicc. Ii wiII onIy lc ihai
wc shani Inow whai is going on. Oh, wcII lc conscious aII iighi, con-
scious cnough io lc awaic ol oui ucsiics anu ol ihc laci ihai ihcy aic
lcing luIIIcu. Bui wc musi noi cxcci ciihci io Inow whai is icaIIy
going on oi cvcn io icicnu io Inow. Thc vciy icicnsc oi ihc iIIusion
ol Inowing whai ihc scoic is wiII lc ucnicu us.
Such is ihc laigain. WouIu wc accci ii. SuicIy noi. Ii is iiuc ihai in
moous ol uclcaiism, ol misciy, anu ol uiici hocIcssncss mcn havc ac-
ccicu such laigains. Inuccu, ii mighi lc saiu ihai ii was in ccci jusi
such a laigain ihai a uclcaicu Gciman coIc acccicu whcn alici
ihc Iiisi WoiIu Wai ihcy cniiusicu ihcii luiuic io HiiIci. SiiII, cvcn
ihough mcn havc cnicicu inio such laigains in ihc asi, anu cvcn
ihough ihcy wiII uouliIcss coniinuc io lc icmicu ly such iosccis
in ihc luiuic, ly anu Iaigc no man in his scnscs wouIu iclci ihc cxis-
icncc ol a conicnicu cow, howcvci wcII lcu anu wcII caicu loi, io ihc
cxisicncc ol a human lcing wiih ai Icasi somc unucisianuing ol whai
is going on.
No maiici how siuiu anu ignoiani anu oliusc a man may lc
ycs, cvcn il hc acInowIcugcs io himscIl his own inicIIcciuaI inlciioiiiy,
iaIcn in ihc siiici anu naiiow scnscsiiII ii is moic ihan IiIcIy ihai
whai Iccs such a cison going anu maIcs Iilc lcaialIc loi him is his
own sccici, oi cihas noi so sccici, conviciion ihai whcn ii comcs io
his cisonaI uccisions anu cisonaI choiccs, hcs noi icaIIy so uuml,
anu ihai, accoiuing io his Iighis, hc is alici aII iciiy shicwu in ihc
maiicis ol whai AiisioiIc, in ihc alovc-quoicu assagc, icimcu ihc
iaciicaI Iilc ol man as osscssing icason.
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ |
Il noi ihc icaIiiy, ihcn ai Icasi ihc icicnsc oi iIIusion ol Inowing
whai ii is aII aloui anu ol whai ihc smaii ihing io uo isihis, wc wouIu
suggcsi, mcans moic io a human lcing ihan anyihing cIsc. Anu ihis is
why, in ihc hyoihciicaI laigain which wc suggcsicu mighi lc ocicu
io a man, wc wcic caicluI io siaic ihc icims in such a way ihai cvcn ihc
icicnsc oi iIIusion ol Inowing wouIu havc io lc givcn u in cxchangc
loi ihc iomiscu conicnimcni anu sccuiiiy anu liccuom liom wani
anu woiiy. Inuccu, no wouIu-lc moucin uiciaioi wouIu cvci go ihis
lai, ihc icchniquc ol uiciaioishi anu ucmogoguciy lcing iaihci io
maIc mcn ihinI ihcy aic cIcvci anu inloimcu anu cvcn wisc, whiIc in
laci uciiving ihcm ol ihc icaIiiy ol aII gcnuinc InowIcugc anu unuci-
sianuing.
In oihci woius, ihc vciy cxigcncics ol iiying io coniioI coIc ly
Iccing ihcm in ihc uaiI, whiIc maIing ihcm lcIicvc ihcy aic in ihc
Iighi, icnu io conim AiisioiIcs juugmcni ol ihc suicmc vaIuc io
man ol lcing cnIighicncu, ol Inowing whai is going onol an inicI-
Iigcni oi an cxamincu Iilc, in oihci woius. Ioi whcihci wc lc icaIIy
looIs oi noi, wc human lcings wani ai Icasi io lcIicvc ihai wc aic wisc.
Ii is loi ihis icason ihai AiisioiIc can quiic IcgiiimaicIy say ihai ihc
suicmc goou loi man is simIy io Iivc inicIIigcniIy.
j. Seorn o!e.or: .Ln Ln .reII.ere
o o no ..L !e.r n oon nr
Anoihci uicuIiy wiih ihis AiisioicIian uicium is IiIcIy io suggcsi
iiscIl ai ihis oini. Ioi mcicIy io coniiasi ihc inicIIigcni Iilc ol man
wiih ihc vcgciaiivc cxisicncc ol Ianis oi ihc scnsaic cxisicncc ol ani-
maIs is cniiicIy comaiilIc wiih oiniing io any numlci ol human
lcings who aic cciiainIy inicIIigcni cnough, lui whosc Iivcs wc shouIu
haiuIy ihinI ol as lcing cxamIcs ol human cilcciion, naiuiaI oi
oihciwisc. Ioi cxamIc, whai aloui ]osch GocllcIs oi cihas ]o-
sch SiaIin. CciiainIy, ihcic was no ucnying ihcm inicIIigcncc. Whais
moic, ihcy uiu noi laiI io ui ihcii inicIIigcncc io woiI in ihc iaciicaI
uisuii ol ihcii vaiious cnus. In ihis scnsc, ihcy uiu noi Iivc oui ihcii
Iivcs on any mcic vcgciaiivc oi scniicni IcvcI. Anu yci ai ihc samc iimc,
ihciis wcic anyihing lui cxamincu Iivcs in ihc Sociaiic scnsc, loi in ihc
[ q | v.+i o.i x.
casc ol iwo such masiciminus ol naiionaI anu inicinaiionaI iII-wiII, ii
is aII ioo olvious ihai ihcii InowIcugc was noi soughi as ihc souicc ol
scIl-unucisianuing, ol Inowing oncscIl. Insicau, ii was whoIIy insiiu-
mcniaI io cnus oihci ihan InowIcugc anu unucisianuing, cnus such as
owci, giccu, vcngcancc, anu scIl-aggianuizcmcni. In ihis scnsc ihcii
Iivcs wcic noi inicIIigcni oi cxamincu Iivcs ai aII.
Ioi ihai maiici, onc has lui io iccaII ihc caiIici quoicu assagc,
in which Sociaics icioachcs his lcIIow Aihcnians loi lcing so con-
ccincu wiih hcaing u ihc gicaicsi amouni ol moncy anu honoi anu
icuiaiion. Thc chanccs aic ihai ihc aiiainmcni ol ihcsc cnus wiII ic-
quiic noi mcicIy IucI, lui no IiiiIc wii anu inicIIigcncccihas moic
inuccu ihan you oi I osscss, anu maylc cvcn moic ihan Sociaics oi
AiisioiIc osscsscu. Noi is ii IiIcIy ihai Sociaics was any moic unawaic
ol ihis simIc laci ol Iilc ihan hc was ol mosi oihcis. Bui cvcn ihough
ihc man whosc goaI in Iilc is wcaIih, anu whosc inicIIigcncc haiIy
succs loi aiiaining ii, is IiIcIy io lc a vciy shicwu anu inicIIigcni lcI-
Iow, ihai siiII uocs noi mcan ihai his Iilc may iociIy lc saiu io lc
an inicIIigcni onc. Ioi inicIIigcncc in his casc is icsumalIy uscu as a
mcic insiiumcni in ihc scivicc ol cnus oihci ihan inicIIigcncc iiscIl,
anu ihai can onIy lc ucsciilcu as looIish anu misiaIcn.
In jusiicaiion ol ihis Iaiici siaicmcni, onc has lui io cxaminc anu
iccci uon such an aiiiiuuc iowaiu Iilc as wouIu maIc ol wcaIih ihc
lc-aII anu cnu-aII ol human cxisicncc. Ii is onIy ioo olvious ihai wcaIih
ly iis vciy naiuic is lui a mcans io oihci ihingsio ihc ihings ihai
moncy can luy. This is noi io say ihai such ihings may noi lc cxcccu-
ingIy vaIualIc, anu assionaicIy covcicu, aiiicuIaiIy il onc uocsni
havc ihcm; anu so ioo aic moncy anu wcaIih as ihc mcans ol ihcii ui-
chasc. Bui ihc oini is ihai mcans aic noi cnus, anu io conlusc ihc
loimci wiih ihc Iaiici is lui loIIy anu siuiuiiy. Inuccu, ii iaIcs iaihci
moic wisuom anu unucisianuing io Inow how io usc iichcs, oncc onc
has ihcm, ihan ii uocs io Inow how io acquiic ihcm in ihc isi Iacc.
Thais why ihcic is no looI quiic IiIc a iich looI, anu aIso why anyonc
who unciiiicaIIy uisucs wcaIih as ihc iinciaI goaI in Iilc, howcvci
inicIIigcni hc may lc, jusi isni vciy smaii alici aII.
Moicovci, ihc samc ihing may lc saiu ol ihc man whosc consuming
assion in Iilc is ihc Iusi loi owci. Whaicvci liiIIiancc anu icsouicc-
luIncss hc may uisIay in ihc uisuii ol his cnu, ihc cnu iiscIl is noi
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ |
an inicIIigcni onc, lcing ly ihc vciy naiuic ol ihc casc a mcans io
somcihing cIsc: owci io uo ihis oi ihai oi ihc oihci. IiiiIc wonuci,
ihcn, ihai ihc Iilc ol a GocllcIs oi a SiaIin siiiIcs us as lcing somc-
how waicu, uisioiicu, misscni, anu in ihis scnsc unnaiuiaI: ii is noi
ihc Iinu ol Iilc ihai inicIIigcncc anu unucisianuing wouIu icsciilc.
SimiIaiIy, io sccI honoi oi icuiaiion as an cnu is cquaIIy uninicIIi-
gcni, howcvci much ii may lc ncccssaiy io cxIoii oncs inicIIigcncc in
ihcii aiiainmcni. To lc suic, unIiIc wcaIih anu owci, such ihings as a
goou namc anu a icsccicu osiiion in ihc communiiy aic noi ncccs-
saiiIy mcic mcans io ihc aiiainmcni ol siiII luiihci cnus. Hcncc ihcy
can haiuIy lc ciiiicizcu loi invoIving an olvious conlusion ol mcans
wiih cnus. Ai ihc samc iimc, suosc wc asI ouiscIvcs jusi why wc aic
so anxious aloui oui icuiaiions (loi mosi ol us cciiainIy aic). Onc
man wanis io gci ahcau in ihc woiIu anu show ihc loIIs lacI homc.
Anoihci sccIs miIiiaiy gIoiy. Anoihci ciavcs ncwsaci ulIiciiy. An-
oihci wanis io gci io ihc io ol ihc acaucmic Iauuci. Anoihci wanis
io wiiic a looI ihai wiII hcau ihc lcsi-scIIci Iisis. SiiII anoihci wanis
io lc ihc man ol ihc ycai ol ihc IocaI Roiaiy CIul oi ]unioi Cham-
lci ol Commcicc. Anu so on. In laci, in icscni-uay Amciica ihcic
sccms io lc a mania loi uoing ihc uonc ihing, whaicvci iolcssion oi
waII ol Iilc wc hacn io lc in, so ihai wc shaII achicvc somc soii ol
iccogniiion on ihc aii ol oui lcIIows.
Bui why is ihis. Why uo wc sccI iccogniiion so aviuIy. Whcn wc
ihinI aloui ii a IiiiIc, wc can icauiIy scc ihai wc uo noi, oi ai Icasi wc
shouIu noi, sccI honoi anu icuiaiion loi ihcii own saIc, lui onIy
lccausc such iaisc anu icscci liom oui lcIIows somchow scivc as
icassuiancc io ouiscIvcs ihai maylc wc havc accomIishcu somcihing
oi amounicu io somcihing alici aII. In oihci woius, honoi anu icu-
iaiion aic noi iociIy cnus ai aII, lui onIy maiIs oi signs ol ihc cnu.
Anu whai is ihc cnu iiscIl . PicsumalIy, ii is simIy oui own woiih, oui
own icaI achicvcmcni anu cilcciion. Thai is whai wc aic icaIIy alici;
anu in so lai as wc comc io ihinI onIy ol oui lamc anu icuiaiion in
oihci mcns cycs anu noi ol oui own scIvcs anu whai wc ouiscIvcs aic,
io ihis samc cxicni wc aic again lcing no moic ihan looIish anu un-
inicIIigcni: loi such an aiiiiuuc anu way ol Iilc wiII noi lcai sciuiiny.
Whai, ihcn, musi such icaI woiih anu achicvcmcni consisi in, a
woiih anu cxccIIcncc ihai aic io lc soughi anu chciishcu loi ihcii own
[ 6 | v.+i o.i x.
saIc anu icgaiuIcss ol whcihci oi noi ihcy liing wiih ihcm lamc anu
icuiaiion anu iccogniiion ly oui lcIIows. Il ihc whoIc ol oui loic-
going aigumcni is io lc cicuiicu, such cxccIIcncc may lc lounu io Iic
in ihc cxcicisc ol oui chaiaciciisiic human lunciion, ihai is io say in
Icauing an inicIIigcni oi cxamincu Iilc. Moicovci, ii shouIu now lc
cIcai ihai such a Iilc musi nccus lc onc in which oncs InowIcugc anu
inicIIigcncc aic cmIoycu, noi as mcic mcans loi ihc achicvcmcni ol
iiiaiionaI cnus, lui iaihci as icsciiling anu ucicimining ihc cnus
ihcmscIvcs. This anu ihis aIonc wiII consiiiuic a iiuIy inicIIigcni anu
cxamincu Iilc, anu as such wiII invoIvc ihai vciy cilcciion anu luI-
IImcni ol oncs human naiuic iowaiu which onc is, as wc havc sccn,
oiicnicu ly naiuic.
NcvciihcIcss, no soonci uo wc ihus sccI io csialIish ihc laci ihai
ihc naiuiaI anu hcaIihy, anu hcncc goou, Iilc loi a human lcing is
simIy ihc Iilc ol InowIcugc anu unucisianuing, ihan anoihci anu siiII
moic sciious misunucisianuing is IiIcIy io aiisc. Ioi onc mighi lc in-
cIincu iaihci navcIy io suosc ihai in ihc icscni uay ihosc whosc
Iivcs aic ucvoicu io ihc uisuii ol such ihings as wisuomanu iiuih, as
coniiasicu wiih moncy, honoi, anu icuiaiion, aic nonc oihci ihan
ihc schoIai-scicniisi iolcssois ol oui gicai acaucmic insiiiuiions. Ac-
coiuingIy, aIicu io ihc conicmoiaiy sccnc, ii wouIu acai ihai ihc
goou Iilc loi man, as Sociaics anu AiisioiIc cnvisagc ii, wouIu iuin oui
io lc nonc oihci ihan ihc acaucmic Iilc, ihc Iilc ol ihc iolcssoi! Wiih
such a ucnoucmcni, onc may wcII lcgin io wonuci aloui ihc wisuom
ol ihc GiccIs. Such a ciiaicia mighi cvcn consiiiuic ihc .enu.o nn
n!u.nu ol Sociaiic anu AiisioicIian cihics aIiIc.
IoiiunaicIy, ihough, ii is noi so much AiisioiIc who is hcic ai lauIi,
as ihc somcwhai qucsiionalIc chain ol icasoning ihai caiiicu us
lIiihcIy liom ihc Sociaiic iucaI ol ihc cxamincu Iilc io ihc aihciic
icaIiiy ol icscni-uay acaucmic Iilc. Ioi onc ihing, ii iaIcs lui IiiiIc
cicciivcncss io scc ihai many ol oui moic uisiinguishcu cxcmIais
ol ihc acaucmic Iilc iouay aic noi cxaciIy mcn loi whom wisuom anu
iiuih mcan moic ihan moncy, honoi, anu icuiaiion. To lc suic,
moncy in such cascs is iolalIy covcicu noi so much in ihc osscs-
sion ol ii as in ihc IacI ol ii. Bui as loi honoi anu icuiaiion, ihcsc
aic ihc ihings ihai icaIIy sui ihc young acaucmic hocluI io ioiI cnu-
IcssIy in Ialoiaioiy oi Iiliaiy, giinuing oui his icscaich, icIing u
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ |
Guggcnhcim anu RocIclcIIci gianis as hc asccnus ihc Iauuci ol aca-
ucmic succcss, anu naIIy iuining oui io lc an inicinaiionaI auihoiiiy
on hoimonc soIuiions oi ihc oiiciy ol ihc Zuni Inuians. Anu as loi
wisuom anu iiuih, ihcsc aic noi ihc ihings ihai maiici acaucmicaIIy.
No, iis ihc naiionaI oi inicinaiionaI icuiaiion ihai counis!
Bui cvcn shouIu wc lc moic saiing in oui saiiic, anu locus aiicn-
iion uon ihosc among oui conicmoiaiy schoIais anu scicniisis
anu ihcic aic noi a lcw suchloi whom a gcnuinc Iovc ol InowIcugc
anu Icaining is ihc uominani moiivc ol ihcii Iivcs, ii wouIu siiII sccm
ihai ihcic was a maiIcu uiscicancy lciwccn ihc cnu anu uiosc ol
ihcii Iivcs anu ihc iuca ol ihc cxamincu Iilc oi ihc inicIIigcni Iilc as
icicscnicu ly Sociaics. Inuccu, in ihc icccuing chaici, wc hau a
goou ucaI io say aloui how, in moucin scicncc anu schoIaishi, ihc
uisuii ol InowIcugc loi iis own saIc is cuiiousIy iiicIcvani io ihc uc-
vcIomcni ol ihc scicniisis oi schoIais own chaiacici anu cisonaIiiy.
Thai is why wc aic aII ioo licqucniIy imicsscu iouay onIy wiih a sci-
cniisis liiIIiancc oi a schoIais Icaining, wiihoui lcing ihc Icasi lii
imicsscu wiih ihc man himscIl as a human lcing.
OlviousIy, howcvci, in his iaisc ol ihc Iilc ucvoicu io wisuom anu
iiuih Sociaics uiu noi havc in minu any such iiavcsiy as ihis. Insicau,
ii is noicwoiihy ihai io aiiain ihc cxamincu Iilc ii is noi sucicni ihai
InowIcugc lc soughi as an cnu anu noi jusi as a mcans. In auuiiion,
Sociaics is aIways caicluI io siicss ihai ihc Iinu ol InowIcugc anu wis-
uom in which human cilcciion consisis is ihc InowIcugc ol Know
ihyscIl anu ihc wisuom ihai maIcs loi ihc imiovcmcni ol ihc souI.
Bui imaginc a moucin cconomisi oi mcuicvaI hisioiian, io say noih-
ing ol a chcmisi oi a nucIcai hysicisi, saying ihai his whoIc scicniic
oi schoIaiIy aciiviiy was uiiccicu simIy io ihc cnu ol a gicaici scIl-
InowIcugc anu ihc imiovcmcni ol his own souI. Thcic is somcihing
aloui ncaiIy aII moucin scicncc anu schoIaishi ihai sccms io maIc
ii noi mcicIy imciiincni, lui aciuaIIy aniiihciic io anyihing on ihc
oiuci ol Sociaiic wisuom.
To lc suic, ii may noi lc uncommon loi a Icaincu iolcssoi, whcn
a icsiimoniaI uinnci is givcn in his honoi jusi lcloic his iciiicmcni,
oi whcn hc is inviicu io scaI inloimaIIy ai a Iunchcon cIul, io Ici
himscIl lc so caiiicu away ly ihc aiiciing siiii ol ihc occasion as io
cxaiiaic, il hc lc a maihcmaiician, on ihc gicai vaIuc ol ihc siuuy ol
[ S | v.+i o.i x.
aIgclia, say, loi ucvcIoing inicgiiiy anu ccicncy ol chaiacici, oi, il
hc lc a loIIIoiisi, on howa lamiIiaiiiy wiih ihc siiuciuic ol ihc loII iaIc
coniiiluics uiicciIy io ihc iouuciion ol a wisc anu lcnign hiIosohy
ol Iilc. Givcn cxiicmcIy lavoialIc ciicumsianccs, onc mighi cvcn hcai
ihai ihcic is noihing quiic IiIc ihc cIosc anu ainsiaIing siuuy ol los-
siIs loi ucvcIoing in a man a icaIIy iogicssivc anu loiwaiu-IooIing
aiiiiuuc iowaiu human cxisicncc.
Yci cIcaiIy, aII such acaucmic moiaIizings as vchicIcs loi iolcsso-
iiaI scIl-congiaiuIaiion aic moic in ihc naiuic ol iolcssionaI Iascs
ihan ihcy aic inicgiaI io ihc aciuaI acaucmic uisciIincs ihcmscIvcs.
KiciIcgaaiu, in his coii io chaiaciciizc an cxisiing inuiviuuaI in
coniiasi io a mcic alsiiaci ihinIci, uis his ngci on ihc vciy ncivc
ol Sociaiic wisuom anu ly imIicaiion scis ii o siiiIingIy liom ihc
chaiaciciisiic acaucmic wisuom ol ihc icscni uay:
An cxisiing inuiviuuaI . . . cciiainIy ihinIs, lui hc ihinIs cvciy-
ihing in icIaiion io himscIl, lcing inniicIy inicicsicu in cxisiing.
Sociaics was ihus a man whosc cncigics wcic ucvoicu io ihinIing;
lui hc icuuccu aII oihci InowIcugc io inuicicncc in ihai hc in-
niicIy acccniuaicu cihicaI InowIcugc. This iyc ol InowIcugc lcais
a icIaiion io ihc cxisiing suljcci who is inniicIy inicicsicu in cx-
isiing.
5
Ii may havc occuiicu io ihc icauci ihai in ihc Iasi lcw aiagiahs
ii was aIways io ihc auihoiiiy ol Sociaics ihai wc sccmcu io lc a-
caIing anu noi io ihai ol AiisioiIc. Can ii iiuIy lc saiu ol AiisioiIc
whai ihc loicgoing quoiaiion liom KiciIcgaaiu so aiIy says ol Soc-
iaics, ihai ii was noi InowIcugc as such ihai hc soughi alici, so much
as scIl-InowIcugc; ii was noi InowIcugc loi iis own saIc, so much as
InowIcugc loi ihc saIc ol ihc cnIighicnmcni anu uiicciion, which onIy
InowIcugc can ioviuc, in how io Iivc anu how io lc human.
Thc answci io ihis qucsiion is noi casy. Ioi in ihc assagc liom
ihc N.onLenr EL. which was quoicu caiIici,
6
wc lounu AiisioiIc
insisiing ihai mans ioci lunciion anu iiuc cnu couIu haiuIy con-
sisi in mcicIy siaying aIivc (cvcn Ianis can uo ihis) oi in ciloiming
ihc chaiaciciisiic animaI lunciions (hoiscs anu oxcn can uo ihis). No,
ihc ioci Iilc loi a human lcing wiII lc ihc iaciicaI Iilc ol man
as osscssing icason. Moicovci, onc can iniciici ihis as mcaning
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ g |
ihai mans iiuc cnu consisis in noihing moic ihan simIy Iiving in-
icIIigcniIy. Anu io I..e inicIIigcniIy is noi mcicIy io havc a high I.Q.,
noi is ii cvcn io havc iolcssoiiaI icsouiccs ol ciuuiiion; iaihci ii is io
havc such InowIcugc as is icIcvani io oncs Iilc as a human lcing, anu
io liing such humanIy icIcvani InowIcugc io lcai on ihc conuuci ol
oncs own Iilc.
So consiiucu, ihc woius ol AiisioiIc uo iuin oui io lc cquivaIcni
io Sociaics auvocacy ol ihc cxamincu Iilc. Bui icaucis ol ihc EL.
wiII icmcmlci ihai in auuiiion io ihc assagc jusi ciicu liom BooI I,
ihcic aic aIso ihosc ccIcliaicu scvcnih anu cighih chaicis ol BooI X,
whcic AiisioiIc uncquivocaIIy iocIaims ihai ihc iiuc cnu ol man anu
ihc goou Iilc loi man musi nccus consisi icciscIy in ihoughi, in inicI-
IcciuaI aciiviiy, in conicmIaiion (Le..n)ihai is io say, in InowIcugc
loi iis own saIc.
*
Thai haincss consisis in conicmIaiion, hc says,
may lc acccicu as agiccing loih wiih ihc icsuIi aIicauy icachcu anu
wiih ihc iiuih. Ioi conicmIaiion is ai oncc ihc highcsi loimol aciiviiy
(sincc ihc inicIIcci is ihc highcsi ihing in us, anu ihc oljccis wiih which
ihc inicIIcci ucaIs aic ihc highcsi ihings ihai can lc Inown). . . .
7
A lcw aiagiahs luiihci on ihcic occuis ihai cxiiaoiuinaiy as-
sagc in which AiisioiIc sccIs io aioximaic a human Iilc ucvoicu io
conicmIaiion io no Icss ihan ihc uivinc Iilc:
Such a Iilc as ihis howcvci wiII lc highci ihan ihc human IcvcI:
noi in viiiuc ol his humaniiy wiII a man achicvc ii, lui in viiiuc ol
somcihing wiihin him ihai is uivinc; anu ly as much as ihis somc-
ihing is suciioi io his comosiic naiuic, ly so much is iis aciiviiy
suciioi io ihc oihci loims ol viiiuc. Il ihcn ihc inicIIcci is somc-
ihing uivinc in comaiison wiih man, so is ihc Iilc ol ihc inicIIcci
uivinc in comaiison wiih human Iilc. Noi oughi wc io olcy ihosc
who cnjoin ihai a man shouIu havc mans ihoughis anu a moiiaI
*No uouli ihc uisuii ol InowIcugc loi iis own saIc, as ihis is manilcsicu
in moucin scicniic anu schoIaiIy uisuiis, is iaihci uicicni liom ihc Aiisio-
icIian goaI ol Le..n oi conicmIaiion. Bui ihis uicicncc is iiicIcvani loi oui
icscni uioscs. Succ ii io say ihai loih ihc moucin uisuii ol InowIcugc loi
iis own saIc anu ihc AiisioicIian goaI ol conicmIaiion aic vciy uicicni liom
ihc Sociaiic goaI ol scIl-InowIcugc anu ihc cxamincu Iilc, oi cvcn, in anoihci
conicxi, liom AiisioiIcs own goaI ol Iiving inicIIigcniIy.
[ qo | v.+i o.i x.
ihc ihoughis ol moiiaIiiy, lui wc oughi so lai as ossilIc io achicvc
immoiiaIiiy anu uo aII ihai mcn may io Iivc in accoiuancc wiih ihc
highcsi ihing in him; loi ihough ihis lc smaII in luII, in owci anu
vaIuc ii lai suiasscs aII ihc icsi.
8
AiisioiIc Icavcs no uouli ihai hc mcans io uisiinguish anu cxaIi
such a Iilc ol conicmIaiion anu ihoughi as againsi a Iilc ucvoicu
mcicIy io liinging oncs ihoughi anu oncs inicIIigcncc io lcai on
oncs aciions. Ioi ihc Iilc ol moiaI viiiuc, hc says, in coniiasi io ihc
Iilc ol minu anu ol conicmIaiion, is hay onIy in a scconuaiy uc-
gicc. Ioi ihc moiaI aciiviiics aic uicIy human.
9
Now jusi whai aic wc io maIc ol ihisihai AiisioiIc changcu his
vicws lciwccn BooI I anu BooI X, oi ihai hc was simIy inconsisicni,
oi ihai ihc iwo vicws aic in somc suliIc lashion icconciIalIc anu com-
aiilIc alici aII. WcII, as wc havc icmaiIcu lcloic, oui conccin is noi
wiih hisioiicaI qucsiions as io jusi whai AiisioiIc uiu mcan oi uiu noi
mcan in ihis oi ihai assagc. Insicau, suosc wc simIy assumc Aiis-
ioiIcs own icaching in ihis conncciion io lc in uiicci conici wiih
whai wc aic hcic conicnuing. Suosc ihai hc uiu noi consiuci mans
iiuc cnu io consisi in I...r inicIIigcniIy so much as in ihc cxcicisc ol
inicIIigcncc loi iis own saIc, in ihc uisuii ol InowIcugc anu in ihc
conicmIaiion ol iiuih.
Il ihis was AiisioiIcs osiiion, ihcn wc havc no aIicinaiivc lui io
Iay hanus on oui laihci AiisioiIc anu io comc oui in ai uisagicc-
mcni wiih himon ihis aiiicuIai maiici. Thc lasis ol oui uisagiccmcni
is simIy oui unshaIalIc conviciion ihai Iiving is noi loi ihc saIc ol
Inowing, lui iaihci ihai ii is iowaiu inicIIigcni Iiving ihai aII ol oui
owcis anu caaciiics aic uIiimaicIy uiiccicu, incIuuing oui owcis ol
InowIcugc, anu ihai ii is ihc man himscIl who counis loi moic ihan aII
his InowIcugc, no maiici how gicai ihc Iaiici may lc.
*
In shoii, InowI-
cugc loi iis own saIc can ncvci lc ihc lc-aII anu cnu-aII ol human
*NccuIcss io say, such a uivcigcncc liom AiisioiIc wouIu acai nciihci ai-
liiiaiy noi cxiiaoiuinaiy, cvcn wiihin an AiisioicIian conicxi, ihc minuic onc
iccognizcs ihai ihc human inicIIcci is an inicgiaI aii ol ihc human cison, anu
noi (as AiisioiIc himscIl sccms io imIy in ihai ciyiic anu uzzIing assagc in
ihc De Ar.n, BooI III, Ch. ) an cxiiancous anu uivinc cIcmcni ihai cnicis inio
man, as ii wcic, liom ihc ouisiuc.
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ q1 |
cxisicncc, noi can ihc chicl goou ol man cvci consisi in ihc mcic os-
scssion oi cvcn ihc cxcicisc ol InowIcugc. Noi in ihc cxcicisc ol
InowIcugc as such, lui in iis usc in ihc iaciicaI Iiving ol oui Iivcs
unuci ihc guiuancc ol such InowIcugc anu unucisianuing as wc os-
scss,
*
musi oui chaiaciciisiic cilcciion as human lcings lc ihoughi
io consisi.
To sum u ihis iaihci vcxcu anu ciallcu scciion on ihc lcaiing
ol inicIIigcncc on human chaiacici, wc may say ihai inicIIigcncc as a
mcic insiiumcni ol wcaIih oi owci oi icsiigc is noi cihicaIIy signi-
cani. Noi is ii inicIIigcncc uisucu loi iis own saIc ihai cihics ic-
sciilcs as ihc cnu anu goaI ol oui Iivcs. Insicau, ii is inicIIigcncc a-
Iicu io ihc iolIcmol Iivinguiiccicu noi iowaiu uninicIIigcni cnus
IiIc wcaIih oi owci, lui iowaiu maIing ihc ioci choiccs in oui
conuuci as mcn. This is mans iiuc cnu, oi lunciion, oi e.or, as Aiis-
ioiIc caIIcu ii. Thc inicIIigcni man, in ihis scnsc, is ihc goou man oi
ihc man ol chaiacici, anu, vicc vcisa, ihc goou man, in ihc scnsc ol
ihc man who has aiiaincu his luII cilcciion oi naiuiaI cnu as a human
lcing, is ihc inicIIigcni man.
*Ii is qucsiionalIc whcihci going ihis lai nccu commii onc io going quiic
as lai as KiciIcgaaiu icicscnis Sociaics as going (cl. ihc assagc ciicu alovc,
. S). Ioi KiciIcgaaiu sccms io ihinI ihai cihicaI InowIcugc musi lc such
as io invoIvc a Iinu ol ihinIing in which onc ihinIs cvciyihing in icIaiion io
oncscIl anu ihai ihcicloic Sociaics, whiIc cciiainIy a man whosc cncigics wcic
ucvoicu io ihinIing was ncvciihcIcss a ihinIci who icuuccu aII oihci InowIcugc
io inuicicncc in ihai hc inniicIy acccniuaicu cihicaI InowIcugc.
Howcvci, ihc icioii which AiisioiIc oncc mauc io consiuciaiions ol ihis Iinu
siiII sccms aIiogcihci jusi anu icIcvani. In oosiiion io ihosc who wouIu insisi
ihai wc connc ouiscIvcs simIy io a InowIcugc ol man anu ol ihc ihings uscluI
anu imoiiani io man, AiisioiIc icIicu ihai whiIc ii may lc aigucu ihai man is
suciioi io ihc oihci animaIs, ihai maIcs no uicicncc: sincc ihcic cxisi oihci
ihings lai moic uivinc in ihcii naiuic ihan man (11q1 al:).
NcvciihcIcss, onc can cciiainIy conccuc ihc oini which AiisioiIc hcic maIcs
wiihoui ihcicly lcing loiccu io aumii ihai ihc uisuii ol InowIcugc loi iis own
saIc is mans highcsi aciiviiy anu uIiimaic goaI. On ihc coniiaiy, ihc InowIcugc
ol ihings moic imoiiani anu signicani (moic uivinc) ihan ouiscIvcs, anu
hcncc ol ihings woiih Inowing loi ihcii own saIc, may lc ol ihc uimosi signi-
cancc anu icIcvancc io us icciscIy in oui moiaI lchavioi anu ihc conuuci ol
oui Iivcs.
[ q: | v.+i o.i x.
0. TLe oon I.e n equ..nIer o Le Ln, I.e
Anu so, howcvci siiangcIy ii may siiiIc us, ihc couisc ol oui aigu-
mcni ihus lai sccms io oini unmisiaIalIy io ihc concIusion ihai ihc
goou Iilc loi a human lcing is simIy ihc inicIIigcni Iilc, anu ihai ihc
goou loi man consisis in noihing moic oi Icss ihan Iiving inicIIigcniIy.
Noi is ihai aII. Ioi jusi as ihc goou loi a human lcing may lc cquaicu
wiih whai is naiuiaI loi man, in ihc scnsc ol his naiuiaI cnu oi naiu-
iaI cilcciion, anu jusi as ihis naiuiaI human cnu oi cilcciion may
lc sccn io amouni io no moic ihan a mans Iiving in a chaiaciciisii-
caIIy human wayi.c., in his Iiving inicIIigcniIyso aIso wc may now
noic ihai aII ol ihcsc, mans iiuc goou, his naiuiaI cnu oi goaI, anu his
Iiving inicIIigcniIy, may, in iuin, lc cquaicu wiih haincss. Thc goou
Iilc oi ihc inicIIigcni Iilc, in oihci woius, iuins oui io lc nonc oihci
ihan ihc hay Iilc.
Hcic, suicIy, wc again join loiccs wiih AiisioiIcsuosing ihai wc
uiu in laci momcniaiiIy aii comany wiih him. Ioi noi ihc Icasi inici-
csiing lcaiuic ol AiisioiIcs EL. is ihc coii which ihc hiIosohci
maIcs io givc an accouni ol human haincss which wouIu maIc ii noi
a mcic maiici ol suljcciivc lccIing on ihc aii ol ihc inuiviuuaI, lui
somcihing oljcciivcIy uciciminalIc. To ui ii in coIIoquiaI Ianguagc,
ihc icIcvani consiuciaiion sccms io iun somcihing IiIc ihis: a man
mighi L.rI hc was in cxccIIcni hcaIih lccausc hc eI jusi nc, yci a
mcuicaI cxaminaiion wouIu show ihai hc was lai liom wcII; so aIso a
man mighi ihinI himscIl io lc quiic hay anu conicnicu, lccausc hc
wouIu lccI quiic saiiscu anu noi ai aII incIincu io ciihci comIaining
oi scIl-icioach, yci ii wouIu lc onIy ioo olvious io an oljcciivc ol-
scivci ihai ihis hay man was icaIIy no lciici ihan a looI, his whoIc
way ol Iilc lcing noi inicIIigcni, lui siuiu anu uncnIighicncu anu
cihas cvcn mcan anu ciiy, anu so, in a cilcciIy oljcciivc scnsc,
miscialIc anu unhay.
Bui, you may icioii, il a man lccIs conicnicu anu hay anu sai-
iscu, is hc noi icaIIy so. To which ihc answci is ihai lcing saiiscu oi
conicnicu oi hay musi aIways invoIvc lcing saiiscu oi conicnicu
oi hay in somcihing oi wiih somcihing oi ly somcihing. Thc qucs-
iion ihcn lccomcs: in whai soii ol ihing uocs a givcn inuiviuuaI nu
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ q |
saiislaciion. Il ii is in anyihing Icss ihan whai as a human lcing hc is
caalIc ol anu whai, as wc havc aIicauy sccn, hc is naiuiaIIy oiucicu
anu oiicnicu iowaiu, ihcn wc shouIu cciiainIy say ihai such a cison
hau sciiIcu loi Icss ihan hc shouIu havc, oi ihai hc uiuni Inow whai
was goou loi him, oi ihai his scnsc ol achicvcmcni anu saiislaciion
anu ihcicloic ol haincss hau somchow lccomc civciicu anu coi-
iuicu.
In oihci woius, as AiisioiIc sccs ii, ihc cxamincu Iilc is a goaI oi
cnu iowaiu which any anu cvciy human lcing is naiuiaIIy oiicnicu,
icgaiuIcss ol whcihci hc Inows ii oi noi, anu icgaiuIcss ol whcihci
hc aciuaIIy aiiains ii oi noi, much as an acoin is oiucicu ly naiuic io
iis own comIcic ucvcIomcni anu cilcciion as a luII-giown oaI. Ol
couisc, a human lcing, lcing a cicaiuic ol unucisianuing anu choicc,
is io lc coniiasicu wiih ihc acoin, in ihai a man cannoi ossilIy aiiain
io his cilcciion ly any mcic ioccss ol naiuiaI ucvcIomcni. Insicau,
his cnu can lc icachcu onIy ly aii anu ucsign. Moicovci, whai ihis aii
ol Iiving, which is caIIcu cihics, is suoscu io icach a man is noihing
moic noi Icss ihan how io Iivc in a chaiaciciisiicaIIy human way, i.c.,
wiscIy anu inicIIigcniIy, noi lcing guiucu ly whim oi assion, noi ly
mcic sociaI convcniion oi cxicinaI auihoiiiy, lui ly ihc Iighi ol iiuih
iiscIl as ihis iIIumincs his unucisianuing anu so scivcs as a lcacon io
Iighi ihc way in his cvciy uccision. Noi is ii any wonuci ihai il anu
whcn a human lcing uocs succccu in Iiving in ihis inicIIigcni anu cn-
Iighicncu way, hc wiII lc luIIy awaic ol his Iilc as lcing an cxamincu
Iilc anu hcncc a Iilc ihai is ioci io man. In oihci woius, ii is ihc Iilc
ihai saiiscs mans naiuiaI asiiaiions anu siiivings anu icnucncics;
anu lccausc ii is ihus saiislying, ii is ihc iiuIy hay Iilc.
AccoiuingIy, whcihci wc caII ii human cilcciion oi human hai-
ncss, human moiaI goouncss oi human wcII-lcing, ii is olvious ihai,
on such a vicw ol cihics, human cxccIIcncc oi viiiuc wiII lc, in PIaios
woius, a Iinu ol hcaIih anu lcauiy anu goou halii ol ihc souI; anu
vicc wiII lc a uiscasc anu sicIncss anu ucloimiiy ol ii. Commcniing
on ihis assagc, Iowcs DicIinson oncc aiIy olscivcu: Ii loIIows ihai
ii is as naiuiaI io sccI viiiuc anu io avoiu vicc as io sccI hcaIih anu
avoiu uiscasc.
10
[ qq | v.+i o.i x.
. A L..n o!e.or: Le e..nere .o one.r .ere n.I
o or. L. ..e. o nr nrn o nr rnu.nI ern
Wc can no Iongci iiy io uivcii oi uam u a mouniing wavc ol ol-
jcciion which musi havc suggcsicu iiscIl io many icaucis liom ihc lc-
ginning ol ihc icscni chaici, anu which has no uouli gaihcicu an
aImosi iiicsisiilIc momcnium now ihai oui own aigumcni has iiscn
io iis cIimax. You aic no uouli saying io youiscIl ihai aII ihc luII-lIown
ihcioiic ai ihc concIusion ol ihc Iasi scciion wouIu noi havc lccn os-
silIc wiihoui onc simIc, lui uiiciIy inuclcnsilIc, assumiion, ihai is,
ihai ihcic is such a ihing as a naiuiaI cnu oi goaI iowaiu which human
Iilc anu human cxisicncc aic naiuiaIIy oiucicu anu oiicnicu. Bui ihis
wiII siiiIc you as lcing noihing lui oui-anu-oui icIcoIogy, somcihing
which was iaIcn loi gianicu in ihc AiisioicIian scicncc ol ihc MiuuIc
Agcs, lui which has lccn comIcicIy uisIaccu ly ihc scicniic icvo-
Iuiion ol ihc scvcniccnih ccniuiy anu is now as ucau as a uooinaiI.
You may in chaiiiy conccuc a cciiain suciciaI IausiliIiiy io oui
aigumcnis in suoii ol ihc iuca ol a naiuiaI cnu oi naiuiaI cilcciion
ol human Iilc. Bui ihis, you wiII insisi, is onIy lccausc in oui unciiii-
caI, cvciyuay icasoning wc aII consianiIy laII lacI uon vaiious anu
sunuiy usagcs anu assumiions ol common scnsc anu common Ian-
guagc. Thus wc cciiainIy uo, as icgaius Ianis anu animaIs anu human
lcings, uisiinguish lciwccn hcaIihy sccimcns anu sicIIy oncs, lc-
iwccn ihosc ihai icach a cciiain maiuiiiy anu cilcciion anu ihosc
ihai laiI io uo so. Wc aIso assumcquiic unciiiicaIIy cihas, lui nonc
ihc Icss quiic icguIaiIyihai such uisiinciions lciwccn ihc hcaIihy
anu ihc uiscascu, ihc luII-giown anu ihc siunicu, ihc goou anu ihc
lau, aic noi mcicIy ailiiiaiy anu convcniionaI, lui havc a lasis anu
lounuaiion in naiuic iiscIl. Anu liom ihis ii is lui an casy sic, anu a
sic ihai wc aII unhcsiiaiingIy iaIc in oiuinaiy cvciyuay Iilc, io ihc as-
sumiion ol such ihings as naiuiaI cnus, naiuiaI cilcciions, naiuiaI
vaIucs, anu naiuiaI goous.
SiiII, wc havc onIy io uiaw ouiscIvcs u shai wiih ihc sicin ic-
minuci coniaincu in ihai onc magic woiu scicncc, anu wc shaII im-
mcuiaicIy lanish liom oui minus aII uncIcan ihoughis ol icIcoIogy, ol
naiuiaI goaIs, anu hcncc ol a naiuiaI lounuaiion loi cihics. No scIl-
icscciing moucin lioIogisi wouIu cvci say any such ihing as ihai ihc
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ q |
naiuiaI goou ol ihc acoin is ihc aiiainmcni ol iis luII giowih as an
oaI. Hc wouIu iolalIy say ihai so lai as ihc naiuiaI oiuci iiscIl is
conccincu, ihc luII maiuiiiy oi ihc hcaIihy conuiiion ol a Iani is no
lciici anu no woisc ihan loi ii io lc in a uwailcu oi uiscascu con-
uiiion. In laci, uiscasc is jusi as naiuiaI as hcaIih, loih aIiIc lcing ihc
icsuIis ol cquaIIy naiuiaI causcs. Anu as loi ihc noiion ihai ii can lc
ucicimincu scicniicaIIy ihai ii is lciici anu moic naiuiaI loi a man
io Iivc inicIIigcniIy anu wiscIy iaihci ihan looIishIy anu ignoianiIy
ihis is so lai-lcichcu as noi cvcn io mciii a icjoinuci.
So oncc again wc aic lioughi lacc io lacc wiih oui oIu anu aai-
cniIy insucialIc uicuIiy: ihai vaIucs can havc no ossilIc lasis in
laci, ihai no maiici how much InowIcugc wc acquiic ol ihc lacis ol
naiuic, wc shaII ncvci nu any cviucncc ihcic ol any uisiinciions lc-
iwccn goou anu lau, lciici anu woisc, iighi anu wiong. PicsumalIy,
il cihics is io lc jusiicu anu csialIishcu on any soii ol a im lasis, ii
can lc onIy ihiough an acaI io somcihing oihci ihan aciuaI lacis,
oi naiuiaI hacnings anu naiuiaI ioccsscs.
In shoii, ihcic sccms io lc no way ol uclcnuing oui lasic ihcsis
savc ly chaIIcnging ihc auihoiiiy ol scicncc iiscIl, anu such Icsc maj-
csiy is somcihing loi which wc wouIu havc nciihci siomach noi wii.
NcvciihcIcss, ihc siiuaiion may noi lc so ucsciaic alici aII. Ioi wiih-
oui chaIIcnging uiicciIy ihc auihoiiiy ol scicncc, ii may lc ossilIc io
show ihai such auihoiiiy as scicncc vciy jusiIy osscsscs icaIIy has no
ciiincncc oi lcaiing in ihc icscni insiancc.
Ai onc iimc cvciyonc iooI ii loi gianicu ihai whaicvci ihc scicniisis
couIu nu no cviucncc loi uiuni cxisi. Bui iimcs aic uicicni now. Ii
has comc io lc gcnciaIIy iccognizcu ihai whiIc ihc iiuihs ol scicncc
aic unimcachalIc in scicnccs own shcic, ihai shcic is a icsiiicicu
onc. Moicovci, iis icsiiiciions aic imoscu ly a Iinu ol iniiiaI ai oi
scIl-ucnying oiuinancc on ihc aii ol scicniic cniciiisc iiscIl. Wc
havc aIicauy hau occasion io quoic liomC. P. Snows novcI TLe Sen.L,
11
whcic ihc iinciaI chaiacici lianIIy cxoscs loih ihc icsiiiciivc anu
ihc icsiiicicu naiuic ol scicncc.
Scicncc was iiuc in iis own cIu; ii was cilcci wiihin iis icsiiiciions.
Onc scIccicu oncs uaiasci oncs uzzIc loi oncscIl, as ii wcic
anu in ihc cnu soIvcu ihc uzzIc ly showing how ihcy iicu oihci
[ q6 | v.+i o.i x.
uaia ol ihc samc Iinu. Wc Inow cnough ol ihc ioccss now io scc
ihc quaIiiy ol ihc icsuIis ii can givc us; wc Inow, ioo, ihosc siucs
ol cxciicncc ii can ncvci iouch. Howcvci much Iongci scicncc is
uonc, sincc ii scis iis own Iimiis lcloic ii can lcgin, ihosc Iimiis musi
icmain.
In viiiuc ol ihc scIl-imoscu Iimiiaiions anu cxcIusions ol scicncc,
ihc scicniic univcisc wiII lc coIoiIcss anu iasicIcss, uioscIcss anu
vaIucIcss, anu cihas cvcn souIIcss anu minuIcss. Noi wiII ihcic lc
any cviucncc ol icIcoIogy in such a univcisc, anu cciiainIy no laciuaI
lasis loi vaIuc juugmcnis, io say noihing ol moiaI juugmcnis ol any
Iinu.
Givcn ihc aumiiicuIy icsiiiciivc naiuic ol ihc scicniic cniciiisc,
onc can scaiccIy inlci liom ihc alscncc ol cnus anu vaIucs in ihc sci-
cniic iciuic ol naiuic ihc alscncc ol cnus anu vaIucs in naiuic also-
IuicIy. Evcn il a iogiam ol osiiivism couIu lc woiIcu oui wiih com-
Icic hiIosohicaI consisicncy, ihc aucquacy ol such an accouni ol
ihings wouIu siiII lc ocn io qucsiion, noi mcicIy in iaciicc lui aIso
in iinciIc. Ioi cvcn suosing ihai no onc couIu iouucc cviucncc
ol any hcnomcnaol licc voIuniaiy aciion, oi naI causcs, oi con-
scious uioscs, oi acsihciic vaIucs, oi cxiiascnsoiy cicciion, oi
whainoiwhich ihc osiiivisi couIu noi accouni loi on his own scicn-
iic icims, siiII ihc ucmonsiiaiion couIu lc onIy cisuasivc anu noi
concIusivc, loi ihc icason ihai ihc ossiliIiiy ol cxIanaiion in scicn-
iic icims musi invoIvc ihc cxcIusion n ..o.. ol aII such uaia as uo noi
Icnu ihcmscIvcs io ihc aiiicuIai ioccuuics ol scicniic icsiing anu
vciicaiion.
Noi is ii mcicIy ihc Iimiicu anu icsiiicicu chaiacici ol scicniic
iiuih ihai maIcs ii qucsiionalIc whcihci ii has any aiiicuIai ciii-
ncncc oi lcaiing on maiicis ol cihics. Thcic is aIso ihc qucsiion ol
whcihci ihc scicniic univcisc is somcihing which onc can Iivc wiih
iaciicaIIy, howcvci much onc may lc convinccu ol iis sucicncy
ihcoiciicaIIy. Inuccu, ihcic is in ihis conncciion a iaciicaI oi cxis-
icniiaI issuc in icgaiu io ihc icIcvancy anu sucicncy ol scicncc noi
unIiIc ihc soii ol issuc ihai wc mci wiih caiIici in conncciion wiih icIa-
iivism. Consiuci loi a momcni ihc scicniic univciscwhcihci ihai
ol micioscoic anu sulaiomic hysics, whcic ihc iinciIc ol inuc-
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ q |
iciminacy comcs inio Iay, oi ihai ol macioscoic hysics, whcic ihc
ihcoiy ol icIaiiviiy is ociaiivc; how vciy uicicni ihis scicniic uni-
vcisc is liom ihc woiIu ol cvciy uay, ihc woiIu ol coIois anu sounus,
ol suniiscs anu sunscis, ol liiih anu ucaih, ol oIu loigoiicn lai-o
ihings anu laiiIcs Iong ago, ol winici winus anu scoiching summcis,
ol liiici animosiiics anu ciiy iIIs, ol amliiions anu uclcais, ol jusiiccs
anu injusiiccs, ol iiiaIs anu iiiluIaiions, ol vicioiics anu iiiumhs, ol
uiuugciy anu vacaiions, ol sicIncss anu hcaIih.
Bui givcn ihc manilcsi uicicnccs lciwccn ihc scicniic univcisc
anu ihc woiIu ol cvciy uay, in which woiIu is ii ihai wc, as human
lcings, Iivc anu movc anu havc oui lcing. Tiuc, ihc qucsiion is am-
liguous, anu yci ihcic is cciiainIy a scnsc in which no human lcing
can Iivc anu aci, cai anu sIcc, succccu oi laiI, maiiy oi givc in mai-
iiagc, luy oi scII, voic oi iclusc io voic, anywhcic savc in ihc cvciyuay
woiIu, howcvci much ihc samc man, as a hysicisi oi chcmisi oi li-
oIogisi, may lc inicIIcciuaIIy convinccu ihai ihc scicniic univcisc is
ihc onIy icaIiiy ihcic is. This is why, iaciicaIIy anu cxisicniiaIIy con-
siucicu, ihc laci ol scicniic InowIcugc anu sohisiicaiion sccms io
imosc a Iinu ol uoulIc iiuih uon us, maIing ol so many ol us, il
noi aciuaI schizohicnics, ihcn ai Icasi mcn whosc iighi hanus uoni
aIways Inow whai ihcii Icli hanus aic uoing.
In ihc Iighi ol such consiuciaiions, maIing aII uuc aIIowanccs loi
ovcisimIicaiion anu cvcn cxaggciaiion, wc can cihas lcgin io
unucisianu how ihc mcic laci ihai scicniisis, in ihcii caaciiy as scicn-
iisis, uoni sccm io comc acioss any vaIuc uisiinciions in ihc couisc
ol ihcii invcsiigaiionsaII ihis icaIIy isni icIcvani onc way oi anoihci
io ihc iinciIcs anu ihc lounuaiions ol cihics. Whaicvci may lc iiuc
ol scicniisis as scicniisis, as human lcings ihc samc scicniisis aic con-
sianiIy awaic ol, anu consianiIy aciing uon, whai ihcy iaIc io lc icaI
vaIuc uisiinciions in ihc woiIu aloui ihcm. Anu ii is ihc cviucncc ihai
wc human lcings aic alIc io acquiic as human lcings, anu noi ncc-
cssaiiIy ihc moic icsiiicicu anu highIy aiiiciaI cviucncc ihai wc aic
alIc io acquiic onIy in oui moic scciaIizcu caaciiics as hysicisis oi
gcoIogisis oi sychoIogisis, ihai is icquisiic loi ihc uioscs ol cihics
anu moiaI hiIosohy.
NccuIcss io say, io loIIow such a Iinc ol uclcnsc in icgaiu io cihics
ly no mcans scivcs io icsoIvc aII iolIcms. On ihc coniiaiy, any a-
[ qS | v.+i o.i x.
caI io iwo iiuihs, ihough ii may scivc io show ihc iiicIcvancc ol ihc
nuings ol moucin scicncc io qucsiions ol cihics, siiII Icavcs us in ihc
uiiciIy unsaiislacioiy siiuaiion hiIosohicaIIy ol having io acInowI-
cugc ihai iiuih is noi onc, lui many. Bui ihis is a iolIcm ol gcnciaI
hiIosohicaI imoii anu hcncc noi onc ihai nccu lai ihc way io an
invcsiigaiion ol ihc aiiicuIai issucs ol moiaIs anu cihics.
Insicau, loi ihc iimc lcing anu uuiing ihc couisc ol oui icscni
siuuy, may wc noi auoi as oui own a iogiamloi cihicaI icscaich anu
loi ihc invcsiigaiion ol human naiuic gcnciaIIy ihai wiII aiaIIcI in
somc icsccis ai Icasi ihc iogiam ol hcnomcnoIogicaI invcsiigaiion
ihai ihc uisiinguishcu conicmoiaiy Iicnch hiIosohci, M. MciIcau-
Poniy, has chaiaciciizcu so lcIiciiousIy:
This isi insiiuciion which HussciI gavc hcnomcnoIogy ai iis lc-
ginningihai ii lc a ucsciiiivc sychoIogy oi a iciuin io ihings
ihcmscIvcsis isi ol aII ihc uisavowaI ol scicncc. . . .
Evciyihing I Inow ol ihc woiIu, cvcn ihiough scicncc, I Inow
liom a oini ol vicw which is minc oi ihiough an cxciicncc ol
ihc woiIu wiihoui which ihc symloIs ol scicncc wouIu lc mcaning-
Icss. Thc whoIc univcisc ol scicncc is luiIi uon ihc Iivcu woiIu [Ie
orne .eu|; anu il wc wish io conccivc scicncc iiscIl wiih iigoui,
whiIc cxaciIy aicciaiing iis scnsc anu signicancc, wc musi isi
ic-awaIcn ihis cxciicncc ol ihc woiIu, loi scicncc is iis scconu cx-
icssion. Scicncc uocs noi havc anu wiII ncvci havc ihc samc Iinu
ol lcing ihai ihc ciccivcu woiIu has, loi ihc simIc icason ihai
scicncc is a uciciminaiion oi an cxIanaiion ol ihai woiIu. . . .
To iciuin io ihings ihcmscIvcs is io iciuin io ihis woiIu as ii is
!eo.e InowIcugc anu ol which InowIcugc aIways enI, anu wiih ic-
gaiu io which aII scicniic uciciminaiion is alsiiaci, iclcicniiaI anu
uccnucni, jusi as is gcogiahy wiih icgaiu io ihc Ianuscac whcic
wc isi Icaincu whai a loicsi is, oi a iaiiic oi iivci.
12
In oihci woius, loi uioscs ol cihics oui conccin wiII lc io iiy io
iciuin, in somc scnsc ai Icasi, io ihc ihings ihcmscIvcs. WhiIc loi us
ihis wiII noi mcan cxaciIy a iciuin io ihis woiIu as ii is lcloic InowI-
cugc, ii wiII ai Icasi invoIvc a iciuin io ihis woiIu as ii is lcloic sci-
cniic InowIcugc, anu wiih icgaiu io which wc shouIu cciiainIy wani
io insisi ihai aII scicniic uciciminaiion (in ihc siiici moucin scnsc
TLe E:n.ren 1.e: BnI o So.ne nrn A..oIe [ qg |
ol scicniic) is alsiiaci, iclcicniiaI anu uccnucni. In any casc, ii
is ihc cvciyuay woiIu, ihc concicic woiIu ol oiuinaiy human cxcii-
cncc, ihc woiIu ihai wc nu ouiscIvcs in anu ihai wc musi coniinuc io
Iivc in as human lcings, ihai is ol signicancc loi cihics. Ii is hcic ihai
cihics musi nu ihc cviucncc loi aII iis iinciIcs anu ihc conimaiion
ol aII iis concIusions.
3
Why Not Regard Morals
and Ethics as Simply an
Art of Living?
1. V..ue n I.II o. Iro.-Lo.
Ai Icasi onc siaicmcni liom ihc icvious chaici musi havc siiucI
many ol you as incicuilIc, il noi uowniighi iiuicuIous: Ii is as naiuiaI
io sccI viiiuc anu io avoiu vicc as io sccI hcaIih anu avoiu uiscasc.
1
Bui il so, you wiII no uouli lc ihinIing, how uocs ii hacn ihai so
many ol us sccm so IiiiIc givcn io loIIowing ihc way ol viiiuc, iclci-
iing insicau couiscs ihai aic much moic suggcsiivc ol ihc iimiosc
aih.
Bcloic wc can answci ihis qucsiion, wc musi isi auuicss ouiscIvcs
io ihc iioi qucsiion ol jusi whai ihis ihing caIIcu viiiuc is anyway.
Whai uo wc mcan ly such a noiion.
In oui isi chaici wc ioycu wiih ihc iuca ihai Iiving wcII, oi maIing
ihc mosi ol oncs Iilc, was cihas no moic ihan a maiici ol aii oi sIiII,
a maiici ol Inowing how, in oihci woius. Why noi, ihcn, simIy iucn-
iily viiiuc, moiaI viiiuc ihai is io say, wiih Inowing how io Iivc. Thc
viiiuous man wouIu ihcn lc ihc man who hau acquiicu ihc icquisiic
sIiII in Iiving, oi in lcing human, jusi as ihc man who IacIcu viiiuc
wouIu lc ihc onc who hauni Icaincu how io Iivc, who uiuni Inow
whai io uo oi how io uo ii, anu who conscqucniIy was wcII on ihc way
iowaiu maIing a mcss ol his Iilc anu a looI ol himscIl.
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 1 |
z. Hunr eeI.r, ne.or, nrn eo.or n Ln ..L
.ee o .L.L Le Lunr ...ue n.e e:e..en
AII wcII anu goou. Suosc, ihcicloic, ihai loi ihc iimc lcing wc
accci ihc ioosaI ihai human viiiuc lc unucisioou as simIy ihc
sIiII oi Inow-how ihai is aioiiaic io ihc lusincss ol Iiving. Ncvci-
ihcIcss, a sIiII musi aIways lc cxciciscu wiih icscci io somc iyicaI
Iinu ol siiuaiion; IiIcwisc, any soii ol Inow-how invoIvcs Inowing how
io uo a aiiicuIai Iinu ol jol whcn laccu wiih a aiiicuIai Iinu ol
iolIcm oi siiuaiion. Thus a sIiIIcu iIoi musi Inow how io gci his
shi ihiough sioimy scas, a sIiIIcu hysician musi Inow how io liing
his aiicni lacI io hcaIih amiu conuiiions ol louiIy uiscasc anu uc-
cay, anu a sIiIIcu invcsioi musi Inow how io conscivc anu incicasc
his oiiginaI siaIc in ihc lacc ol ihc uciuaiions ol ihc maiIci anu ol
changing lusincss conuiiions.
Whai is ii, ihcn, ihai ihc viiiuous man musi uo. Wiih icscci io
whai soii ol siiuaiions anu iolIcms is his sIiII cxciciscu. To answci
ihis qucsiion suosc wc iaisc a cIoscIy icIaicu qucsiion: In jusi whai
soii ol siiuaiion aic wc incIincu io say ihai a cison has noi acicu oi
lchavcu vciy inicIIigcniIy oi wiscIy. Thc answci is noi haiu io nu.
Ici anyonc asI himscIl whcihci hc has cvci Iosi his icmci, oi goi-
icn cxciicu, oi lccn ucicsscu, oi lcIi huiiicu anu icsscu loi iimc;
anu whcihci unuci such ciicumsianccs hc has noi ai Icasi somciimcs
uonc ihings which hc Iaici icgiciicu, ihings which, as hc mighi say,
hc shouIu havc icaIizcu wcic looIish anu unwisc, hau hc noi lccn so
angiy oi so cxciicu oi so usci.
CouIu wc say, ihcn, ihai moiaI viiiuc is simIy ihc soii ol sIiII oi
Inow-how ihai cnalIcs us io aci inicIIigcniIyihis iimc noi in ihc lacc
ol iough scas oi auvcisc lusincss conuiiions, lui in ihc lacc ol oui own
lccIings anu imuIscs anu cmoiions. This sccms IausilIc on ihc lacc
ol ii. NcvciihcIcss, wc nccu io ush ihc anaIysis luiihci anu consiuci
iaihci moic comIicaicu cascs ihan ihosc ol mcicIy gciiing angiy oi
cxciicu oi iaiiIcu.
Ioi insiancc, consiuci Diyucns saiiiicaI oiiiaii ol ihc EaiI ol
Shalicsluiy:
[ : | v.+i o.i x.
Ol ihcsc ihc laIsc AchiiohcI was isi;
A namc io aII succccuing agcs cuisi:
Ioi cIosc ucsigns anu ciooIcu counscIs i,
Sagacious, loIu, anu iuiluIcni ol wii,
RcsiIcss, unxu in iinciIcs anu Iacc,
In owi unIcasu, imaiicni ol uisgiacc;
A icy souI, which, woiIing oui iis way,
Iiciicu ihc igmy louy io uccay:
Anu oci-inloimu ihc icncmcni ol cIay.
A uaiing iIoi in cxiicmiiy;
PIcasu wiih ihc uangci, whcn ihc wavcs wcni high,
Hc soughi ihc sioims; lui, loi a caIm uni,
WouIu sicci ioo nigh ihc sanus, io loasi his wii.
Gicai wiis aic suic io mauncss ncai aIIicu,
Anu ihin aiiiiions uo ihcii lounus uiviuc;
EIsc why shouIu hc, wiih wcaIih anu honoi lIcsi,
Rclusc his agc ihc ncculuI houis ol icsi.
Punish a louy which hc couIu noi Icasc,
BanIiui ol Iilc, yci iouigaI ol casc.
Anu aII io Icavc whai wiih his ioiI hc won,
To ihai unlcaihciu iwo-Icggu ihing, a son:
Goi, whiIc his souI uiu huuuIcu noiions iiy;
Anu loin a shacIcss Ium, IiIc anaichy.
In liicnushi laIsc, imIacalIc in haic,
RcsoIvu io iuin oi io iuIc ihc Siaic. . . .
2
Wiihoui conccining ouiscIvcs wiih ihc jusiicc oi hisioiicaI accuiacy
ol ihis chaiaciciizaiion, uo wc noi icauiIy iccognizc ihc soiis ol mis-
iaIcs anu ciiois ihai a cison such as Shalicsluiy mighi lc saiu
io havc laIIcn inio. His icsiIcssncss ol siiii, his lccIings ol liiicincss
anu icscnimcni, his iccIIcssncss, his vinuiciivcncssaII ihcsc quaIi-
iics inuicaic noi jusi assing imuIscs anu momcniaiy lccIings ihai
causc a man io uo ihings which cvcn hc himscIl wouIu acInowIcugc
wcic siuiu anu looIish. Whai aic invoIvcu hcic aic sciiIcu haliis anu
aiicins ol lchavioi ihai sccmio havc icnucicu ihc man icIaiivcIy im-
civious io sanci anu moic iaiionaI counscIs. Thus whiIc Shalicsluiy
himscIl mighi noi iccognizc ihai ihc way hc was conuuciing himscIl
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ |
anu whai hc was maIing ol himscIl wcic unwisc, wc anu oihcis who
mighi lc in a osiiion io vicw ihc siiuaiion moic oljcciivcIy can scc
ihai ihis was icciscIy whai was hacning.
Bui uocs noi ihis onIy conim oui caiIici suggcsiion ihai in ihc
lusincss ol Iiving whai ihc icquisiic aii oi sIiII musi ucaI wiih aic such
ihings as oui own cisonaI incIinaiions anu icnucncics, oui assions
anu lccIings. Ii is in ihc lacc ol ihcsc ihai wc musi aci inicIIigcniIy,
il oui conccin lc io Iivc sIiIIluIIy anu inicIIigcniIy anu noi simIy io
invcsi moncy oi iIoi a Ianc oi iiy a casc sIiIIluIIy anu inicIIigcniIy.
Ici us, ihough, consiuci anoihci cxamIc, ihis iimc onc ihai is au-
miiicuIy ciionaI, lui onc ihai anyonc who has lccn connccicu wiih
acaucmic Iilc musi iccognizc as iiuc. Ii is C. P. Snows ucsciiiion ol
onc ol ihc chaiacicis in TLe Ane.:
I IooIcu iounu his siiiing-ioom. Ii was wiihoui lcaiuic, ii was
ihc ioom ol a man conccniiaicu inio himscIl, so ihai hc hau noih-
ing io scnu ouisiuc; ii showcu noihing ol ihc iich, soIiu comloii
which Biown hau givcn io his, oi ihc ccccniiic iciuicsqucncss ol
Roy CaIvciis. NighiingaIc was a man uiawn inio himscIl. Susicion
anu cnvy Iivcu in him. Thcy aIways wouIu havc uonc, howcvci Iilc
hau iicaicu him; ihcy wcic aii ol his naiuic. Bui hc hau lccn un-
IucIy, hc hau lccn liusiiaicu in his mosi chciishcu hoc anu now
cnvy ncvci Icli him aIonc.
Hc was loiiy-ihicc, anu a lachcIoi. Why hc hau noi maiiicu I uiu
noi Inow: ihcic was noihing unmascuIinc aloui him. Thai was noi,
howcvci, his aliuing uisaoinimcni. Hc hau oncc osscsscu gicai
iomisc. Hc hau Inown whai ii was io hoIu cicaiivc uicams; anu
ihcy hau noi comc o. Thai was his liiicincss. As a vciy young man
hc hau shown a saiI ol icaI iaIcni. Hc was onc ol ihc caiIicsi ihco-
iciicaI chcmisis. By iwcniy-ihicc hc hau wiiiicn iwo goou acis
on moIccuIai siiuciuic. Hc hau, so I was ioIu, aniiciaicu HciiIci-
Ionuon anu ihc oiliiaI ihcoiy; hc was icn ycais ahcau ol his iimc.
Thc coIIcgc hau cIccicu him, cvciyihing sccmcu casy. Bui ihc saiI
luini oui. Thc ycais asscu. Olicn hc hau ncw concciions; lui ihc
owci io cxccuic ihcm hau cscacu liom him.
Ii wouIu havc lccn liiici io ihc mosi gcncious hcaii. In Nighi-
ingaIcs, ii mauc him lcsici wiih cnvy. Hc Iongcu in comcnsaiion
[ q | v.+i o.i x.
loi cvciy jol wiihin icach, in icason anu oui ol icason. Ii was moi-
liu ihai hc shouIu havc lancicu his chanccs ol ihc iuioishi lcloic
Biown, his scnioi anu a man mauc loi ihc jol; lui ii ianIIcu in him
alici a uozcn ycais. Each jol in ihc coIIcgc loi which hc was asscu
ovci, hc saw wiih inicnsc susicion as a sign ol ihc consiiacy ui-
iccicu againsi him.
His icuiaiion in his suljcci was aIicauy gonc. Hc wouIu noi gci
inio ihc RoyaI Sociciy now. Bui, as Maich camc iounu cach ycai, hc
waiicu loi ihc announccmcni ol ihc RoyaI cIcciions in cxcciaiion,
in anguish, in liiici susiciousncss, ai momcnis in ihc InowIcugc
ol whai hc mighi havc lccn.
3
This assagc icquiics IiiiIc commcni. A mans lccIings ol cnvy, ol
liusiiaiion, ol susicion, can icvcni himliomachicving anyihing IiIc
an cxamincu Iilc in Sociaics scnsc oi an inicIIigcni Iilc in AiisioiIcs.
Again, ihc soii ol siiuaiion wiih icscci io which sIiII in ihc aii ol
Iiving lccomcs ciiincni is a siiuaiion caIIing loi ihc cxcicisc ol inicI-
Iigcncc wiih iclcicncc io oui own lccIings anu cmoiions.
Pcihas onc naI cxamIc may noi lc oui ol Iacc in ihis conncc-
iion. This iimc wc iuin io Miss C. V. Wcugwoous chaiaciciizaiion ol
ChaiIcs I:
Thc smaII, lasiiuious King icsiucu iiingIy ovci his wcII-oiucicu
Couii. By naiuic icscivcu, hc was isoIaicu siiII moic ly ihai sIighi
imcuimcni ol ihc sccch which mauc himshun aII lui loimaI con-
iacis, cxcci wiih his lamiIiais. Evcn his liicnus hc Ici ai ihcii uis-
iancc, lui wiih a icguIai anu couiicous ucmcanoui ihai aII unuci-
sioou anu somc, who wcic loimaI ihcmscIvcs, gicw io IiIc. . . . Thc
unsccmIy, ihc Iuuicious, ihc mcicIy human wcic cxcIuucu liom his
ulIic Iilc, anu aImosi aII his Iilc was ulIic.
4
Thc King hau a high scnsc ol uuiy iowaius ihc coIc whom hc
icgaiucu as a sacicu iiusi liom Gou, lui ihis was comaiilIc wiih
an ocn uisIiIc ol ihcii ioximiiy anu ihcii oinions. Ii was onIy,
cihas, whcn hc iouchcu loi ihc Kings EviI ai Easici anu MichacI-
mas ihai hc aIIowcu ihc vuIgai io aioach cIoscIy io his ioyaI ci-
son. . . .
Hc hau ncvci hau ihc ainluI cxciicncc liom which his laihci,
as a young man, hau Icaini so much; hc hau ncvci conlionicu in-
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ |
soIcni ooncnis lacc io lacc anu hau ihc woisi ol ihc aigumcni.
No naiionaI uangci hau comcIIcu him io go oui among his coIc
anu shaic ihcii ciiIs. Hc was, ai ihis iimc, noi onIy ihc mosi loimaI
lui ihc mosi icmoic anu shcIicicu ol aII Euiocan Iings.
Whai hc Incw ol mcn, hc Incw chicy ly icoii anu siuuy. IiIc
many shy, mciicuIous mcn, hc was lonu ol ahoiisms, anu wouIu
wiiic in ihc maigins ol looIs, in a ucIicaic, lcauiiluI, ucIilciaic
sciii, such maxims as Icw gicai iaIIcis aic goou uocis oi Nonc
lui cowaius aic ciucI. Hc iiusicu moic io such uisiiIIcu anu loi-
iIcu csscncc ol oihci mcns wisuom ihan io his own cxciicncc,
which was, in iiuih, Iimiicu; his uaiIy coniaci wiih ihc woiIu was
conncu wiihin ihc aiiiciaI ciicIc ol his Couii anu ihc huniing
cIu.
5
Thc iucaI was consianiIy lcloic his cycs lui ihc inicIIcciuaI anu
acsihciic lashion ol ihc uay, siiongIy lcni iowaius aIIcgoiy, ol-
scuicu ihc iaciicaI uicuIiics ol ihc iasI. Thc King Iivcu in a woiIu
ol ociic iIIusions anu couIu noi lui lc accicu ly ihcm. Ioi him
anu his couiiicis, ihc mosi oiuinaiy cvcnis wcic swiliIy wicaihcu
in asioiaI oi cIassicaI uisguisc. Thc Counicss ol AngIcscy gavc an
cvcning aiiy loi ihc Quccn anu ai oncc ihc ocis summoncu ihc
gouucss Diana anu lauc ihc siais shooi liom ihcii shcics. . . .
Thc aIIcgoiicaI iiicI in ociiy anu comIimcni inscnsilIy
sicaus io oihci ihings anu lccomcs aImosi a halii ol minu. Thc
King sccmcu somciimcs io iicai auminisiiaiion anu oIiiics as
ihough ihc cacc anu conicnimcni ol ihc icaIm wcic inuccu as-
suicu lccausc, ai his Chiisimas icvcIs, a goIucn chaiioi uon a
whiic cIouu hau ucsccnucu againsi ihc hcavcnIy lacIcIoih lcaiing
Pcacc, in a owciy vcsiuic IiIc ihc Siing, wiih lusIins ol giccn
iacia, a gaiIanu ol oIivcs on hci hcau anu a lianch ol aIm in hci
hanu.
6
AIas, ooi ChaiIcs, il ihis accouni is io lc cicuiicu. Thc Kings las-
iiuiousncss, his iimiuiiy, his Icihaigy in icgaiu io maiicis ol lusincss
anu ulIic aaiis, his acsihciic scnsiiiviiy Icu him io misiaIc a gianui-
osc laioquc uicam-woiIu loi ihc haishci woiIu ol icaIiiy. IiiiIc won-
uci ihai hc shouIu havc misscu so comIcicIy ihc Sociaiic oljcciivc ol
Inowing himscIl anu, coiicIaiivcIy, Inowing ihc aciuaI human siiua-
[ 6 | v.+i o.i x.
iion in which hc lounu himscIl. Oncc again, ii lccomcs cIcai ihai Iiv-
ing inicIIigcniIy invoIvcs sccing ihings as ihcy aic anu sccing oncscIl
as onc is, amiu aII ihc conlusions anu misicicscniaiions uuc io oncs
own assions anu icuiIcciions anu icjuuiccs.
j. Bu .Ln n.e eeI.r, ne.or, eo.or, .rI.rn.or
Whai is ihc naiuic ol ihcsc uisiuiling anu sccmingIy iiiaiionaI lac-
iois in mcns lchavioi which wc havc iaihci IooscIy anu inuisciimi-
naicIy IalcIcu assions, imuIscs, lccIings, cmoiions, cic.. A-
aicniIy, human viiiuc amounis io no moic ihan a cciiain sIiII oi com-
cicncc in ucaIing wiih ihcsc iiiaiionaI human acciions. Bui havc wc
any vciy cIcai iuca ol whai ihcsc ihings aic.
In mcciing ihis chaIIcngc wc ioosc noi io havc iccouisc io ihc
ihcoiics anu nuings ol moucin sychoIogyWhcn ignoiancc is
lIiss, iis loIIy io lc wisclui iaihci io loIIow as cIoscIy as ossilIc
oui common human cxciicncc in such maiicis. Ai ihc vciy ouisci
oui cniciiisc wouIu acai io lc icnucicu aImosi hocIcss ly viiiuc
ol ihc sccmingIy IimiiIcss uivcisiiy anu hciciogcnciiy ol such ihings as
lccIings, ucsiics, cmoiions, moous, aiiiiuucs, anu assions. How wiII ii
cvci lc ossilIc io liing ihcsc aII unuci a singIc gcnus, so ihai ihcy
can aII lc cquaIIy unucisioou as jusi so many souiccs ol conlusion anu
inicilcicncc, wiih icscci io ihc iaiionaI conuuci ol Iilc.
Ioi cxamIc, musi ii noi lc acInowIcugcu ihai youi lccIing ol
uiowsincss anu cnnui as you icau a uuII looI is a vciy uicicni ihing
liom OihcIIos lIinu anu aII-consuming assion ol jcaIousy. Do cicn-
niaI Iazincss anu haliis ol iociasiinaiion havc anyihing in common
wiih ihai iiascilIc ovciconucncc anu haiu scIl-assuiancc which lc-
Iongcu io SohocIcs Ocuius. Yci wc sccm io lc suggcsiing ihai aII
ol ihcsc ihingsloicuom anu Iazincss, OihcIIos jcaIousy anu Ocui-
us scIl-assuiancc anu cvcn huliisaII ol ihcsc aic io lc accounicu
as siiiciIy comaialIc laciois, in ihai aII aIiIc icnu io miIiiaic againsi
a icaIIy inicIIigcni conuuci ol Iilc: ihcy lIinu us io ihc iiuih aloui
ouiscIvcs anu Icc us liom aciing in ways ihai cvcn oui own lciici
juugmcni wouIu icsciilc.
Anu cvcn il ihc maniloIu uivcisiiy ol human imuIscs anu acciions
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ |
can aII lc sulsumcu unuci onc hcauing, is ii noi a aicni misiaIc io
suosc ihai aII such assions anu moiivcs, aII such IiIcs anu uisIiIcs,
aic ncccssaiiIy lau, ihai ihcy aic aII iccaIciiiani anu cvcn coniiaiy io
ihc uiciaics ol icason anu inicIIigcncc. Boicuom wiih a uuII looI may
lc a sign ol goou juugmcni, anu inuignaiion can olicn lc iighicous.
In ihc Iighi ol consiuciaiions anu wainings such as ihcsc, oui iasI
is now io givc such an accouni ol human acciions anu cmoiions ihai
noi onIy ihcii gcnciic uniiy can lc mauc aaicni, lui aIso ihcii chai-
aciciisiic amlivaIcncc anu amliguiiy: whcihci ihcy aic lcncciaI oi
haimluI, coniiiluioiy oi inhiliioiy, wiih icscci io oui human con-
ccin wiih Iiving inicIIigcniIy anu Icauing an cxamincu Iilc. Pcihas,
ihough, ihc iasI may noi lc so uicuIi as ii sounus. Ioi onc has onIy
io consiuci ihc conuiiion, ai oncc so olvious anu so univcisaI, in which
cvciy human lcing incviialIy nus himscIl, ol lcing ihiown inio an
cnviioning woiIu ol coIc anu ihings anu loiccu consianiIy io iccIon
wiih whai may lc auvaniagcous oi haimluI, Icasani oi ainluI, loi-
iunaic oi unloiiunaic, lcncciaI oi uisasiious. Unuci such ciicum-
sianccs, ii is noi suiiising ihai human lcings shouIu havc ucvcIocu
vaiious ucviccs ol waining anu coniioI, ihcimosiais, il you wiII, which
icgisici ihc aioach loih ol uangcis anu ol lcncis, anu which ihcn
sci o ihc aioiiaic icaciions anu uisosiiions on ihc aii ol ihc
oiganismsay, lcai in ihc casc ol ihicaicncu haim, oi ucsiic in ihc
casc ol a iomiscu lcnci, oi ucsaii in ihc casc ol sccmingIy cciiain
uisasici.
. A o.!Ie In.n.or o ne..e nrn eo.or
no.n.r o Le.. .ee..e Le.on. ur.or
In ihis conncciion, somc ol ihc moic oIu-lashioncu schcmcs loi
cIassilying ihc assions anu cmoiions aic ly no mcans uninsiiuciivc.
Ioi insiancc, onc mouc ol cIassicaiion
7
was io consiuci ihc lccIings
ol so-caIIcu Iovc anu haic as lasic. By Iovc anu haic wcic mcani
no moic ihan aiovaI oi IiIing loi whai acais io lc goou oi lcnc-
ciaI, anu uisaiovaI oi uisIiIc loi whai is iaIcn io lc cviI oi haim-
luI. Thc EngIish woius Iovc anu haic aic icaIIy ioo siiong anu ioo
hcaviIy chaigcu io convcy iociIy ihc icIaiivcIy ncuiiaI anu gcnciaI
[ S | v.+i o.i x.
iuca ol an oosiiion lciwccn whai somc icccni ihinIcis havc caIIcu
io-aiiiiuucs on ihc onc hanu, anu con-aiiiiuucs on ihc oihci.
8
In any casc onc can icauiIy unucisianu how, iaIing as lasic such a
io-aiiiiuuc iowaiu ihai which acais io lc ol woiih oi vaIuc, ihis
aiiiiuuc lccomcs ucsiic, whcn ihc oljcci ol vaIuc is alscni, anu joy oi
Icasuic whcn ii is icscni. CoiicsonuingIy, an aiiiiuuc ol uisIiIc oi
uisaiovaI, a con-aiiiiuuc, lccomcs a osiiivc avcision whcn whai is
uisIiIcu is alscni anu a lccIing ol ain oi uisiicss whcn ii is icscni. In
simiIai lashion, a lccIing oi cmoiion such as lcai is io lc unucisioou
as ihc soii ol icsonsc ihai is aioiiaic io ihai which onc uisIiIcs,
lui which insicau ol lcing aciuaIIy icscni is immincni anu ihicaicn-
ing. In IiIc mannci, vaiious oihci lccIings such as hoc, ucsaii, cnvy,
icscnimcni, anu angci can lc unucisioou in icims ol ihc uicuIi oi
casy acccssiliIiiy oi cviialiIiiy ol oljccis iowaiu which wc cvincc ciihci
io- oi con-aiiiiuucs.
j. TLe I..n.or o Lee Le.on. or.oI
o ou. n.or nrn .en.or, nrn Le .oIe o Le
...ue .r nI.r u o. Lee I..n.or
Gianiing ihc Iimiiaiions anu inaucquacics ol such a cIassicaioiy
schcmc loi human lccIings anu cmoiions, wc can ncvciihcIcss lcgin
io scc, in icims ol such a schcmc, jusi whai ihc ccuIiai naiuic ol
mans cihicaI oi moiaI iolIcm icnus io lc. Ii is wcII anu goou ihai
oui human ihcimosiaiic coniioIs shouIu icnu io maIc us lcailuI in
ihc icscncc ol uangci, oi cagci anu ucsiious in aniiciaiion ol whai
iomiscs io lc lcncciaI, oi conicnicu anu saiiscu on ihc achicvc-
mcni ol somcihing vaIualIc anu woiih whiIc. Bui il whai wc aic aliaiu
ol shouIu iovc io lc noi a icaI uangci ai aII, oi il whai wc aic so cagci
io gci shouIu in laci noi lc icaIIy vaIualIc, oi il whai wc iaIc io lc
a causc ol scIl-congiaiuIaiion anu scIl-saiislaciion shouIu aciuaIIy lc
somcihing iiiing anu insignicani, wc shaII lc mauc io acai looI-
ish anu iiuicuIous.
In oihci woius, ihcic is noihing wiong aloui a man lcing angiy oi
Icascu oi loicu oi aliaiu oi uiscouiagcu oi saiiscu, ioviucu ihai
ihc oljcci ol his lccIing oi cmoiion lc iiuIy iovoIing oi Icasing
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ g |
oi uuII oi uangcious oi uiscouiaging oi saiislying. Ioi wiihoui cmo-
iions anu assions, a human lcing wouIu noi lc human, lui a mcic
cIou, IacIing ihc uynamic quaIiiy ihai is icquisiic loi ihc aiiainmcni ol
human cilcciion. In ihis scnsc, ihcn, ihc common lcaiuic ihai may
lc saiu io chaiaciciizc aII ol oui amazingIy uivcisc anu hciciogcncous
human cmoiions is noi ihai ihcy icnu io lc a icliacioiy cIcmcni, IiIcIy
io uisiuil ihc sanc anu inicIIigcni conuuci ol Iilc. On ihc coniiaiy, oui
cmoiions aic ihc vciy moiivc, oi cmoiivc, loiccs ol oui lcing, moving
us iowaiu whai wc nccu anu whai wouIu lc ol lcnci io us, anu away
liom whai wouIu lc haimluI anu uangcious anu cviI.
In ihis Iighi, ihcn, ii lccomcs cIcai ihai aII ol oui human acciions
anu incIinaiions can lc lioughi unuci a singIc hcauing, as icgaius
ihcii icIcvancc anu signicancc loi a iiuIy human Iilc. Anu ii lccomcs
cIcai aIso ihai such aciiics anu cmoiions, so lai liom lcing aII lau,
aic inuiscnsalIc aius io, anu cvcn iomoicis ol, ihc goou Iilc. ]usi
as ihc sca is noi a hinuiancc io ihc sIiIIcu iIoi, oi ihc naiionaI ccon-
omy an olsiiuciion io ihc sIiIIcu siocIlioIci, so a mans lccIings anu
cmoiions aic in no wisc io lc icgaiucu as cviI, ioviucu onIy ihai ihc
man havc ihc icquisiic sIiII in uiiIizing anu hanuIing ihcm. Inuccu,
in any aii oi sIiII, ihc oljcciivc is noi io cIiminaic ihc maiciiaI uon
which ihc aiiisi woiIs, lui io usc anu coniioI anu lccomc ihc masici
ol ihcsc maiciiaIs. Anu so ii is in ihc aii ol Iiving: ihc viiiuous man is
ihc man who Inows how io uiiIizc anu coniioI his own cmoiions anu
ucsiics.
Moic sccicaIIy, ihcn, on ihis vicw moiaIs anu cihics aic io lc ic-
gaiucu as invoIving no moic ihan Icaining anu Inowing how io liing
oui inicIIigcncc anu unucisianuing io lcai uon oui assions anu uc-
siics. Ioi, as is onIy ioo olvious, ihcsc Iaiici, in ihcii ioIc ol ihcimo-
siaiic coniioIs govcining ihc icIcasc ol oui aciiiivc anu icuIsivc
cncigics, aic nonc ioo icIialIc. Inuccu, as shouIu ly now lc aaicni,
ihcic is no human io-aiiiiuuc oi con-aiiiiuuc, no human cmoiion
oi assion oi lccIing, ihai uocs noi invoIvc ai Icasi an imIicii vaIuc
juugmcni aloui somcihings lcing goou oi lau loi ihc inuiviuuaI con-
ccincu. Bui such sul- oi ic-iaiionaI juugmcnis aic licqucniIy mis-
Icauing. AccoiuingIy, ihc lunciion ol oui human icason anu inicIIi-
gcncc, in a moiaI conicxi, is io ioviuc a nccucu coiicciivc io ihc
oli-misiaIcn juugmcnis imIicii in so many ol oui cmoiions, as, loi
[ 6o | v.+i o.i x.
cxamIc, whcn wc lccomc angiy whcn ihcic is noihing icaIIy io lc
angiy aloui, oi whcn wc sci oui hcaiis on gciiing somcihing which is
scaiccIy woiih gciiing cxciicu aloui, oi whcn wc lccomc ucicsscu
anu lccI soiiy loi ouiscIvcs, cvcn ihough oui siiuaiion lc noihing IiIc
as lau as wc may havc Icu ouiscIvcs io lcIicvc.
0. A o.!Ie .IIu.n.or o Lo. Lee ...ue
oe.e .o.I: A..oIe no..re o Le enr
By way ol iIIusiiaiion ol how such sIiII oi Inow-how in ihc lusincss
ol Iiving icnus io ociaic wiih icscci io oui imuIscs anu lccIings, ii
may lc insiiuciivc io consiuci liicy AiisioiIcs ccIcliaicu uociiinc
ol ihc mcan. To lc suic, ihis iinciIc may noi havc ihc univcisaI a-
IicaliIiiy in icgaiu io moiaI qucsiions ihai AiisioiIc sccmcu io ihinI
ii hau. Ioi ii sccms haiuIy IausilIc io assumc ihai in icgaiu io any
anu cvciy io- oi con-aiiiiuuc ihai wc may havc, ihc ioIc ol inicIIigcni
juugmcni wiII aIways anu ncccssaiiIy lc onc ol mcuiaiing lciwccn cx-
ccss anu uclcci, as il cvciy such aiiiiuuc, whcihci io- oi con-, wcic
lounu io lc ciihci ioo much so oi ioo IiiiIc so. On ihc oihci hanu,
il wc accci ihc assumiion, ii iuins oui io lc a mcic iiuism which
uocsni icII us vciy much. Ioi how is onc hcIcu in ihc Iiving ol oncs
Iilc mcicIy io lc ioIu ihai onc musi lc caicluI noi io lccI ioo siiongIy
anu yci cquaIIy caicluI io lccI siiongIy cnough, noi io ucsiic a ihing
ioo much anu yci io ucsiic ii cnough.
NcvciihcIcss, loi aII ihc shoiicomings anu cvcn uangcis ol ihis uoc-
iiinc ol ihc mcan, ii may, cihas, lc uscu as a ucvicc loi iIIusiiaiing
how somcihing on ihc oiuci ol sIiII anu Inow-how can lc lioughi io
lcai on oui human IiIcs anu uisIiIcs.
To lcgin wiih, consiuci ihc oiuinaiy iun ol human icsonscs anu
lccIings wiih icscci io iyicaI siiuaiions in which mcn nu ihcmscIvcs
conucncc anu uiscouiagcmcni, cnihusiasm anu inuicicncc, cau-
iiousncss anu caicIcssncss, aicciaiivcncss anu scoinluIncss, liicnu-
Iincss anu hosiiIiiy, woiiy anu unconccin, uissaiislaciion anu com-
Iaccncy. Now ihcic is no uouli ihai somc ol us aII ol ihc iimc, anu
cihas mosi ol us somc ol ihc iimc, aIIow ouiscIvcs io woiiy ovci-
much aloui oui aaiis, oi cIsc noi io woiiy cnough; io lc cxccssivcIy
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 61 |
uissaiiscu wiih oui Ioi, oi cIsc Iazy anu comIaccni; io lc liicnuIy anu
a haiI-lcIIow-wcII-mci iowaiu cvciylouy, oi cIsc chuiIish anu uisagicc-
alIc; io lc iiuicuIousIy cauiious anu caicluI, oi cIsc iccIIcss anu ly no
mcans caicluI cnough; io lc lIinucu io cvciyihing ol woiih anu vaIuc
cxcci whai is uiciaicu ly an aII-consuming amliiion, oi cIsc shiliIcss
anu Icihaigic wiih no gci-u-anu-gci ai aII; io lc ihc cicinaI oiimisi,
inuisciiminaicIy sanguinc aloui cvciyihing, oi cIsc ihc gIoomy cssi-
misi wiih no suic juugmcni aloui cvcn ihosc chanccs anu ooiiuni-
iics ihai aic gcnuinc. Noi is ihcic any uouli ihai ihc moic scnsilIc
lchavioi wouIu lc onc which managcu io olscivc ihc jusi mcan lc-
iwccn such cxiicmcs.
Ii is iiuc ihai in such juugmcnis ihcic is a gicai ucaI ihai is icIaiivc
io ihc aiiicuIai siiuaiion oi ihai uciivcs liom mcic sociaI convcn-
iion. An EngIish gcniIcman ol ihc ninciccnih ccniuiy was cxccicu io
olscivc a haughiincss anu icscivc which wouIu havc lccn scaiccIy a-
ioiiaic, anu cvcn iiuicuIous, in an IiaIian liuii cuuIci ol ihc samc
ciiou; a iiusi occi in a lanI is cxccicu io uisIay a cauiion ihai
wouIu haiuIy lc iiing in a wiIucai oiI ociaioi. Anu yci, ihc whoIc
oini ol ihc uociiinc ol ihc mcan is ihai in ihc vciy naiuic ol ihc casc ii
wiII lc icIaicu io ihc aiiicuIai siiuaiion, ihc iinciIc lcing ihai how
wc lccI anu icaci io a siiuaiion shouIu noi lc a mcic unciiiicaI anu un-
uisciIincu icsonsc, lui iaihci ihc scnsilIc anu inicIIigcni icaciion
which ihc aiiicuIai siiuaiion caIIs loi. Evcn ihough sociaI convcniion
anu ihc iiauiiions in which wc havc lccn lioughi u may coIoi oui
juugmcnis as io which icaciions aic cxccssivc anu which uccicni, ihc
vciy uiosc ol ihc uociiinc ol ihc mcan is ihai, ly having icgaiu loi
ii, wc shaII cvcniuaIIy Icain io Ici oui juugmcni as io whai is icaIIy ihc
mcan lciwccn iwo cxiicmcs lc ucicimincu ly oui inicIIigcncc anu
unucisianuing iaihci ihan ly mcic sociaI convcniion.
. A .II o.e e. .IIu.n.or; Le ...ue o eI-.ee
nrn n u ere o n.r., nrn e.ornI .eor.!.I.,
In oiuci moic luIIy io liing oui ihc imoii ol ihis uociiinc ol ihc
mcan, consiucicu as a ucvicc loi ucicimining whai oui ioci lccIings
anu cmoiions shouIu lc on uicicni occasions, wc mighi consiuci ihai
[ 6: | v.+i o.i x.
soii ol aiiiiuuc oi lccIing iowaiu ouiscIvcs which wc iouay wouIu caII
scIl-icscci oi a scnsc ol cisonaI uigniiy. Inuccu, il wc aic noi mis-
iaIcn, ii was somcwhai ihc samc soii ol aiiiiuuc ihai AiisioiIc soughi
io ucsignaic anu ucsciilcnoi vciy lcIiciiousIy cihasunuci ihc
iiiIc ol magnanimiiy (enIo,L.n) oi gicaincss ol souI.
9
Onc mighi
say ihai a ioci icscci loi anu csiimaic ol oncscIl is noi jusi onc
viiiuc among oihcis, lui is aImosi ihc Icy io ihc cniiic cihicaI iol-
Icm. Ioi il Sociaiic scIl-InowIcugc lc ihc csscncc ol ihc goou Iilc, ihcn
ihc man who managcs io Iivc wcII wiII lc ihc man who has a jusi csii-
maic ol himscIl, lcing nciihci ovciIy comIaccni aloui his caaciiics
anu achicvcmcnis, noi, ai ihc oihci cxiicmc, ovciIy IacIing in a scnsc
ol his own uigniiy anu icsonsiliIiiics. Oi, io aiahiasc onc ol Aiis-
ioiIcs lIunici loimuIaiions ol ihc iinciIc: a ioci scIl-icscci is
noihing lui a mcan lciwccn ihc iwo cxiicmcs ol ihinIing ioo much
ol youiscIl anu ihinIing ioo IiiiIc ol youiscIl.
Thai mosi ol us aic incIincu io cii on ihc siuc ol ihinIing ioo much
ol ouiscIvcs gocs aImosi wiihoui saying. Ioi comIaccncy anu smug-
ncss, io say noihing ol uowniighi vaniiy, aic iiaiis liom which wc hu-
man lcings sccm io lc singuIaiIy unsucccssluI in liccing ouiscIvcs. To
iaIc lui onc cxamIc, ihis iimc liom ]anc Ausicn:
Sii WaIici EIIioii ol KcIIynch HaII, in Somciscishiic, was a man
who, loi his own amuscmcni, ncvci iooI u any looI lui ihc Baio-
nciagc; ihcic hc lounu occuaiion loi an iuIc houi anu consoIaiion
in a uisiicsscu onc. . . .
Vaniiy was ihc lcginning anu cnu ol Sii WaIici EIIioiis chaiacici:
vaniiy ol cison anu ol siiuaiion. Hc hau lccn icmaiIalIy hanu-
somc in his youih, anu ai liy-loui was siiII a vciy nc man. Icw
womcn couIu ihinI moic ol ihcii cisonaI acaiancc ihan hc uiu,
noi couIu ihc vaIci ol any ncw mauc Ioiu lc moic ucIighicu wiih
ihc Iacc hc hcIu in sociciy. Hc consiucicu ihc lIcssings ol lcauiy
as inlciioi onIy io ihc lIcssing ol a laioncicy; anu ihc Sii WaIici
EIIioii who uniicu ihcsc gilis, was ihc consiani oljcci ol his waimcsi
icscci anu ucvoiion.
10
Sulsiiiuic loi a laioncicy a Haivaiu iolcssoishi, oi a iccoiu as a
siai aihIcic, oi ihc icsiucncy ol ihc IocaI Iions CIul, oi a wiucsicau
icuiaiion as a Iauy-IiIIci, oi cihas cvcn isi Iacc in a lcauiy con-
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 6 |
icsi, anu onc wiII nu Sii WaIicis vaniiy aiaIIcIcu ly ihousanus ol
Amciican lusincssmcn, iolcssois, aihIcics, anu lcauiy quccns. WhiIc
lcw Amciicans aic IiIcIy io nu occuaiion loi an iuIc houi anu con-
soIaiion in a uisiicsscu onc in ihc Baionciagc ihcy can nu amIc
sulsiiiuics in such ihings as goIl iiohics, VLo VLo .r Ae..n, ciia-
iions ly ihc IocaI ]unioi Chamlci ol Commcicc, oi maylc cvcn in
loxcs ol coIoicu sIiucs ihai chionicIc in ucicssing uciaiI ihcii hon-
ois, ihcii iiiumhs, anu ihcii iiavcIs.
Vaniiy oi smugncss, wc wouIu aII agicc, is an cxiicmc vaiiaiion on
ihc lccIing ol scIl-saiislaciion, anu hcncc looIish anu iiuicuIous; lui is
ii cquaIIy cIcai ihai ai ihc oihci cxiicmc ihcic is such a ihing as ihinI-
ing ioo IiiiIc ol oncscIl, which in iis own way is jusi as looIish. Ai isi
gIancc, ihis uocs noi sccm IausilIc; wc naiuiaIIy assumc ihai il vaniiy
is a lauIi, ihcn iis oosiic, moucsiy oi humiIiiy, musi lc a viiiuc.
Wc musi iocccu cauiiousIy hcic, loi whiIc moucsiy is cciiainIy noi
a lauIiioviucu ii is noi mcic mocI moucsiy, lui a gcnuinc aiii-
iuuc lascu on accuiaic scIl-InowIcugc anu scIl-aiaisaIsiiII ii may
lc qucsiioncu whcihci moucsiy is, alici aII, ihc ioci oosiic ol
vaniiy anu comIaccncy. Rcmcmlci, ihc lasic lccIing oi aiiiiuuc ihai
wc aic hcic conccincu wiih is onc ol scIl-icscci, a lccIing ol oncs own
woiih anu uigniiy. AccoiuingIy, il onc cxiicmc consisis in ovcicsiimai-
ing oncs own woiih, ihc oihci cxiicmc is noi moucsiy oi humiIiiy, lui
iaihci whai mighi lc caIIcu a IacI ol ioci scIl-icscci oi an insul-
cicni scnsc ol cisonaI uigniiy. Ii is haiu io cxicss in onc woiu ihc
quaIiiy I am iiying io ucsciilccihas scIl-ucicciaiion is cIosc
cnough io suggcsi ihc mcaning. Thai ihis can lc a sciious anu cvcn a
liighicning ihing is lioughi oui in ihc loIIowing quoiaiion liom Eiich
Iiomm:
Thc moucin maiIci is no Iongci a mcciing Iacc lui a mccha-
nism chaiaciciizcu ly alsiiaci anu imcisonaI ucmanu. Onc io-
uuccs loi ihis maiIci, noi loi a Inown ciicIc ol cusiomcis; iis vciuici
is lascu on Iaws ol suIy anu ucmanu; anu ii ucicimincs whcihci
ihc commouiiy can lc soIu anu ai whai iicc. No maiici whai ihc
usc vaIuc ol a aii ol shocs may lc, loi insiancc, il ihc suIy is
gicaici ihan ihc ucmanu, somc shocs wiII lc scnicnccu io cconomic
ucaih. . . .
[ 6q | v.+i o.i x.
. . . ihc icguIaioiy lunciion ol ihc maiIci has lccn, anu siiII is,
icuominani cnough io havc a iolounu inucncc on ihc chaiacici
loimaiion ol ihc uilan miuuIc cIass anu, ihiough ihc Iaiicis sociaI
anu cuIiuiaI inucncc, on ihc whoIc ouIaiion. Thc maiIci con-
cci ol vaIuc, ihc cmhasis on cxchangc vaIuc iaihci ihan on usc
vaIuc, hau Icu io a simiIai concci ol vaIuc wiih icgaiu io coIc
anu aiiicuIaiIy io oncscIl. . . .
In oui iimc ihc maiIci oiicniaiion has lccn giowing iaiuIy,
iogcihci wiih ihc ucvcIomcni ol a ncw maiIci ihai is a hcnomc-
non ol ihc Iasi uccaucsihc cisonaIiiy maiIci. CIciIs anu saIcs-
mcn, lusincss cxccuiivcs anu uociois, Iawycis anu aiiisis . . . aII aic
uccnucni loi ihcii maiciiaI succcss on a cisonaI accciancc ly
ihosc who nccu ihcii sciviccs oi who cmIoy ihcm.
Thc iinciIc ol cvaIuaiion is ihc samc on loih ihc cisonaIiiy
anu ihc commouiiy maiIci: on ihc onc, cisonaIiiics aic ocicu
loi saIc; on ihc oihci, commouiiics. . . . onIy in cxcciionaI cascs is
succcss icuominaniIy ihc icsuIi ol sIiII anu ol cciiain oihci human
quaIiiics IiIc honcsiy, ucccncy, anu inicgiiiy. . . . Succcss uccnus
IaigcIy on how wcII a cison scIIs himscIl on ihc maiIci, how wcII
hc gcis his cisonaIiiy acioss, how nicc a acIagc hc is. . . .
Thc laci ihai in oiuci io havc succcss ii is noi sucicni io havc
ihc sIiII anu cquimcni loi ciloiming a givcn iasI lui ihai onc
musi lc alIc io ui acioss oncs cisonaIiiy in comciiiion wiih
oihcis shacs ihc aiiiiuuc iowaiu oncscIl . . . sincc succcss uccnus
IaigcIy on how onc scIIs oncs cisonaIiiy, onc cxciicnccs oncscIl
as a commouiiy oi iaihci simuIiancousIy as ihc scIIci anu ihc com-
mouiiy io lc soIu. . . . [oncs| scIl-csiccmuccnus on conuiiions lc-
yonu his coniioI. Il hc is succcssluI, hc is vaIualIc; il hc is noi, hc
is woiihIcss. Thc ucgicc ol insccuiiiy which icsuIis liom ihis oiicn-
iaiion can haiuIy lc ovcicsiimaicu. . . . Hcncc onc is uiivcn io siiivc
icIcniIcssIy loi succcss, anu any scilacI is a scvcic ihicai io oncs
scIl-csiccm; hcIIcssncss, insccuiiiy, anu inlciioiiiy lccIings aic ihc
icsuIi. Il ihc vicissiiuucs ol ihc maiIci aic ihc juugcs ol oncs vaIuc,
ihc scnsc ol uigniiy anu iiuc is ucsiioycu. . . .
11
Iiom such a ucsciiiion wc can uisccin moic cIcaiIy ihc soii ol
ihing invoIvcu in ihis lccIing oi aiiiiuuc ihai wc havc caIIcu scIl-ucic-
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 6 |
ciaiion, oi IacI ol scIl-icscci. Ii is ihc soii ol lccIing ihai maIcs a man
wiIIing io scII his souI io ihc ucviI, anu somciimcs vciy chcaIy ioo
whcihci ihc ucviI is a HiiIci who iomiscs such ihings as naiionaI gIoiy
anu honoi, io say noihing ol loou anu cmIoymcni, ai ihc iicc ol
giving u oncs ciiiicaI inicIIigcncc anu oncs icsonsiliIiiy io ihinI loi
oncscIl; oi whcihci ii is ihc Amciican cisonaIiiy maiIci, as Iiomm
caIIs ii, whcic onc is iomiscu such ihings as gIamoui anu succcss il
onIy onc wiII conloim, loigoing anyihing IiIc ihc cxamincu Iilc anu
ucvoiing aII oncs coiis io maIing oncscIl a mcicIy saIcalIc oi mai-
IcialIc aiiicIc.
Noi is ihis ihc onIy manilcsiaiion ol ihc soii ol lccIing ihai wc havc
caIIcu IacI ol scIl-icscci. Thcic aic oihci cxamIcs as wcII, cihas
somc ihai aic io lc lounu cvcn cIosci io homc. Suosc you asI youi-
scIl: Do you aciuaIIy lcIicvc in such ihings as cisonaI uigniiy anu ci-
sonaI inicgiiiy. Is noi aII ihis iaII aloui cilcciing oncscIl as a human
lcing, oi iccognizing oncs caaciiics anu icsonsiliIiiics, oi how onIy
ihc cxamincu Iilc is woiih Iivinguocs noi aII ihis sounu IiIc siu anu
nonscnsc. Can you imaginc a chaiacici such as ]aIc, say, in TLe Sur
AIo F.e iaIIing ihis way. Oi il ihis lc ioo high-liow, whai aloui Sicvc
Canyon in ihc comic siiis, oi Pcici Gunn on icIcvision. Hcic aic
siccI-cycu, siccI-ncivcu mcn, sohisiicaicu, ihoioughIy uiscnchanicu,
iaIing ihcii Icasuics whcic ihcy nu ihcm, anu Iiving liomuay io uay,
ncvci loihciing ihcii hcaus aloui ihc Sociaiic iucaI oi any oihci iucaI
loi ihai maiici, anu on ihc whoIc simIy lancying ihai ihc lusincss ol
Iiving amounis io IiiiIc moic ihan maIing ihc mosi ol Iilcs cmiincss
anu uioscIcssncss.
In oihci woius, ihis iimc whai wc havc choscn io caII a uccicni
scnsc ol oncs uigniiy anu icsonsiliIiiy as a human lcing Icaus noi
io scIIing oncs souI io ihc ucviI, oi cvcn io scIIing oncs human liiih-
iighi loi any ol ihc cuiicniIy ouIai mcsscs ol oiiagc, lui iaihci in
jusi noi scIIing oi luying anyihing. Ioi noihing sccms io lc woiih any-
ihing. You uoni amouni io anyihing youiscIl, anu cvcn il you iiicu io
scII youiscIl, whai couIu you luy wiih ihc iocccus ihai wouIu lc any
moic ihan a snaic anu a ucIusion. Oh, you Icc on Iiving, ol couisc,
lui mainIy ly uivciiing youiscIlwiih luIIghis, wiih Iovc aaiis, wiih
soiis, cihas cvcn wiih youi jol, il you aic goou ai ii anu ii hacns
io lc sucicniIy vaiicu anu uivciiing. Bui lasicaIIy, Iiving is iciiy
[ 66 | v.+i o.i x.
much a maiici ol loigciiing anu lcing uisiiacicu, aImosi as il you wcic
moving in a uicam, ciloiming inanc anu oiniIcss anu olicn cvcn
liusiiaiing aciiviiicslui whai uocs ii maiici, sincc aII ol youi comings
anu goings, youi uoings anu unuoings, aic so whoIIy wiihoui signi-
cancc as io lc aImosi wiihoui icaIiiy.
Onc has lui io liing io minu aiiiiuucs anu lccIings ol ihis soii,
lccIings which iccci noi ucsaii so much as jusi noi giving a uamn,
anu onc icauiIy iccognizcs ihai as comaicu wiih lccIing ovciIy com-
Iaccni anu saiiscu, ihcic is an oosiic cxiicmc in which oncs Iilc
comcs io lc lIighicu anu uisioiicu liomloicuomwiih oncs vciy cxis-
icncc, oi cihas liom a Iinu ol sncciing anu suciioi inuicicncc io
ihc ossiliIiiics anu icsonsiliIiiics ol Iilc, oi lioma cynicaI conviciion
ol ihc inaniiy anu oiniIcssncss ol human cxisicncc.
Ii is noi wiihoui iiony ihai in ihc icscni uay in oui own couniiy
such aiiiiuucs ol inuicicncc oi cvcn ol uisgusi loi ihc uioscs anu
icsonsiliIiiics ol Iilc havc icnucu io lccomc a souicc ol no IiiiIc iiuc
anu scIl-saiislaciion io many ol oui conicmoiaiics. An aiiiiuuc ihai
was oiiginaIIy suoscu io lc onc ol siaiI icaIism has IaicIy comc io
uccI iiscIl oui as an cmincniIy lashionalIc anu hcncc aIIuiing iucaI.
How many ol us consciousIy oi unconsciousIy wouIu noi IiIc io imag-
inc ouiscIvcs as cxcmIilying in oui Iivcs ihc iyc ol ihc sohisiicaicu
ncwsaci icoiici, oi ihc cooI iivaic cyc, oi ihc cIcai-cycu,
no-nonscnsc icaIisi. CciiainIy, among so-caIIcu inicIIcciuaIs anu
coIc in acaucmic Iilc, you havc olicn lui io sciaich ihc suilacc ol
iolcssionaI icsccialiIiiy io uiscovci ihai youi man ol Icaining sc-
ciciIy ucIighis in iciuiing himscIl as a soii ol comosiic Eincsi Hcm-
ingway, ]can-PauI Saiiic, anu cihas PalIo Picasso.
Thc icsuIi is IiIcIy io lc noi a Hcmingway oi a Saiiic oi a Picasso,
lui onIy a Sii WaIici EIIioii. Bui howcvci amusing oi cvcn iiuicuIous
iis icsuIis may lc, ihcic is no ucnying ihc laci ihai whai is hcic lcing
cnacicu is a cuiious iiansvaIuaiion ol vaIucs, onc cxiicmc having lccn
IiiciaIIy iiansvaIucu inio iis oosiic. Whai in iis incciion was an oui-
IooI ol IiiiIc moic ihan hocIcssncss, ucsciaiion, anu cynicism in ihc
lacc ol oncs human cxisicncc icnus io iaIc on ihc chaiacici ol an
iucaI woiihy ol cmuIaiion. Ii has joincu ihc ianIs ol aII ihosc oihci
human oscs anu osiuics which aic souiccs ol saiislaciion anu scIl-
congiaiuIaiion io ihosc who siiiIc ihcm, loi ihcy sccm io ioviuc us
Ao.nI nrn EL. S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 6 |
wiih a soii ol icassuiancc ihai wc aic, alici aII, ihanI Gou, noi as oihci
mcn aic.
This caaciiy ihai mcn sccm io havc ol managing io ass, aImosi
hocnix-IiIc, liom ihinIing ioo IiiiIc ol ihcmscIvcs io ihinIing ioo
much ol ihcmscIvcs is IiIcwisc cxcmIicu, anu cihas cvcn wiih
gicaici licqucncy, among ihai oihci giou ol ihosc whom wc havc
chaiaciciizcu as lcing uccicni in scIl-icscci anu a scnsc ol ihcii
own woiih, ihosc who aic aII ioo icauy io scII ihcmscIvcswhcihci
chcaIy oi loi a high iicc, anu whcihci on ihc cisonaIiiy maiIci, oi
io a uiciaioi, oi io oiuinaiy uivcyois ol conloimiiy who ouiish in
cvciy communiiy. Ioi ii is ihc vciy cison who ihinIs so IiiiIc ol him-
scIl as io lc icauy io loigo such ihings as liccuom anu inuccnucncc
ol juugmcni, io accci ihc sianuaius ol ihc communiiy unciiiicaIIy,
io uo onIy ihc uonc ihingii is hc, who having lccn a succcss in his
conloimiiy, is mosi IiIcIy io lccomc ihc siucu shiii, ihc omous
ass, ihc unshaIalIc haiiscc. IionicaIIy cnough, ii is such a cisons
vciy scIl-imoiiancc which lcioIcns his unuciIying incIinaiion iowaiu
..o,L.n, ihinIing ioo IiiiIc ol himscIl: hc has lccomc saiiscu wiih
himscIl whcn ihcic is siiII noi much io lc saiiscu aloui anu whcn hc
shouIu lc ucmanuing so much moic ol himscIl.
Bui cnough ly way ol cxamIcs anu iIIusiiaiions. Thcy may succ
io show how, in many cascs, ihc voicc ol inicIIigcncc in human con-
uuci caIIs loi siiiIing a mcan lciwccn cciiain cxiicmcs ol cxccss oi
uclcci inio which wc human lcings may casiIy lc Icu, il wc unciiiicaIIy
loIIow ihc Icau ol oui vaiious lccIings, incIinaiions, anu assions. Evcn
moic lunuamcniaIIy, may noi such cxamIcs scivc io show ihc ciii-
ncncc ol InowIcugc anu unucisianuing io ihc conuuci ol Iilc, wiih ihc
icsuIi ihai Iiving wcII, oi lcing a succcss, oi maIing ihc mosi ol oncs
Iilc aic io lc icgaiucu as lcing iciiy much a maiici ol acquiiing anu
cxcicising ihc icquisiic sIiII anu Inow-how in whai wc havc choscn io
caII ihc aii ol Iiving.
4
Why Morals and Ethics Are
Not Simply an Art of Living
1. 1 eL. .enII, nr n.
Thc icccuing chaici cnucu wiih a qucsiion, which was, in ccci,
whcihci cihics oi moiaIs couIu lc icgaiucu as simIy an aii ol Iiving.
Thosc who icmcmlci PIaios DiaIogucs wiII iccognizc ihai such was
ihc way PIaio iaihci consisicniIy chosc io icgaiu cihics. Anu yci Aiis-
ioiIc, ucsiic his insisicncc ihai in cihics onc is conccincu wiih Icain-
ing how io Iivc inicIIigcniIy, sccms io maIc an aliui aloui-lacc, uc-
cIaiing aiIy ihai moiaIs oi cihics, whiIc sccmingIy no moic ihan an
aii, is aciuaIIy uicicni liom aII ihc oihci aiis: In ihc aiis, again, a
ucIilciaic misiaIc is noi so lau as an unucsigncu onc, whcicas in mai-
icis io which iaciicaI wisuom is aIicalIc [i.c., in moiaI oi cihicaI
maiicis|, ii is ihc oihci way iounu.
1
Evcn wiihoui ihc auihoiiiy ol AiisioiIc anu wiihoui loi ihc momcni
loihciing oncs hcau ovci jusi whai is mcani ly AiisioiIcs woius, ii is
noi haiu, simIy on oncs own, io ihinI ol any numlci ol oljcciions
io ihc iuca ihai Icauing a goou Iilc is onIy a maiici ol Icaining how io
siiiIc a mcan lciwccn ihc cxiicmcs ol cxccss anu uclcci, as il cihics
wcic simIy an aii oi a sIiII. Il ii wcic, such an aii ol Iiving wouIu in-
voIvc aciuaIIy Icaining iuIcs aloui such ihings as whcn io gci angiy,
anu whcn noi, anu io whai ucgicc; oi whai wc may iociIy lccomc
cnihusiasiic ovci anu whai noi; oi whcn wc may IcgiiimaicIy lccI iouu
ol ouiscIvcs anu whcn noi; oi whcihci onc is cvci waiianicu in lccIing
icscniluI oi cnvious, anu il so, whcn anu unuci whai ciicumsianccs.
To ihis you may wcII lc incIincu io maIc an cmhaiic icjoinuci:
Thcic is no such aii. Inuccu, ii is laiuous io suosc ihai anyonc
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 6g |
can cvci acquiic Iro.Iene ol ihings ol ihis soii. In oiuinaiy convci-
saiion, cihas, wc may scaI ol Inowing whcn io lc inuignani anu
whcn noi. Bui suicIy ihis is onIy a mannci ol scaIing, loi in ihc Iii-
ciaI scnsc no onc can cvci Ien.r how io lccI oi how io icsonu io a
siiuaiion, in ihc way in which a suigcon, loi cxamIc, Icains whcn anu
how io ciloim an acnucciomy. Inuccu, il onc cisisicu in using
ihc woiu InowIcugc in loih conicxis, ii wouIu lc cIcai ihai ihc icim
hau lccomc amliguous. Ioi ii is onIy in ihc Iaiici conicxi ihai onc
can lc saiu io havc InowIcugc in ihc ioci scnsc ol a sIiII, oi an aii,
oi Inow-how. Il ihc aii ol Iiving consisis in noihing moic oi Icss ihan
Icaining how io lccI anu icaci iowaiu cisons anu ihings, ihcn ihcic
is no aii ol Iiving, anu ihc cIaim ihai cihics is a scicncc anu consiiiuics
a Icgiiimaic louy ol InowIcugc is so much siu anu nonscnsc. WouIu
anyonc in his scnscs cIaim ihai ly masiciing ihis so-caIIcu aii ol Iiving
a young man oi woman wiII ihcicly Icain jusi whcn anu wiih whom
hc oi shc shouIu laII in Iovc. Oi io iaIc anoihci cxamIc, can wc su-
osc ihai whcn a man is siiucI a shai lIow on ihc jaw, his Sociaiic
scIl-InowIcugc wiII insiiuci him whcihci oi noi hc shouIu lccI angiy,
oi cvcn, icsumalIy, whcihci oi noi hc shouIu lccI ain.
z. TLe ure.n.r, o eL. n on.n!Ie o Le ure.n.r,
.r nr, n.: n. nenI ..L Le n..uIn. nrn .rn...nunI
Pcihas, ihough, ihc cugc ol ihis soii ol ciiiicism may lc uuIIcu
somcwhai il wc iccognizc ihai an aii oi sIiII in Iiving is noi ol ihc samc
naiuic as ihc highIy icchnicaI sIiII ol ihc moucin cngincci oi cxcii
on aiomic cncigy. A moic ai comaiison mighi lc wiih a chcl s sIiII
in Inowing how much scasoning io auu io a Iaml sicw, nciihci ioo
much noi ioo IiiiIc, oi wiih a goou uiivcis sIiII in Inowing jusi whcn
anu how much io liaIc his cai on a uangcious cuivc, oi a musicians
sIiII in his choicc ol icmo in ihc icnuciing ol a cciiain sonaia.
Oui icscni InowIcugc ol human assions anu acciions is ioo iu-
uimcniaiy anu incxaci io ioviuc anyihing IiIc ihc cIaloiaic anu uc-
iaiIcu scicniic lounuaiion ihai unuciIics such icscni-uay sIiIIs as
cIcciionics, mciaIIuigy, agionomy, anu mcuicinc. Bui moic lunua-
mcniaIIy, in ciiiicizing ihc noiion ol moiaIs oi cihics as an aii, wc olicn
[ o | v.+i o.i x.
loigci whai is uisiinciivc ol aII aiis anu sIiIIs, cvcn ihc mosi comIcx
anu ihosc icsiing on ihc mosi sohisiicaicu scicniic lounuaiions,
which is ihai no sIiII is cvci iociIy cxciciscu ly mcchanicaIIy loI-
Iowing cciiain iuIcs oi ly simIy going ly ihc looI. Thc icason is ihai
ihc aiiicuIai concicic siiuaiions which aic ihc aciuaI oinis ol aIi-
caiion ol any aii oi sIiII aic aIways so comIcx anu iniiicaic ihai no sci
ol gcnciaI iuIcs anu iinciIcs cvci succs io covci ihcm comIcicIy.
Wc uo noi, loi cxamIc, consiuci ihai a suigcon is noi sIiIIcu mcicIy
lccausc hc cannoi uiaw u a sci ol insiiuciions so comIcic anu uc-
iaiIcu ihai aII onc nccu uo is io loIIow ihcm auiomaiicaIIy anu ihc suc-
ccss ol a cciiain iyc ol ociaiion wiII ihcicly lc guaianiccu. On ihc
coniiaiy, cach aiiicuIai casc lcing uicicni liomcvciy oihci, no onc
wiII cvci lc a sIiIIcu suigcon mcicIy ly loIIowing iuIcs, oi ly aIying
a icchniquc auiomaiicaIIy. Insicau, iiuc sIiII musi invoIvc ihc auaia-
iion ol a icchniquc io ihc immcuiaic anu aiiicuIai ciicumsianccs ai
hanu. Ioi ihis icason, io masici an aiilc ii ihai ol suigciy oi cai-
cniiy, Iowing coin oi scIIing shocsonc cannoi simIy mcmoiizc
a sci ol insiiuciions; onc has io iaciicc ihc aii himscIl. IucaIIy, such
iaciicc shouIu invoIvc aicniicing oncscIl io a masici in ihc ciali,
waiching him as hc woiIs anu iiying io imiiaic him. ConscqucniIy,
whcn onc wanis io Inow whai io uo oi how io iocccu in a aiiicu-
Iai siiuaiion oi sci ol ciicumsianccs, ihcic is, in ihc naI anaIysis, no
oihci iuIc io loIIow savc onIy ihis: Do whai ihc cxcii wouIu uo.
So ii is wiih ihc aii ol Iiving. Thai is why AiisioiIc icnus io iciiciaic
whai io many wouIu sccm iaihci olvious: in a moiaI oi cihicaI siiua-
iion, ihc ihing io uo is simIy whai ihc goou man, oi ihc man ol scnsc
anu iaciicaI wisuom, wouIu uo. Oi io cxicss ihc samc ihing in icims
ol ihc uociiinc ol ihc mcan: ihc mcan lciwccn cxccss anu uclcci in
maiicis invoIving oui ucsiics anu lccIings anu cmoiions is aIways whai
ihc goou man wouIu uciciminc ii io lc.
2
j. Bu eL. . ro nr n., n Ien ro I.Ie oLe. n.
Howcvci much consiuciaiions such as ihcsc may icnu io icassuic
us ihai Iiving wiscIy oi wcII is alici aII lui a maiici ol aii anu InowI-
cugc, ihcic is no gciiing aiounu ihc laci ihai moiaIs oi cihics, il ii is
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ 1 |
an aii, is noi an aii IiIc ihc oihci aiis. In laci, ii is noi soIcIy, oi cvcn
iinciaIIy, an aaii ol sIiII oi Inow-how ai aII. Anu so wc aic lioughi
lacI oncc moic io ihai somcwhai cnigmaiic ionounccmcni ol Aiis-
ioiIcs which wc quoicu caiIici. Paiahiasing ii iaihci liccIy, ii siaics
ihai, whcicas in aII ihc oihci aiis a ucIilciaic oi voIuniaiy misiaIc is
much Icss sciious ihan an invoIuniaiy onc, in ihc aii ol Iiving ii is jusi
ihc oihci way iounu. Whai uocs ihis mcan.
. Be.r n oon nr . n.e.er .o !e.r
oon n oeL.r: no.r . o.e Lnr Iro..r
Why is ihc iaciicc ol Iiving io lc juugcu ly such uicicni sianuaius
liomihosc aIicalIc io ihc luiIuing ol liiugcs, ihc Iaying ol lasIci-
laII, ihc iaciicc ol mcuicinc, oi any oihci aii. Why isni ii simIy a
casc ol a cisons ciihci Inowing oi noi Inowing how io Iivc, jusi as
ii is a casc ol oncs ciihci Inowing oi noi Inowing how io Iay lasIci-
laII, oi how io ciloim an acnucciomy, oi how io luiIu a liiugc,
oi how io iiy a casc. To Iivc wcII, io lc a goou man, ii wouIu sccm,
onc wouIu nccu uo no moic ihan masici ihc aii ol Iiving, jusi as io
lc a goou uocioi, onc nccu lui masici ihc aii ol mcuicinc. Why noi
suosc ihai ihcic is a simIc anu olvious aiaIIcI lciwccn ihc aii ol
Iiving anu aII ihc oihci aiis. Anu yci ihc vciy homcIy consiuciaiions, ai
oncc so cIcmcniaiy anu so unucnialIc, ihai wc havc jusi iun ihiough
maIc us icaIizc ihai ihis is imossilIc. Bui why.
Thc mosi olvious answci io ihis qucsiion is ihai, in ihc oihci aiis,
noihing is invoIvcu savc InowIcugc anu InowIcugc aIonci.c., InowI-
cugc in ihc scnsc ol sIiII oi Inow-how. Bui in Iiving oncs Iilc, somc-
ihing cIsc sccms io lc invoIvcu lcsiucs mcic InowIcugc. As a isi ai-
icmi ai sccilying whai ihis somcihing cIsc is, onc mighi ui ii ihai
in oiuci io Iivc wcII oi io lc a goou man, ii is noi cnough mcicIy io
Inow how io Iivc, io Inow whai you nccu io uo as a human lcing;
in auuiiion, you havc io uo ii. In somcihing IiIc calinci maIing, you
may Inow how io Iy youi ciali, lui loi onc icason oi anoihci uc-
ciuc ciihci noi io uo ii, oi cIsc io uo ii lauIy. This wouIu noi in iiscIl
lc any iccciion uon youi sIiII as a calinci maIci: you wouIu siiII
lc comcicni; iis jusi ihai you hau choscn noi io uisIay oi cxcicisc
[ : | v.+i o.i x.
youi comcicncc. Bui in a moiaI oi cihicaI conicxi, a man who Incw
whai hc oughi io uo lui chosc noi io uo ii wouIu cciiainIy noi lc a
goou man.
j. Be.r n oon nr . n.e.er .o !e.r
oon n oeL.r: Loo.r . o.e Lnr no.r
Pcihas, ihough, ihc coniiasi is noi quiic as simIc as ihis. Iis moic
ihan a simIc uicicncc lciwccn Inowing anu uoing. Ioi onc ihing,
in ihc iaciicaI aiis ii is cIcai ihai ihcic can ncvci lc a ioiaI oi cvcn
a ioIongcu scaiaiion ol Inowing liom uoing. Thc InowIcugc ihai
is invoIvcu in ihcsc aiis is ihc soii ihai wc caII sIiII oi Inow-how, anu
ihcic jusi cani lc any InowIcugc ol ihis soii wiihoui uoing. Ii is onIy
ihiough aciuaIIy luiIuing liiugcs oi iaciicing mcuicinc oi Iaying
icnnis ihai onc lccomcs a liiugc luiIuci oi a hysician oi a icnnis
Iayci in ihc isi Iacc. Anu whiIc onc mighi ccasc loi a iimc io usc
his sIiII wiihoui ihcicly immcuiaicIy Iosing ihai sIiII, in ihc Iong iun
no onc can coniinuc io lc a comcicni cngincci oi uocioi oi aihIcic
wiihoui aciuaIIy iaciicing his aii.
Ioi anoihci ihing, in ihc aii ol Iiving, whiIc in onc scnsc ii is coi-
icci io say ihai mcicIy Inowing whai onc oughi io uo wiihoui aciuaIIy
uoing ii uocs noi succ io maIc onc a goou man, in anoihci scnsc
whcihci onc aciuaIIy succccus in uoing whai onc inicnus io uo oi lccIs
ihai onc oughi io uo is ai iimcs quiic iiicIcvani io lcing a goou man
oi Icauing a goou Iilc. To iaIc ihc mosi olvious soii ol casc: I may
Inow ihai a liicnu ol minc in San Iiancisco nccus mc lauIy anu I
may havc cvciy inicniion ol going io his assisiancc, onIy io nu ihai
somc ouisiuc lacioi such as a siiiIc on ihc aiiIincs, lau iaiI conncc-
iions, oi an auiomoliIc acciucni maIcs ii imossilIc loi mc io aiiivc
on iimc. In such a casc, cvcn ihough my Inowing whai I oughi io uo
is noi maichcu ly my aciuaIIy uoing ii, ihis wouIu haiuIy consiiiuic a
iccciion uon my chaiacici oi my IoyaIiy io my liicnu.
Bui il ii is noi a mcic uicicncc lciwccn Inowing anu uoing ihai
accounis loi oui uiciing sianuaius ol juugmcni in maiicis ol sIiII,
anu in maiicis ol moiaIs, whai uocs accouni loi ii. Docs ihc uicicncc
Iic in ihc laci ihai whcicas in maiicis ol sIiII ii is Inow-how aIonc ihai
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ |
counis, in maiicis ol moiaIs ii is somcihing moic on ihc oiuci ol goou
inicniions. Bui (loi icasons ihai wc shaII consiuci Iaici) such a way ol
loimuIaiing ihc uicicncc lciwccn aii anu moiaIs is somcwhai ovci-
simIc anu misIcauing. Insicau, ihc uicicncc is io lc unucisioou, noi
so much in icims ol ihc uisiinciion lciwccn Inowing anu choosing
moic sccicaIIy, lciwccn Inowing whai nccus io lc uonc anu aciuaIIy
waniing oi choosing io uo ii.
A man is a goou caicnici, wc havc saiu, il hc Inows how io uo cci-
iain ihings. Bui whcihci hc cnjoys uoing ihcm, whcihci hc chooscs
io uo ihcm wcII, whcihci hc cvcn chooscs io uo ihcm ai aIIaII ihis
has noihing uiicciIy anu immcuiaicIy io uo wiih his lcing sIiIIcu oi
comcicni in his aii. On ihc oihci hanu, loi a man io lc honcsi oi
laii oi liavc, ii is noi cnough ihai hc mcicIy Inow whai soii ol lc-
havioi honcsiy anu jusiicc anu liavciy caII loi. In auuiiion, hc musi
aciuaIIy choosc io aci ihis way himscIl. Noi onIy ihai, lui hc musi
choosc io uo ihcsc ihings loi ihcii own saIc. Ioi a man who was hon-
csi cnough in his ucaIings wiih oihcis, noi lccausc hc Iovcu honcsiy,
lui onIy lccausc hc wanicu io gci ahcau anu lc wcII ihoughi ol in
ihc communiiy, oi lccausc hc was aliaiu ihai il hc wcic uishoncsi, hc
mighi gci caughisuch a cison wc shouIu haiuIy consiuci io lc iiuIy
honcsi.
0. TLe A..oeI.nr n..r.or o o.nI
...ue .o .reIIeunI ...ue
AccoiuingIy, iaIing cognizancc ol ihc ccuIiai icquiicmcnis in-
voIvcu in lcing a goou man as coniiasicu wiih ihosc ncccssaiy loi
mcicIy lcing a goou cialisman, AiisioiIc insisicu ihai io achicvc ihc
loimci onc wouIu nccu io cuIiivaic noi jusi cciiain haliis ol InowI-
cugcihc Iinu ol InowIcugc caIIcu sIiII oi Inow-howlui aIso cci-
iain haliis ol choicc, ihc Iaiici lcing Inown, in AiisioicIian aiIancc,
as moiaI viiiucs in coniiasi io ihc moic lamiIiai inicIIcciuaI viiiucs,
oi haliis ol InowIcugc.
Thc woiu viiiuc iiscIl may icnu io siicI in oui ciaw in ihis uay
ol uisiIIusionmcni in gcnciaI anu ol angiy young mcn in aiiicuIai.
Bui in iis oiiginaI mcaning ihc icim uocs no moic ihan oini u ihc
[ q | v.+i o.i x.
olvious laci ihai mosi ol oui human aciiviiics wc can scaiccIy uo ai aII,
much Icss uo ihcm wcII, wiihoui isi Icaining how. Anu such Icaincu
aiicins ol lchavioi, oi acquiicu haliis ol aciion, as a icsuIi ol which
wc comc io lc alIc io uo wcII whai oihciwisc wc couIu noi uo ai aII,
oi ai lcsi couIu uo onIy vciy lauIyihcsc aic whai AiisioiIc caIIcu
viiiucs.
. TLe oon nr . ro ooI: ro o.nI
...ue ..Lou .reIIeunI ...ue
Bui ihc sccic icim moiaI viiiuc is IiIcIy io givc iisc io siiII
luiihci misunucisianuing. Ioi il wc iaII aloui haliis ol choicc anu
Icaincu aiicins ol lchavioi, which wc caII moiaI viiiuc, wc aic ai
io associaic ihis wiih a iciuic ol ucai, goou oIu Anuy, who hau a
hcaii luII ol goIu, who ncvci InowingIy huii a y, lui who was an im-
ossilIc uuIIaiu anu ai iimcs sccmcu haiuIy io havc ihc scnsc io comc
in oui ol ihc iain!
Bui ihis is ihoioughIy io misconsiiuc ihc AiisioicIian noiion ol
moiaI viiiuc. Thc iioulIc sccms io Iic in ihc usc ol such cxicssions
as Icaincu haliis ol choicc oi aiicins ol lchavioi. Ioi such icims
suggcsi io us choiccs anu aciions ihai aic haliiuaI in ihc scnsc ol lcing
mcchanicaI anu unihinIing. Bui AiisioiIc hau in minu somcihing
quiic uicicni. As hc saw ii, ihc icason ihc so-caIIcu moiaI viiiucs aic
nccucu loi ihc goou Iilc is noi ihai ihcy wiII cnalIc us io uiscnsc wiih
ihinIing anu InowIcugc, lui icciscIy anu soIcIy in oiuci ihai such
ihoughi anu InowIcugc may lc lioughi io lcai anu lccomc ocia-
iivc in oui IiIcs anu uisIiIcs anu oui choiccs ol aciion. Wc shaII ihcn
noi mcicIy Inow whai ihc inicIIigcni ihing io uo is, lui wc shaII comc
io wani ii anu aciuaIIy choosc io uo ii icciscIy lccausc ii is whai inicI-
Iigcncc uiciaics.
Iiom ihis oini ol vicw, ihc honcsi man oi ihc couiagcous man
oi ihc icmciaic cison wiII noi lc onc who has mcicIy lccn conui-
iioncu io loIIow oui unihinIingIy cciiain aiovcu aiicins ol lchav-
ioi. Hc wiII lc onc who has Icaincu how io Ici his choiccs anu icl-
cicnccs lc ucicimincu ly such InowIcugc anu unucisianuing as hc
may havc, iaihci ihan io iocccu simIy liom chancc lccIings anu im-
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ |
uIscs ol ihc momcni oi liom Iong csialIishcu lui mcchanicaI haliis
ol icsonsc.
Ioi cxamIc, io icvcii io oui caiIici iIIusiiaiion, anyonc wiII aumii
io having iccaicuIy hau ihc uisiicssing anu olicn cmlaiiassing cx-
ciicncc ol Iosing his icmci anu saying anu uoing ihings ihai wcic
cxcccuingIy looIish anu unwisc, which hc himscIl soon camc io icgici.
AccoiuingIy ihc viiiuc ol cvcn icmci may lc unucisioou as simIy
a Icaincu icsonsc in which, insicau ol giving way io is ol icmci,
wc aIIow oui inicIIigcncc anu lciici juugmcni io icvaiI. Noi is ii
oihciwisc wiih any ol ihc oihci moiaI viiiucs. Couiagc, loi insiancc,
amounis io noihing moic ihan a uisosiiion io aci iaiionaIIy anu in-
icIIigcniIy in ciicumsianccs ihai acai io us liighicning oi aIaiming.
Tcmciancc is a uisosiiion io icsonu in simiIai lashion in siiuaiions
whcic wc aic suljcci io ihc hysicaI aiiiaciions ol loou, uiinI, scx, cic.
IiIcwisc, as wc havc sccn,
3
ihc viiiuc ol scIl-icscci, oi enIo,L.n,
oi whaicvci you choosc io caII ii, is a viiiuc ihai uisoscs us io ihinI
nciihci ioo much noi ioo IiiiIc ol ouiscIvcs, lui io lc guiucu aIways
ly a jusi csiimaic ol oui own caaciiics anu woiih.
Thc moiaI viiiucs, ihcn, aic io lc icgaiucu simIy as Icaincu haliis
anu uisosiiions ihai aic uiiccicu soIcIy iowaiu Iciiing icason anu in-
icIIigcncc comc inio Iay in ihc uciciminaiion ol oui choiccs ol whai
io uo anu whai noi io uo. Iiom ihis oini ol vicw ii couIu ncvci io-
ciIy lc saiu ol anyonc ihai hc was a man ol cxccIIcni chaiacici, lui
ai ihc samc iimc a looI. Ioi as AiisioiIc sccs ii, io lc moiaIIy viiiuous
is icciscIy io lc inicIIigcni in oncs lchavioi. Noi is ihcic any oihci
way loi a man io lc inicIIigcni anu wisc in his conuuci, savc ihiough
ihc cuIiivaiion anu cxcicisc ol ihc moiaI viiiucs. In shoii, io lc liavc,
jusi, honcsi, icmciaic, cvcn-icmcicu, moucsi, scIl-icscciing is io
lc wisc anu inicIIigcni in oncs choiccs; anu io lc wisc anu inicIIigcni
in oncs choiccs is io lc liavc, jusi, honcsi, icmciaic, anu so on.
B. Bu .r L. ..L .Le.e .e ne .r .o Lne. no
AII ihis liings us lacI oncc again io somc ol ihc consiuciaiions
iaiscu in Chaici : icgaiuing whai ii mcans io lc human. Ioi in Aiis-
ioiIcs accouni, wc saw ihai lcing human oi Iiving a chaiaciciisiicaIIy
[ 6 | v.+i o.i x.
human cxisicncc, cxcicising ihc e.or oi lunciion ihai is aioiiaic
io manaII ihis comcs uown io no moic ihan Iiving inicIIigcniIy. A
iiuIy anu iociIy human cxisicncc uocs noi consisi simIy in lcing
inicIIigcni, in ihc scnsc ol having a high I.Q. oi having a Ioi ol InowI-
cugc; iaihci ii consisis in Iiving inicIIigcniIy, in using oncs inicIIigcncc
in ihc conuuci ol oncs Iilc, in Iciiing oncs cvciy choicc lc guiucu ly
such InowIcugc anu unucisianuing as onc can liing io lcai on ihc
siiuaiion. Bui isni ihis onIy anoihci way ol saying ihai lcing human
consisis in noihing moic oi Icss ihan ihc cxcicisc ol loih inicIIcciuaI
anu moiaI viiiucol inicIIcciuaI viiiuc, lccausc onIy so can a man lc
saiu io havc InowIcugc anu unucisianuing; lui aIso ol moiaI viiiuc,
lccausc onIy so is oncs InowIcugc lioughi io lcai on his own Iilc,
suusing anu ucicimining his conuuci anu cvcn his choiccs anu icl-
cicnccs.
g. Dou! nrn o.e nou!: nr o.nI e.e. !e
uoen o .e uI.neI, uor Iro.Iene
Wiih such a iciuic, howcvci, coniiasi ihc loIIowing:
Baucau iooI Auams io ihc Whiic Housc onc cvcning anu iniio-
uuccu him io Picsiucni anu Mis. Giani. Iiisi anu Iasi, hc saw a
uozcn Picsiucnis ai ihc Whiic Housc, anu ihc mosi lamous wcic ly
no mcans ihc mosi agiccalIc, lui hc lounu Giani ihc mosi cuii-
ous suljcci ol siuuy among ihcm aII. Aloui no onc uiu oinions
uici so wiucIy. Auams hau no oinion, oi occasion io maIc onc.
A singIc woiu wiih Giani saiiscu him ihai, loi his own goou, ihc
lcwci woius hc iisIcu ihc lciici. Thus lai in Iilc hc hau mci wiih
lui onc man ol ihc samc inicIIcciuaI oi uninicIIcciuaI iycGaii-
laIui. Ol ihc iwo, GaiilaIui sccmcu io him a iiic ihc moic inicI-
IcciuaI, lui, in loih, ihc inicIIcci counicu loi noihing; onIy ihc
cncigy counicu. Thc iyc was ic-inicIIcciuaI, aichaic, anu wouIu
havc sccmcu so cvcn io ihc cavc-uwcIIcis. Auam, accoiuing io
Icgcnu, was such a man.
In iimc onc camc io iccognizc ihc iyc in oihci mcn, wiih uil-
lcicnccs anu vaiiaiions, as noimaI; mcn whosc cncigics wcic ihc
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ |
gicaici, ihc Icss ihcy wasicu on ihoughi; mcn who siang liom ihc
soiI io owci; ai io lc uisiiusiluI ol ihcmscIvcs anu ol oihcis; shy;
jcaIous; somciimcs vinuiciivc; moic oi Icss uuII in ouiwaiu acai-
ancc; aIways nccuing siimuIanis, lui loi whom aciion was ihc high-
csi siimuIaniihc insiinci ol ghi. Such mcn wcic loiccs ol naiuic,
cncigics ol ihc iimc, IiIc ihc Pe.n., lui ihcy mauc shoii woiI ol
schoIais. Thcy hau commanucu ihousanus ol such anu saw no moic
in ihcm ihan in oihcis. Thc laci was cciiain; ii ciushcu aigumcni
anu inicIIcci ai oncc.
4
Now maIing uuc aIIowancc loi Hcniy Auams iaihci ioiiuicu anu
scIl-conscious icuiIcciion loi coniiasiing ihc uoci anu ihc man ol
aciion wiih a HamIci-IiIc inicIIcciuaI, ihc quoicu assagc uocs maIc ii
liighicningIy cIcai how a mans Iilc may lc comIcicIy uominaicu anu
moiivaicu ly shcci uncnIighicncu cncigy anu uiivca Iilc, inuccu, in
which such InowIcugc anu inicIIigcncc anu cnIighicnmcni as ihc man
may havc aic aII suloiuinaicu anu ui io ihc scivicc ol a moic lasic,
lui uiiciIy lIinu anu unciiiicaI, imuIsc io aci anu io uo.
Now in many ways ihis icicscnis ihc vciy aniiihcsis ol ihc Sociaiic
iucaI ol ihc cxamincu Iilc. SiiII, ii is aIso a sciious chaIIcngc. Ioi onc
may asI, in ihc Iighi ol such an cxamIc, whcihci an cxamincu oi in-
icIIigcni Iilc in any such iauicaI scnsc as Sociaics wouIu havc ii is icaIIy
ossilIc. Docs ii ciiain io ciihci ihc naiuic oi ihc lunciion ol human
inicIIigcncc io ioviuc a guiuancc anu uiicciion io Iilc ihai is uIiimaic
anu noi mcicIy icIaiivc anu insiiumcniaI. InicIIigcncc can icII us how
io gci whai wc wani; lui can ii icII us whai wc icaIIy wani oi oughi
io wani in ihc isi Iacc. Is noi ihc osiuic ol a Giani oi a GaiilaIui
(suosing Auams iciuic ol ihcm io havc lccn a iiuc onc) much
moic in accoiuancc wiih ihc icaIiiics ol ihc human siiuaiion. Il so,
mcns uiivcs anu imuIscs anu incIinaiions musi lc iaIcn as uIiimaic,
anu icason anu inicIIigcncc musi lc icgaiucu as mcicIy insiiumcn-
iaI in cnalIing us io aiiain whaicvci hacns io acai vaIualIc io us,
noi on ihc lasis ol any uciciminaiions ol icason oi inicIIigcncc, lui
mcicIy on ihc lasis ol such acciions anu uisosiiions as may hacn
io chaiaciciizc oui aiiicuIai naiuics.
Ici us iiy io liing ihis issuc io a hcau. Thc moiaI viiiucs, wc havc
saiu, aic noihing lui haliis ol choicc, such as wiII uisosc us io choosc
[ S | v.+i o.i x.
ihosc couiscs ol aciion which inicIIigcncc anu unucisianuing ic-
sciilc. Bui uo inicIIigcncc anu icason cvci icaIIy icsciilc anyihing.
Aic ihcy cvcn caalIc ol uoing any moic ihan ucsciiling whai wc aic
aIicauy incIincu io uo on oihci giounus.
Ioi insiancc, iaIc ihc viiiuc ol couiagc. On ihc anaIysis wc havc
givcn, io lc liavc is simIy io lc inicIIigcni, i.c., in ciicumsianccs ihai
sccm uangcious oi liighicning ihc liavc man is ihc onc who chooscs
anu acis in accoiuancc wiih ihc uiciaics ol inicIIigcncc. Bui ihinI
aloui ihis loi a momcni. Docs ii noi giow incicasingIy uulious as onc
icccis uon ii. Ioi in whai scnsc may inicIIigcncc lc saiu io icsciilc
a couiagcous choicc as lcing moic inicIIigcni anu Icss siuiu ihan a
cowaiuIy onc. CciiainIy noi in ihc scnsc in which a coiicci answci in
aiiihmciic, say, is moic inicIIigcni ihan an incoiicci onc; oi cvcn in
ihc scnsc in which onc mighi say ihai a consiuciaiion ol ihc cviucncc
maIcs ihc hyoihcsis ol a hcIioccniiic univcisc a moic inicIIigcni onc
ihan ol a gcoccniiic univcisc.
Evcn ihc anaIogy wiih ihc aiis sccms io licaI uown hcic. Ioi aI-
ihough ii cciiainIy maIcs scnsc, in ihc conicxi ol an aii such as sui-
gciy, io say ihai onc way ol ciloiming an ociaiion is moic inicIIi-
gcni ihan anoihci, ihis juugmcni is lascu on ihc icsuosiiion ihai
ihc ociaiion is ucsiialIc in ihc isi Iacc. Moicovci, in aII ihc aiis, ii
wouIu sccmihai any juugmcni as io whai is ihc moic oi Icss inicIIigcni
way ol uoing somcihing is lascu on a iioi assumiion ol somc uc-
siicu cnu oi goaI. Musi ii noi ihcn lc concIuucu ihai inicIIigcncc can
icsciilc whai is lciici oi woisc on ihc icsuosiiion ol a iioi in-
cIinaiion oi ucsiic which ucicimincs ihc cnu, anu which inicIIigcncc
sulscivcs onIy as an insiiumcni loi caIcuIaiing ihc mcans. Bui il so,
ihcn ihc Sociaiic iojcci ol an cxamincu Iilc wouIu acai io lc, in ihc
Iasi anaIysis, uiiciIy luiiIc: ihc cnu wc sccI is ucicimincu ly iiiaiionaI,
oi ai Icasi ic-iaiionaI, moiivcs, anu inicIIigcncc can onIy icsciilc
ihc lcsi mcans io such cnus.
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ g |
1o. 1r neere o .n.ornI.,: nr ern
o. onI . n .n.ornII, neer.!Ie ore
Bui ihis soii ol ciiiicism olviousIy icsis uon a misunucisianuing.
Tiuc, human icason anu human inicIIigcncc uo noi uciciminc human
vaIucs in ihc scnsc ol cicaiing ihcm; iaihci ihcii jol is simIy io uis-
covci such vaIucs. Moicovci, whcn icason scis aloui io uiscovci whai
ihc goou Iilc loi man is, oi whai ihc chaiaciciisiicaIIy human goou is,
ihcn ihc icsuIis ol ihc invcsiigaiion, wc wouIu suggcsi, wiII lc aIong
such Iincs as wc inuicaicu in oui scconu chaici. Thc human goou
wiII lc lounu io lc ihai naiuiaI cnu iowaiu which a human lcing is
oiicnicu ly viiiuc ol lcing human, as an acoin is oiicnicu iowaiu iis
naiuiaI cnu ly viiiuc ol iis naiuic as an acoin. In ihis scnsc, mans
cnu, ihc goaI oi uiosc ol human Iilc, is somcihing givcn; ii is a laci
ol naiuic. Rcason oi inicIIigcncc may lc saiu io uciciminc whai ihis
naiuiaI cnu is onIy in ihc scnsc ol uiscovciing oi iccognizing ii, noi
in ihc scnsc ol cicaiing oi osiiing ii.
Suosc wc ush ihis consiuciaiion io ihc oini ol a sccming aia-
uox. Wc couIu say ihai ihis naiuiaI cnu oi naiuiaI uisosiiion ol a
human lcing is somcihing ic-iaiionaI anu ic-inicIIigcni: ii is jusi
a laci which icason can uo no moic ihan iccognizc. Anu ycianu
hcic is ihc uccisivc oinihaving comc io iccognizc ihis ic-iaiionaI
anu ic-inicIIigcni cnu, oui human inicIIigcncc ihcn sccs ihai ii is
mans naiuiaI cnu anu hcncc ihc ioci cnu loi a human lcing io
sccI. Ii ihus lccomcs an cnu which wc uo noi sccI mcicIy in laci
anu auiomaiicaIIy, iowaiu which wc aic imcIIcu unciiiicaIIy anu un-
iccciingIy, lui iaihci an cnu which wc scc ihai wc havc icason io
sccI anu which wc iccognizc as lcing ihc iighi anu ioci cnu loi us
as human lcings. In ihis Iaiici scnsc, ihcn, such an cnu is sccn io lc a
iaiionaI cnu, i.c., an cnu which can lc jusiicu anu uclcnucu as lcing
woiihy ol oui sccIing oi as lcing iighi loi us io sccI. Ii is in ihcsc
icims ihai ihc aiiiiuuc anu ciloimancc ol a Sociaics aic io lc uisiin-
guishcu liom anu vinuicaicu againsi ihosc ol a Giani oi a GaiilaIui.
[ So | v.+i o.i x.
11. 1r neere o .n.ornI.,: Le .n.ornII, neer.!Ie
ern o. onI o nr . o !e .n.ornI
As wc saw in oui caiIici invcsiigaiion, whcn wc iuin io ihc qucs-
iion ol whai ihis naiuiaI, anu hcncc iaiionaIIy jusiialIc, cnu loi man
consisis in, wc nu ihai ii consisis icciscIy in noi sciiIing loi any cnu
savc onc ihai is iaiionaIIy jusiialIcihai is, ii consisis in Iiving inicI-
IigcniIy anu Icauing an cxamincu Iilc. Mans naiuiaI cnu, on ihis vicw,
iuins oui io lc ihai ol lcing ihc soii ol cison who is noi conicni
mcicIy io go on uoing oi sccIing ihai which hc is naiuiaIIy imcIIcu
io uo oi io sccI, oi which hc has aIways lccn in ihc halii ol uoing oi
sccIing, lui wiihoui Inowing why. Raihci ihc goou man is ihc man
who Inows anu unucisianus why hc uocs whai hc uocs, anu who, in-
sicau ol aciing lIinuIy, has a icason loi uoing whai hc uocs.
UnhaiIy, ihough, in ihus aiicmiing io chaiaciciizc mans ioci
cnu anu goaI as lcing loih naiuiaIIy ucicimincu anu inicIIigcniIy uc-
icimincu ai onc anu ihc samc iimc, ii is uicuIi io olviaic ihc Iinu ol
misunucisianuing ihai siings liom a cciiain amliguiiy in ihc woius
naiuiaI anu naiuic whcn uscu in ihis conncciion. On ihc onc
hanu, wc say ihai ihc iighi anu honoialIc ihing io uo is ihai which
onc icnus io uo oi is imcIIcu io uo simIy ly naiuic. On ihc oihci
hanu, wc aic cquaIIy insisicni ihai in so lai as ii is human naiuic ihai
is invoIvcu, io uo ihai which onc icnus io uo naiuiaIIy lui wiihoui icc-
ognizing ihai ii is ihus naiuiaI anu wiihoui unucisianuing ihai ii is
ihcicloic ihc iighi anu icasonalIc ihing io uoihis is noi io lchavc
inicIIigcniIy, anu hcncc, loi a human lcing, is noi cvcn io lchavc in a
way ihai is naiuiaI. In shoii, loi a human lcing ihc cnu can lc an inicI-
Iigcni onc onIy in so lai as ii is iaiionaIIy iccognizcu anu inicIIigcniIy
aicciaicu as lcing in ihis way ihc naiuiaI cnu loi man.
Iuiihci, whcn a man ihus lccomcs inicIIigcniIy awaic ol whai ihc
naiuiaI goaI loi him as a human lcing is, hc sccs ihai, so lai as iis con-
icni is conccincu, whai ihis naiuiaI human cnu consisis in is simIy io
Iivc inicIIigcniIy. Thcic is ihus a iwo-loIu scnsc in which, on AiisioiIcs
vicw, ihc naiuiaI goaI oi cnu ol man is a iaiionaI anu inicIIigcni onc.
Ii is inicIIigcni in ihai ii is iaiionaIIy uclcnsilIc anu jusiialIc: wc can
scc why ii is ihc iiuc anu ioci cnu loi us, simIy lccausc ii is ihc
naiuiaI cnu loi us. Anu aIso, ii is inicIIigcni in ihai whai ihis cnu con-
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ S1 |
sisis in anu whai ii caIIs uon a man io lc anu io uo is simIy io lc
inicIIigcni anu io Iivc inicIIigcniIy. Thai is io say, ihc iaiionaIIy uclcn-
silIc anu jusiialIc cnu loi a human lcing is simIy io lc as iaiionaI
anu inicIIigcni as ossilIc in aII ihai hc chooscs anu uocs.
1z. Ho. Ln .L.L . o.nII, ..or nr
!e n.n o !e n .nIe o. nr e..o.
Assuming, ihcn, ihai oui cnu oi goaI consisis simIy in lcing in-
icIIigcni, Ici us iiy io aiiivc ai a lciici unucisianuing ol ihai sccm-
ing aiauox, accoiuing io which lcing viiiuous amounis io no moic
ihan lcing inicIIigcni anu lcing inicIIigcni amounis simIy io lcing
viiiuous.
Whai musi loihci anyonc aloui such a loimuIa is ihc qucsiion ol
whcihci anu how ihc viiiuous couisc ol aciion can lc icgaiucu as
simIy ihc aciion which inicIIigcncc uiciaics. Howcvci much wc may
aumiic anu icscci quaIiiics such as liavciy, IoyaIiy, cisonaI inicg-
iiiy, anu icIialiIiiy, why shouIu ii lc suoscu ihai io cxhilii such
quaIiiics is ihc samc ihing as lcing inicIIigcni.
Ici us icminu ouiscIvcs ol oui caiIici cxamIcs ol mcn whosc con-
uuci anu gcnciaI lchavioi wcic such as io lc aujuugcu looIish anu
unwisc. Ii siiiIcs us as lcing naiuiaI anu ioci io say ihai Sii WaIici
EIIioii was an ass, ihai ChaiIcs I was cuiiousIy ucIuucu anu ciccicu his
whoIc Iilc uon a misiaIc, oi ihai C. P. Snows Mi. NighiingaIc was un-
wisc in his conuuci ol Iilc, in laci, ihai his whoIc ouiIooI was iwisicu
anu misiaIcn. In cascs IiIc ihcsc wc aIy io ihc chaiacicis anu lchav-
ioi ol human lcings ciihcis IiIc misiaIcn, in ciioi, ucau wiong,
cic., which aic loiiowcu liom ihc uicIy inicIIcciuaI icaIm. Yci ihc
misiaIcs ihai aic invoIvcu in such mcns Iivcs uo noi sccm aIiogcihci
comaialIc io misiaIcs in aiiihmciic, say, oi in ihc scicnccs oi icch-
nicaI aiis.
Vciy wcII, ihcn, Ici us IooI moic cIoscIy ai jusi whai ii mcans io lc
wiong oi misiaIcn in oncs lchavioi anu in oncs chaiacici. In saying
ihai Sii WaIici oi King ChaiIcs oi NighiingaIc mauc misiaIcs oi goi
on ihc wiong iiacI, uo wc noi mcan ihai ihcy wcic wocluIIy ignoiani
ol ihc iiuih aloui ihcmscIvcs, ihai ihcy uiu noi Inow whai was lcsi
[ S: | v.+i o.i x.
loi ihcm. Il onIy ihcy couIu scc ihcmscIvcs as oihcis scc ihcm, onc
is icmicu io say.
1j. VLn . . o Iro. o. ro o Iro. Le .uL n!ou oreeI
Whai is ihis iiuih aloui ihcmscIvcs ol which wc say ihcy wcic igno-
iani, anu whai is ii ihai is lcsi loi ihcm anu ihai ihcy uoni sccm io
Inow aloui. To answci ihc Iaiici qucsiion in a ihoioughIy Sociaiic
mannci, whai is lcsi loi any human lcing is ihai hc Iivc inicIIigcniIy,
ihai hc Icau an cxamincu Iilc. Bui ihis mcans ihai insicau ol aciing
lIinuIy liom imuIsc oi unciiiicaIIy liom mcic loicc ol halii, a man
shouIu aci liom InowIcugc anu unucisianuing.
PicsumalIy, ihcicloic, liom Sociaics sianuoini, ihc laci ihai oui
ihicc chaiacicis uiu noi Inow whai was lcsi loi ihcmcouIu mcan onIy
ihai ihcy uiu noi icaIizc ihc imoiiancc ol having inicIIigcni icasons
loi oiuciing ihcii Iivcsihai, insicau, ihcii gcnciaI lchavioi was lun-
uamcniaIIy lIinu anu unihinIing, iocccuing IaigcIy liom ihcii lccI-
ings ol vaniiy, iiuc, iimiuiiy, icscnimcni.
Why is lchavioi ihai iocccus liommcic imuIsc, assion, oi loicc
ol halii io lc consiucicu lIinu oi ignoiani. Thc Sociaiic answci musi
lc ihai ii is lchavioi which ihc inuiviuuaI has noi loihcicu io ihinI
ihiough oi io jusiily oi io givc icasons loi. This is noi io say ihai ihcic
aic ncvci goou icasons loi oncs uoing whai onc is simIy imcIIcu io
uo oi has mcicIy lccn in ihc halii ol uoing. Thc oini is ihai so Iong
as onc uocs noi Inow whai ihcsc icasons aic, anu gocs ahcau anu acis
noi Inowing whai ihcy aic, ihcn io ihis cxicni onc is noi aciing IiIc
an inicIIigcni anu iaiionaI man.
Ol couisc, moic olicn ihan noi, whcn wc aci mcicIy liom imuIsc
oi liom halii, whai wc uo is noi onIy somcihing loi which wc givc no
icason, lui aIso somcihing loi which wc ouIn givc no icason, oi onIy
a iaiionaIizaiion. Bui whai wouIu a goou icason lc. How is onc io jus-
iily oncs choiccs so as io liing ihcm u io ihis sianuaiu ol a iiuIy
inicIIigcni, ihinIing human lcing in ihc Sociaiic scnsc. Thc answci
ihai wc aic aloui io givc may sccm moic IiIc lcgging ihc qucsiion
ihan answciing ii. Yci in ihc naI anaIysis, any jusiicaiion ol oncs
aciions, ai Icasi il ii iocccus on Sociaiic Iincs, musi comc uown io
Ao.nI nrn EL. No S.I, nr A. o 1...r [ S |
ihis: ihis choicc oi ihai aci is jusiicu il ii is onc ihai is consonani wiih
oi coniiiluics io an cxamincu Iilc, i.c., il ii iocccus liom no oihci
moiivc savc ihai ol waniing io lc a iiuIy human lcing, ol waniing io
aci iaiionaIIy anu inicIIigcniIy anu in ihc Iighi ol such InowIcugc anu
unucisianuing as onc can musici.
Bui, you wiII say, on such a lasis aImosi anyonc can jusiily aImosi
anyihing hc uocs. Icw mcn consiuci ihcmscIvcs io lc uninicIIigcni
anu unihinIing. Inuccu, Sii WaIici EIIioii no uouli ihoughi himscIl
an cmincniIy icasonalIc anu inicIIigcni man. Hc wouIu havc lccn ihc
isi io cIaim ihai icason anu unucisianuing, noi icjuuicc anu as-
sion, wcic his soIc guiucs io aciion.
Thc answci io ihis is ihai Sii WaIici may havc ihoughi himscIl in-
icIIigcni, lui in laci hc was noi. Hc may havc ihoughi ihai his onIy
moiivc in Iilc was io lc a man ol icason anu unucisianuing, lui ii is aII
ioo aicni ihai his icaI moiivc was simIy vaniiy. Inuccu, ihis is how
]anc Ausicn was alIc io maIc Sii WaIici acai such a looI: hc was
uiiciIy looIcu aloui himscIl; in ihc scnsc ol ihc Sociaiic injunciion,
hc was noi a man who hau cvci loihcicu io Inow himscIl ai aII.
1. Ao.nI e..o. nrn .reIIeunI e..o.
Le ne nrn ,e ro Le ne
Bui uoni wc havc iighi hcic ihc answci io ihc qucsiion ihai has
lccn vcxing us loi so Iong. Sii WaIici uiu noi Inow ihc iiuih aloui
himscIl, anu lccausc ol ihis ignoiancc his chaiacici, lai liom lcing
aumiialIc, was alsuiu anu iiuicuIous. Yci his ciioi was cciiainIy no
mcic inicIIcciuaI onc. Onc mighi say ihai his whoIc Iilc was onc Iong
misiaIc, lui ii was noi ihc samc Iinu ol misiaIc as an ciioi in Iong
uivision oi in loicicIIing a uccIinc in ihc siocI maiIci.
Whai soii ol misiaIc was ii, ihcn. This conccins noi onIy Sii WaI-
icis ciioi, lui King ChaiIcs oi NighiingaIcs oi Gianis oi youis oi
minc. May wc noi say ihai a misiaIc ol ihis soii consisis noi so much
in noi lcing alIc inicIIcciuaIIy io scc oi Inow ihc iiuih aloui oncscIl,
as in noi lcing wiIIing oi uisoscu io scc ihis iiuih. To ui ii a IiiiIc
uicicniIy, a man laIIs inio ciioi ol ihis soii noi liominicIIcciuaI wcaI-
ncss, lui liom having aIIowcu his lccIings anu assions, iaihci ihan
[ Sq | v.+i o.i x.
his InowIcugc anu unucisianuing, io uciciminc his choiccs. In oihci
woius, ihis Iinu ol ciioi invoIvcs whai AiisioiIc caIIcu moiaI viiiuc, as
much as inicIIcciuaI viiiuc.
Thc samc oini is loinc oui whcn wc consiuci how ihc ignoiancc
anu ciioi ihai maIc loi loIIy in human chaiacici aic io lc icmovcu.
Again, ihis is no mcic aaii ol an inicIIcciuaI assagc liom ignoiancc
io InowIcugc. Noi is ihc uiosc ol such a icmovaI simIy ihc acqui-
siiion ol inloimaiion anu InowIcugc. Thc looI who is lioughi io scc
ihc iiuih aloui himscIl is noi IiIc ihc young hysics siuucni who is
lioughi io scc ihc iiuih ol ihc quanium ihcoiy. Thc icason loi ihis
uicicncc is ihai, as AiisioiIc icmaiIs, in a scicncc such as cihics ihc
cnu is noi InowIcugc lui aciion.
5
So whcn wc asI: uo moiaIs anu cihics icsi uon InowIcugc, is ihc
goou Iilc an aaii ol Inowing anu Inowing how. Thc answci cIcaiIy
is Ycs. Bui ihc Inowing ihai is hcic nccucu is a Inowing ihai is
inscaialIc liom choosing, jusi as ihc choosing musi lc onc ihai is
lascu on Inowing. Ol ihc iwo, ihc choosing is ihc lai moic uicuIi
io liing o. To maIc ihc oini in AiisioiIcs own woius:
Noi wiII ihc suggcsicu anaIogy wiih ihc aiis lcai sciuiiny. A woiI ol
aii is goou oi lau in iiscIlIci ii osscss a cciiain quaIiiy, anu ihai
is aII wc asI ol ii. Bui viiiuous aciions aic noi uonc in a viiiuous
a jusi oi icmciaicway mcicIy lccausc ihcy havc ihc aioii-
aic quaIiiy. Thc uoci musi lc in a cciiain liamc ol minu whcn hc
uocs ihcm. Thicc conuiiions aic invoIvcu. (1) Thc agcni musi aci in
luII consciousncss ol whai hc is uoing. (:) Hc musi wiII his aciion,
anu wiII ii loi iis own saIc. () Thc aci musi iocccu liom a xcu
anu unchangcalIc uisosiiion. Now ihcsc icquiicmcnis, il wc cx-
cci mcic InowIcugc, aic noi counicu among ihc ncccssaiy quaIi-
caiions ol an aiiisi. Ioi ihc acquisiiion ol viiiuc, on ihc oihci hanu,
InowIcugc is ol IiiiIc oi no vaIuc, lui ihc oihci icquiicmcnis aic
ol immcnsc, ol sovian, imoiiancc, sincc ii is ihc iccaicu ciloi-
mancc ol jusi anu icmciaic aciions ihai iouuccs viiiuc. Aciions,
io lc suic, aic caIIcu jusi anu icmciaic whcn ihcy aic such as a
jusi oi icmciaic man wouIu uo. Bui ihc uoci is jusi oi icmciaic
noi lccausc hc uocs such ihings lui whcn hc uocs ihcm in ihc way
ol jusi anu icmciaic cisons.
6
5
Failure and Unhappiness:
Are They Our Own
Responsibility?
1. Hunr n.Iu.e, . rnu.e nrn nue
In caiIici chaicis ihcic has lccn much iaII ol human loIIy. To ihc
moic cynicaI ihis mighi sccm io lc onIy Ialoiing ihc olvious. Bui io
ihc moic hiIosohicaI, ii iaiscs somc inicicsiing qucsiions. Is ii iiuc
ihai anylouy who isni hay is a looI. In many ways ihis couIu ci-
has lc saiu io ciiomizc AiisioicIian moiaI ihcoiy. On such a vicw,
moiaI iinciIcs anu moiaI iuIcs, il ihcy aic Icgiiimaic anu uclcnsilIc
oncs, aic noi jusi so many cuicis imoscu uon ihc inuiviuuaI liom
ihc ouisiuc, whcihci ii lc ly aicnis oi ly sociciy oi ly Gou HimscIl.
Raihci, moiaI iuIcs aic moic in ihc naiuic ol counscIs ol cilcciion oi
insiiuciions as io whai onc oughi oi oughi noi io uo in oiuci io aiiain
haincss.
Bui il Icaining how io Iivc lc no moic ihan whai is in oncs own lcsi
inicicsis, anu il noi Icaining lc noi so much moiaIIy wiong, in ihc
cuiicniIy ouIai scnsc ol ihai icim, as simIy looIish, ihcn how uocs
ii hacn ihai so many ol us laiI io Icain. Ioi mosi ol us uo laiI; wc
uoni Icau cxamincu Iivcs; wc uoni achicvc oui naiuiaI human ci-
lcciion; wc cani honcsiIy say ihai wc aic hay, ai Icasi noi in any
uisiinciivcIy human way. Whai aic ihc icasons anu souiccs ol such laiI-
uic. Is ii a laiIuic ihai wc couIu havc icvcnicu oi ihai wc mighi siiII
uo somcihing aloui. Is ii ihc soii ol ihing loi which wc may hoIu onIy
ouiscIvcs icsonsilIc.
Il wc connc ouiscIvcs io gcnciaIiiics, ii is noi haiu io cIassily ihc
main causcs ol oui laiIuic io lchavc wiscIy, io maIc ihc mosi ol oui-
[ S6 | v.+i o.i x.
scIvcs, io aiiain iiuc human haincss. In ihc Iighi ol whai wc havc
saiu ihus lai aloui mans naiuic anu ihc human siiuaiion, ihcsc causcs
laII icauiIy unuci ihicc main hcauings. A mans laiIuic io aiiain his
cnu may lc uuc ciihci io ignoiancc (hc uocsni Inow whai ihc iiuc
cnu oi goaI is ol human cxisicncc, oi cIsc hc uocsni Inow how io ai-
iain ii); oi io lau choiccs (hc Inows whai ihc cnu is anu whai ii iaIcs
io achicvc ii, lui hc jusi uocsni choosc io uo ii); oi io lau IucI anu
ihc shcci loicc ol ciicumsianccs (hc Inows whai io uo, anu wanis io
uo ii, lui hc is icvcnicu ly uicIy cxicinaI loiccs liom caiiying oui
his inicniion).
AccoiuingIy, on ihc scoic ol icsonsiliIiiy, ihc qucsiion lccomcs
whcihci ii is oui own lauIi ihai wc laiI, whcn such laiIuic is uuc ciihci
io noi Inowing whai wc oughi io uo, oi io noi choosing io uo ii, oi io
lcing icvcnicu liom uoing ii.
z. 1 .ro.nre nr e:ue
Suosc wc consiuci isi ihc soii ol laiIuic ihai is uuc io ignoiancc.
Can wc icaIIy lc lIamcu il wc maIc looIs ol ouiscIvcs anu ihiow away
oui Iivcs, simIy lccausc wc uoni Inow any lciici. How many coIc
icaIIy Inow, oi havc cvci cvcn siocu io ihinI, whai is icaIIy lcsi loi
ihcm. AsI ihc ncxi cison you mcci on ihc siicci whcihci oi noi hc
is awaic ihai onIy ihc cxamincu Iilc is woiih Iiving. Hc wiII ihinI you
aic ciazy. Whai uo ihc cIaims ol Sociaiic scIl-InowIcugc mcan io him.
Hc has ncvci cvcn hcaiu ol Sociaics, much Icss iaIcn his mcssagc io
hcaii.
NcvciihcIcss, ihc maiici may noi lc quiic so simIc alici aII. In
oiuci io ocn u somc ol ihc comIcxiiics ihai aic invoIvcu in laiI-
uics aiising liom ignoiancc, suosc wc consiuci how ihc issuc icnus
io icscni iiscIl in IcgaI conicxis, which aic somcwhai anaIogous io
moiaI oi cihicaI conicxis. Thus in Wcsicin sociciy ihc iiauiiions ol
loih civiI Iaw anu common Iaw havc aIways icnucu io iccognizc ihc
vaIiuiiy ol ihc iwo maxims:
1. 1ro.nr.n Ie. re.re e:un.
:. 1ro.nr.n n. e:un.
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ S |
Ignoiancc ol ihc Iaw uocs noi cxcusc, lui ignoiancc ol laci uocs. Whai
uocs ihis uisiinciion mcan, anu why shouIu onIy ihc Iaiici lc consiu-
cicu cxcusalIc anu noi ihc loimci.
.. icov.ti oi i.t+
Thc siocI cxamIc ol ignoiancc ol laci is a man oui huniing: hc
hcais a movcmcni in ihc ihicIci, hc ics; lui insicau ol shooiing a
ucci, hc shoois a lcIIow hunici. Is ihc isi hunici io lc hcIu icson-
silIc loi ihc injuiy inicicu on ihc scconu. Thc isi man can say ihai
hc uiu noi inicnu io injuic anyonc; hc was onIy shooiing ai whai hc
ihoughi was a ucci. Was ii, ihcn, jusi an acciucni, icgiciialIc ol couisc,
lui noi anyihing loi which anyonc couIu lc lIamcu oi hcIu accouni-
alIc.
So lai as ihc IcgaI siiuaiion gocs, ihc answci io such a qucsiion
wouIu uouliIcss iuin on whcihci oi noi ihc man who hau uonc ihc
shooiing hau acicu iccIIcssIy oi caicIcssIy. Hau hc, cvcn ihough hc
Incw ihc uangci invoIvcu, icu jusi as soon as hc saw ihc sIighicsi
movcmcni in ihc lushcs, wiihoui loihciing io iaIc iccauiions. Oi
hau hc, lccausc ol his cxciicmcni anu cagcincss, icu icciiiaicIy
anu wiihoui sioing io ihinI whcihci ihcic was any ossilIc uangci
invoIvcu. On ihc loimci aIicinaiivc, ihc man wouIu lc hcIu io havc
acicu iccIIcssIy, sincc hc was awaic ol ihc iisIs hc was iaIing in such
hasiy iing. On ihc Iaiici aIicinaiivc, hc wouIu lc hcIu io havc lccn
caicIcss oi ncgIigcni, sincc hc uiu noi sio io ihinI ciihci ol iisIs oi
ol iccauiions.
A ihiiu aIicinaiivc is ossilIc: ihai ihc hunici noi onIy was awaic
ol ihc uangcis invoIvcu, lui iooI ihc ncccssaiy iccauiions; ihai hc
uiu noi ic uniiI hc aciuaIIy saw ihc aniIcis ol ihc ucci; lui ai ihai
vciy insiani, quiic ly acciucni, ihc scconu hunici movcu inio his Iinc
ol ic. Unuci such ciicumsianccs ihc isi man wouIu haiuIy lc hcIu
accounialIc loi ihc injuiy uonc io ihc scconu.
Whcn ihc iiansiiion is mauc liom a IcgaI io an cihicaI conicxi, oui
asscssmcnis wouIu noi lc vciy uicicni. RccIIcssncss anu caicIcssncss
couIu wcII lc consiucicu as moiaI wcaIncsscs, oi, moic accuiaicIy, as
cviucnccs ol ciihci a IacI ol, oi cIsc ol a laiIuic io cxcicisc, cciiain
moiaI viiiucs.
[ SS | v.+i o.i x.
Ii is aIso conccivalIc ihai cvcn in a moiaI conicxi ihcic wouIu lc
siiuaiions in which injuiy oi haim mighi comc io a man !enue hc was
cxcicising ihc moiaI viiiucs. Suosc a uiivci going noiih on ihc Ncw
]ciscy TuiniIc lcgins io iun inio aichcs ol log as hc movcs inio ihc
maishy ais on ihc aioachcs io Ncw YoiI Ciiy. Olcuicni io ihc sc-
ciaIIy osicu iiac wainings, hc icuuccs his sccu, iaIcs ihc icquisiic
iccauiions, anu aIciis himscIl io ossilIc uangcis. SuuucnIy a hcavy
iiucI, coming u liom lchinu anu going ai io sccu, lui quiic in-
visilIc lccausc ol a suuucn aich ol ucnsc log, ciashcs inio ihc icai
ol ihc cai. Onc mighi say ihai hau ihc uiivci ol ihc cai noi lccn io-
cccuing in a caIm, cauiious, inicIIigcni mannci, hau hc lccn ciihci
moic iccIIcss oi moic caicIcss ihan hc was, ihc iiucI wouIu ncvci havc
caughi u wiih him, anu ihc acciucni wouIu ncvci havc occuiicu. Thc
uiivci ol ihc cai wouIu cciiainIy noi lc hcIu IcgaIIy icsonsilIc loi
ihc acciucni; noi couIu hc lc hcIu moiaIIy icsonsilIc loi anyihing
ihai ly any siicich ol ihc imaginaiion couIu lc consiucicu looIish oi
imioci lchavioilui ihis wouIu uouliIcss sccm smaII consoIaiion
loi having oncs cai ucmoIishcu anu lcing olIigcu io scnu scvciaI
monihs in ihc hosiiaI iccovciing liom sciious injuiics. Thc wagcs ol
sin may lc ucaih, lui so may ihc wagcs ol viiiuc.
Icaving ii io ihc cynics io uo whai ihcy wiII wiih such a hyoihcii-
caI casc, ihc laci icmains ihai in moiaIs anu cihics, ihc iinciIc ihai
govcins ihc asscssmcni ol icsonsiliIiiy loi ignoiancc ol laci is a vciy
simIc onc. CIcaiIy, wc aic icsonsilIc, wc aic io lIamc, il oui igno-
iancc is uuc io a IacI ol moiaI viiiucloi cxamIc, whcn wc uoni
Inow ihc lacis ol ihc siiuaiion lccausc wc wcic ioo Iazy io nu oui,
oi ucIilciaicIy avoiucu nuing oui loi lcai ihc InowIcugc mighi lc
uisagiccalIc, oi wcic simIy iccIIcss oi caicIcss, oi lccausc wc Iaccu
a wiong consiiuciion uon ihc lacis, oi lccausc wc wcic siamcucu,
so io scaI, ly oui cmoiions: lcai, angci, Iusi, jcaIousy, icscnimcni,
oi whainoi. Ii is a iiuism ihai oui juugmcni ol ihings is olicn coIoicu,
oi uisioiicu, oi lIinucu ly how wc lccI, ly oui assions anu aciiics.
AccoiuingIy, whcn wc laiI io aicciaic coiicciIy, oi maylc cvcn io a-
icciaic ai aII, ihc lacis in a givcn siiuaiion, simIy lccausc wc havc
noi Icaincu io mouciaic anu icuiicci oui lccIings anu ucsiics so as io
liing ihcm unuci ihc coniioI ol inicIIigcncc anu unucisianuing, ihcn
suicIy wc aic icsonsilIc loi such ignoiancc.
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ Sg |
On ihc oihci hanu, ihcic is no gciiing aiounu ihc laci ihai human
Iilc lcing whai ii is, ihcic wiII lc couniIcss siiuaiions in oui Iivcs whcic,
as wc say, wc wouIu ncvci havc acicu as wc uiu, hau wc Inown whai
ihc lacis wcic, anu yci whcic ai ihc samc iimc wc couIuni ossilIy
havc lccn cxccicu io Inow whai ihc lacis wcic, howcvci consiani anu
ccicni wc mighi havc lccn in ihc cxcicisc ol moiaI viiiuc. Unloic-
sccalIc anu, in a moiaI scnsc ai Icasi, unavoiualIc haims anu injuiics
uo lclaII us; noi in such cascs aic wc iociIy io lIamc loi ihc con-
scqucnccs ol oui ignoiancc.
v. icov.ti oi i.v
Bui whai now ol ignoiancc ol Iaw. This is in many ways a moic uil-
cuIi iinciIc io ucaI wiih, as is inuicaicu ly ihc laci ihai iis cxIana-
iion anu jusiicaiion aic a souicc ol no IiiiIc cmlaiiassmcni io ihc Iaw-
ycis ihcmscIvcs. Ignoiancc ol ihc Iaw, ihcy say, is ncvci an cxcusc.
Bui why. UnloiiunaicIy, IcgaI schoIais uo noi sccm ioo icauy io comc
loiwaiu wiih a jusiicaiion ol ihc maxim, unIcss ii lc in icims ol sociaI
uiiIiiy: sociciy, ii is aigucu, cannoi lc mainiaincu unIcss ihcic is somc
sysicm ol IcgaI oiuci; anu a sysicm ol IcgaI oiuci cannoi lc main-
iaincu unIcss cvciy inuiviuuaI ciiizcn is hcIu icsonsilIc loi a InowI-
cugc ol ihc Iaw. Bui whiIc ihis may lc aII vciy wcII liom ihc sianuoini
ol sociciy, ii sccms iaihci haish liom ihc sianuoini ol jusiicc io ihc
inuiviuuaI. Whcn wc consiuci ihc voIumcs uon voIumcs ol cxisiing
siaiuics, couii uccisions iniciiciing ihc siaiuics, anu ihc cquaIIy voIu-
minous woiIs cxounuing ihc iiauiiion ol ihc common Iaw, ii wouIu
acai io lc noi mcicIy a ciion lui a uowniighi injusiicc io ic-
sumc ihai cvciy man shaII Inow ihc Iaw. Moicovci, whai ihc Iaw is
in a givcn aica is IiIcIy io lc usci any uay ly a ncw couii uccision,
anu ihai uccision in iuin may lc usci ly an acaI io a siiII highci
couii, ihc aiiics io ihc Iiiigaiion, noiwiihsianuing, lcing icsumcu
io havc Inown aII ihc whiIc whai ihc Iaw was, cvcn in auvancc ol such
juuiciaI ionounccmcnis anu icvcisaIsaII ihis wouIu acai io com-
ounu loih ihc ciion anu ihc injusiicc io ihc oini ol maIing ihcm
inioIcialIc.
Whcn wc comc io moiaIs anu cihics, ihcic icnus io aiisc a somc-
whai comaialIc cmlaiiassmcni in conncciion wiih ihc cihicaI ana-
[ go | v.+i o.i x.
Ioguc ol 1ro.nr.n Ie. re.re e:un. Ioi in ihc moiaI icaIm, ihcic
uocs sccm io lc ociaiivc a soii ol naiuiaI Iaw, in coniiasi io ihc moic
osiiivc Iaw ihai icvaiIs in ihc IcgaI oiuci. Inuccu, ihc vciy samc iin-
ciIcs ol moiaIs anu cihics ihai wc havc ihus lai lccn conccincu io
uclcnu couIu aII lc icgaiucu as so many naiuiaI Iaws, oi Iaws ucici-
mincu ly mans naiuic. Ioi insiancc, wc havc aigucu ihai ii ciiains
io ihc vciy naiuic ol man ihai a luII Iilc loi a human lcing musi con-
sisi in Iiving inicIIigcniIy. IiIcwisc, ii is a Iaw ol mans naiuic ihai hc
cannoi Icau an cxamincu oi inicIIigcni Iilc wiihoui isi Icaining how
io uo so. Anu ii is a luiihci Iaw ol human naiuic ihai in oiuci io lc
a goou man, as uisiinci liom mcicIy lcing a goou aiiisan, somcihing
moic has io lc acquiicu lcsiucs mcic Inow-how, haliis ol choicc oi
moiaI viiiucs lcing cquaIIy ncccssaiy.
To lc suic, ihc Ianguagc ol naiuiaI Iaw has gonc oui ol lashion
nowauays. Hcncc ii may siiiIc us as a lii awIwaiu, noi io say unnaiu-
iaI, io usc a sccmingIy IcgaI Ianguagc in conncciion wiih ihc Iiving ol
oncs Iilc anu wiih ihc ucmanus anu icquiicmcnis ol oncs human na-
iuic. Bui such a lccIing ol siiangcncss may lc no moic ihan a icju-
uicc uuc io acciucnis ol lashion. Ai any iaic, loi oui icscni uioscs
ii shouIu iovc iIIuminaiing io cmIoy such IcgaI-sounuing Ianguagc
in conncciion wiih cihics. Thus wc can say ihai ihc moiaI olIigaiions
anu icquiicmcnis ol human Iilc aic ucicimincu ly noihing Icss ihan
ihc Iaws ol mans naiuic anu ol ihc oiuci ol naiuic gcnciaIIy.
Vciy wcII, ihcn, whai aloui a mans icsonsiliIiiy loi ignoiancc ol
such naiuiaI moiaI Iaws. Can ii lc mainiaincu ihai cvciy human lcing
is icsumcu io Inow whai such Iaws aic anu ihai ignoiancc ol ihcm is
somcihing loi which ihcic is no cxcusc.
Ai isi gIancc ii mighi sccm ihai osing such qucsiions wouIu onIy
scivc io iaisc ihc ghosi ol icIaiivismaII ovci again. Givcn ihc lcwiIuci-
ing vaiiciy ol conuiiions, cusioms, moics, iucaIs, anu ciicumsianccs ol
Iilc ihai havc chaiaciciizcu man in ihc couisc ol his hisioiy, how can
onc ossilIy cIaim ihai onIy onc way ol Iilc, ihc so-caIIcu inicIIigcni
oi cxamincu Iilc, is naiuiaI io man. Bui a IiiiIc cIosci cxaminaiion wiII
soon uiscIosc ihai ihc qucsiion iaiscu hcic is noi onc ol icIaiivism; ii
is ihis: Suosing ihai ihcic is a naiuiaI Iaw which ucicimincs whai
ihc iighi Iilc loi man is, how can aII mcn lc cxccicu io Inow whai
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ g1 |
ii is. A iimiiivc Souih Sca isIanuci, a comIcicIy liainwashcu Noiih
Koican Communisi, an ignoiani scil lioughi u in ihc conning con-
uiiions ol a mcuicvaI manoi, a young Puciio Rican immigiani Iiving in
giinuing ovciiy in a HaiIcm sIum, a sIavc Ialoici in ancicni Egyi,
a icIcu mcmlci ol ihc HiiIci ]ugcnu, whosc whoIc Iilc has lccn onc
coniinuous ioccss ol lcing conuiiioncu io a lIinu accciancc ol ihc
Nazi iucaIhow couIu ii ossilIy lc mainiaincu ihai human lcings
such as ihcsc, siiaiicncu anu conncu as ihcy aic, aic in a osiiion
io Inow anu aicciaic ihc Sociaiic iucaI ol ihc cxamincu Iilc. Pui
ihis way, ihc ihing cciiainIy uocs sccm icosicious. Noi is ihcic any
uouli ihai icsonsiliIiiy loi ignoiancc on ihc aii ol ihosc in Icss
lavoialIc ciicumsianccs ol Iilc is Icss ihan ihosc in moic lavoialIc cii-
cumsianccs. Ii musi uouliIcss lc aumiiicu ihai ihcic aic cascs whcic
ihc conuiiions ol human Iilc aic such ihai anyihing IiIc icsonsiliIiiy
loi ignoiancc ol ihc so-caIIcu naiuiaI Iaws ol human cxisicncc cannoi
laiiIy lc aiiiiluicu io ihc inuiviuuaIs in qucsiion.
Ai ihc samc iimc, ii is casy io cxaggciaic ihc icvaIcncc ol conui-
iions ol Iilc so cxiicmc as io icmovc aIiogcihci a mans icsonsiliIiiy
loi Inowing whai ihc scoic is in human cxisicncc, oi whai aic ihc naiu-
iaI olIigaiions ihai aic incumlcni uon a human lcing loi ihc ci-
lcciion ol his own naiuic. Ioi iaIc ihc casc cvcn ol a sIavc, ignoiani
anu uncuucaicu anu Iiving in conuiiions ol ihc uimosi ucgiauaiion.
WouIu anyonc maIc loIu io say ihai such a man was ioiaIIy incaalIc
ol iccognizing insianccs ol human vaniiy anu loIIy, ol cowaiuicc anu
couiagc, ol mcanncss anu gcnciosiiy.
Ii is iiuc ihai as ihc conuiiions ol Iilc vaiy liom agc io agc, liom ic-
gion io icgion, oi liom onc cuIiuic io anoihci, ihc ciiiciia ol liavciy,
say, oi ol honcsiy, oi ol siuiuiiy, wiII vaiy consiucialIy. Bui ihc uis-
iinciion lciwccn liavciy anu cowaiuicc, honcsiy anu uishoncsiy, wis-
uom anu loIIy, wiII noncihcIcss lc iccognizcu anu mainiaincu aImosi
univcisaIIy.
In laci, ii sianus io icason ihai whcn ihc sianuaiu ol cilcciion in
human Iilc is simIy io Iivc wiscIy oi inicIIigcniIy, ihc inicIIigcni couisc
ol aciion in onc sci ol ciicumsianccs wiII lc vciy uicicni liom whai ii
is in anoihci. Thc inicIIigcni Iilc loi a Tilcian monI wiII iaIc a somc-
whai uicicni loim liom ihai aioiiaic io an Amciican lusincss-
[ g: | v.+i o.i x.
man. Bui cvcn ihough oui iccogniiion ol wisuom oi loIIy in oihcis
may laIici ai iimcs oi cvcn laiI comIcicIy, aiiicuIaiIy il ihc ciicum-
sianccs ol ihcii cxhiliiion aic iauicaIIy uicicni liom ihosc ihai wc
ouiscIvcs aic accusiomcu io, siiII is ii noi ossilIc loi us usuaIIy io win
ihiough io ai Icasi somc soii ol aicciaiion ol human cxccIIcncc,
oi ol human siuiuiiy, no maiici how suciciaIIy uicicni oui own
sianuaius may lc.
Suosc wc iiy an cxciimcni in suoii ol ihis conicniion. Su-
osc wc consiuci ihc chaiacicis ol cciiain hisioiicaI guics, wiucIy
scaiaicu liomonc anoihci in iimc, in gcogiahy, in cuIiuic anu civiIi-
zaiion, anu in ihc sccic ciicumsianccs ol ihcii Iivcs. Anu as wc con-
siuci such cxamIcs, suosc wc Icc uiiing io ouiscIvcs ihc qucs-
iion whcihci, jusi as wc ouiscIvcs, ucsiic oui uisiancc anu uicicncc
liomihc mcn wc aic consiuciing, aic alIc io aicciaic ihc cxccIIcncc
oi ihc uccicncy ol ihcii chaiaciciswhcihci ihcsc samc mcn ihcm-
scIvcs, hau ihcy lccn alIc io Inow aloui onc anoihci, wouIu noi havc
IiIcwisc icsonucu io onc anoihcis cxccIIcnccs oi uccicncics.
As oui isi cxamIc, Ici us again consiuci ihc chaiacici ol Sociaics,
ihis iimc as hc himscIl iccounis ii whcn scaIing in his own uclcnsc
ai his iiiaI:
Ici mc icIaic io you a assagc ol my own Iilc which wiII iovc
io you ihai I shouIu ncvci havc yicIucu io injusiicc liom any lcai
ol ucaih, anu ihai as I shouIu havc icluscu io yicIu I musi havc
uicu ai oncc. I wiII icII you a iaIc ol ihc couiis, noi vciy inicicsi-
ing cihas, lui ncvciihcIcss iiuc. Thc onIy occ ol siaic which I
cvci hcIu, Omcn ol Aihcns, was ihai ol scnaioi: ihc iiilc Aniiochis,
which is my iiilc, hau ihc icsiucncy ai ihc iiiaI ol ihc gcnciaIs
who hau noi iaIcn u ihc louics ol ihc sIain alici ihc laiiIc ol Ai-
ginusac; anu you iooscu io iiy ihcm in a louy, coniiaiy io Iaw,
as you aII ihoughi aliciwaius; lui ai ihc iimc I was ihc onIy onc ol
ihc Piyiancs who was ooscu io ihc iIIcgaIiiy, anu I gavc my voic
againsi you; anu whcn ihc oiaiois ihicaicncu io imcach anu aiicsi
mc, anu you caIIcu anu shouicu, I mauc u my minu ihai I wouIu
iun ihc iisI, having Iaw anu jusiicc wiih mc, iaihci ihan iaIc aii in
youi injusiicc lccausc I lcaicu imiisonmcni anu ucaih. This ha-
cncu in ihc uays ol ihc ucmociacy. Bui whcn ihc oIigaichy ol ihc
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ g |
Thiiiy was in owci, ihcy scni loi mc anu loui oihcis inio ihc io-
iunua, anu lauc us liing Icon ihc SaIaminian liomSaIamis, as ihcy
wanicu io ui him io ucaih. This was a sccimcn ol ihc soii ol com-
manus which ihcy wcic aIways giving wiih ihc vicw ol imIicaiing
as many as ossilIc in ihcii ciimcs; anu ihcn I showcu, noi in woiu
onIy lui in uccu, ihai, il I may lc aIIowcu io usc such an cxics-
sion, I caicu noi a siiaw loi ucaih, anu ihai my gicai anu onIy caic
was Icsi I shouIu uo an uniighicous oi unhoIy ihing. Ioi ihc siiong
aimol ihai oicssivc owci uiu noi liighicn mc inio uoing wiong;
anu whcn wc camc oui ol ihc ioiunua ihc oihci loui wcni io SaIa-
mis anu lcichcu Icon, lui I wcni quiciIy homc. Ioi which I mighi
havc Iosi my Iilc, hau noi ihc owci ol ihc Thiiiy shoiiIy aliciwaius
comc io an cnu. Anu many wiII wiincss io my woius.
1
Ioi oui scconu cxamIc wc shaII shili ihc sccnc liom Aihcns in
gg v.t. io ihc civiI wais in Gicai Biiiain in ihc scvcniccnih ccniuiy.
Thc loIIowing is a liicl accouni ly a moucin hisioiian ol ihc chaiacici
ol a cciiain ]amcs BuiIci, EaiI ol Oimonuc, whomihc King hau Iaccu
in commanu ol his loiccs in IicIanu. Pcihas ii shouIu lc noicu in
assing ihai ai ihis iimc ihc ghiing in IicIanu hau amounicu io a vcii-
ialIc luiy ol ucsiiuciion anu haiicu, Iiish againsi EngIish, CaihoIic
againsi Pioicsiani, anu PaiIiamcni symaihizcis againsi ihc loiccs ol
ihc King. This, ihcn, is ihc sIcich givcn ol Oimonuc:
Thc EaiI ol Oimonuc, gcnciaI ol ihc loiccs ol ihc DulIin Gov-
cinmcni, icluscu io Iay wasic Iiish viIIagcs oi IiII civiIians. Thc
gicaici numlci ol his Noiman-Iiish lamiIy wcic in symaihy wiih
ihc iclcIs; his moihci was a Roman CaihoIic, his lioihci was in
aims wiih ihc insuigcnis. Hc hau oihci anxiciics, loi ihc King hau
cciiainIy communicaicu sccicis io him ihai hc wouIu havc lccn
haici noi io havc Inown anu hc, il anyonc, Incw ihc cxicni ol
ChaiIcss inci iamciing wiih ihc Iiish. His comcicncc anu ou-
Iaiiiy wiih ihc Govcinmcni loiccs mauc him inuiscnsalIc, yci
ihcic wcic ihosc on ihc CounciI who susccicu him ol comIiciiy
wiih ihc iclcIs. Bui Oimonuc sioou wiih gicai sicaulasincss, loi
Iaw, oiuci anu IoyaIiy io ihc Ciown, anu icluiicu ihc whiscicu
sIanucis: I wiII go on consianiIy, hc wioic, nciihci saiing ihc
[ gq | v.+i o.i x.
iclcI lccausc hc is my Iinsman, oi was my liicnu, noi yci wiII I onc
joi ihc moic shaicn my swoiu io saiisly anylouy lui myscIl in ihc
laiihluI ciloimancc ol my chaigc.
His wilc was cui o in KiIIcnny CasiIc wiih hci chiIuicn anu ihc
hunuicus ol lugiiivcs whom shc hau icccivcu anu icIicvcu ihcic.
Thc Iiish Icaucis ihicaicncu io ucsiioy ihcmunIcss Oimonuc alan-
uoncu his commanu ol ihc Govcinmcni loiccs. Thc EngIish ic-
sonucu ihai il ihc Counicss anu hci chiIuicn camc io haim, no
Iiish woman oi chiIu wouIu lc saicu. Bui Oimonuc, noi sIacIcn-
ing his icaiaiions loi ihc siing camaign, iocIaimcu a uici-
cni answci. Il his wilc anu chiIuicn, hc wioic, shaII icccivc injuiy
ly mcn, I shaII ncvci icvcngc ii on womcn anu chiIuicn; which, as
ii wouIu lc lasc anu un-Chiisiian, wouIu lc cxiicmcIy lcIow ihc
iicc I vaIuc my wilc anu chiIuicn ai.
2
PIacing ihc chaiacicis ol ihcsc iwo mcn, Sociaics anu ihc EaiI ol
Oimonuc, siuc ly siuc, ii gocs aImosi wiihoui saying ihai ihcic is a vasi
uicicncc lciwccn lih-ccniuiy Aihcns alici ihc ucaih ol PciicIcs anu
scvcniccnih-ccniuiy Biiiain anu IicIanu unuci ChaiIcs I. IiIcwisc ii
gocs wiihoui saying ihai ii wouIu lc haiu io imaginc mcn moic uici-
cni in many ways ihan Sociaics anu Oimonucihc onc a o!eILne.
AerL as Nicizschc caIIcu him, ihc son ol a miuwilc, whosc sccch
was cvci ihai uscu in ihc agoia, ai ihc ialIcs ol ihc moncy changcis;
3
ihc oihci a icncu anu cIcgani AngIo-Iiish aiisiociai, nuiiuicu in la-
ioquc suiiounuings anu moving in a sociciy whcic civiIiiy anu goou
manncis musi havc lccn alsoIuicIy ne ..ueu.. Yci ucsiic ihcii uici-
cnccsoi cihas onc shouIu say .r ihcii vciy uicicnccsloih mcn
aic ai onc in ihcii uciciminaiion io mainiain ihcii saniiy anu juug-
mcni in ihc lacc ol icssuics, assions, lciiayaIs, anu cvcn ihc lcai ol
ucaih iiscIl. Ii is jusi ihis soii ol ihing ihai ihc inicIIigcni Iilc anu ihc
viiiuous Iilc consisi in.
Moicovci, in ihc conicxi ol oui icscni aigumcni, whai is signi-
cani is noi mcicIy ihc laci ihai loih Sociaics anu Oimonuc, cach in
ihcii icscciivc ways, mighi lc saiu io havc Iivcu cxamincu Iivcs, lui
aIso ihai wc iouay as wc icau ihc accounis ol such Iivcs aic alIc io
aicciaic ihc cxccIIcncc ol ihcii cxamIcs. Ioi in ihc ciicumsianccs
anu conuiiions ol oui Iivcs wc aic as uicicni liom loih Sociaics anu
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ g |
Oimonuc as ihcy wcic liom cach oihci. Yci ihc icquiicmcnis ol hu-
man cxccIIcncc aic uisccinilIc in human Iilc whcicvci ii may lc
lounu, wiih ihc icsuIi ihai wc aII, wiih lui lcw cxcciions, havc ai
Icasi somc inIIing ol ihc Iinus ol cIaims which oui vciy human naiuic
maIcs uon us.
Oihciwisc, how shouIu wc cvci lc alIc io icau hisioiy anu Iiicia-
iuic, noi mcicIy wiih acsihciic aicciaiion, lui wiih an aicciaiion
ol ihcii icIcvancc io oui own Iivcs. Thc laci ol oui human icsonsc io
cxamIcs ol human achicvcmcni oi human laiIuic, ol human wisuom
oi human loIIy, no maiici how uicicni ihcsc oihcis may lc liom us
in iimc oi Iacc oi cuIiuic oi ciicumsianccs ol Iilcihis laci is ol no
IiiiIc imoii, whcn ii comcs io ucciuing whcihci ihcic aic moic oi Icss
oljcciivc sianuaius ol human cxccIIcncc anu whcihci, as mcn, wc aic
caalIc ol iccognizing such sianuaius.
To lc suic, many ol us may havc lccomc so lcnumlcu ly ihc oiui-
naiy lusincss anu uiuugciy, io say noihing ol ihc oiuinaiy Icasuics
anu uisiiaciions, ol Iilc ihai wc havc ccascu io icsonu io, oi cihas
cvcn io lc awaic ol, ihc cIaims ihai oui own human naiuic maIcs
uon us. Evcn so, mosi ol us icnu io lc uncomloiialIy, cvcn il uimIy,
conscious ol how wc couIu havc losicicu anu cuIiivaicu such an awaic-
ncss, insicau ol uisicgaiuing oi cvcn lIinuing ouiscIvcs io whai, simIy
as human lcings, wc mighi havc lccn, anu shouIu havc lccn, anu ci-
has couIu siiII lccomc, il wc chosc.
Icsi ii lc ihoughi ihai in oui cxciimcni wc havc Iimiicu ouiscIvcs
io such chaiacicis as couIu cvoIc onIy oui icscci anu aiovaI, wc
mighi cnu wiih ihc loIIowing csiimaic which Di. ]ohnson oncc gavc ol
ihc chaiacici ol IaIsia.
Bui IaIsia, unimiiaicu, unimiialIc IaIsia, how shaII I ucsciilc
ihcc! ihou comounu ol scnsc anu vicc; ol scnsc which may lc au-
miicu, lui noi csiccmcu; ol vicc which may lc ucsiscu, lui haiuIy
ucicsicu. IaIsia is a chaiacici Ioaucu wiih lauIis, anu wiih ihosc
lauIis which naiuiaIIy iouucc conicmi. . . . Yci ihc man ihus coi-
iui, ihus ucsicalIc, maIcs himscIl ncccssaiy io ihc iincc ihai
ucsiscs him, ly ihc mosi Icasing ol aII quaIiiics, ciciuaI gaiciy,
ly an unlaiIing owci ol cxciiing Iaughici, which is ihc moic liccIy
inuuIgcu, as his wii is noi ol ihc sIcnuiu oi amliiious Iinu, lui con-
[ g6 | v.+i o.i x.
sisis in casy scacs anu saIIics ol Icviiy, which maIc soii, lui iaisc
no cnvy. Ii musi lc olscivcu, ihai hc is siaincu wiih no cnoimous
oi sanguinaiy ciimcs, so ihai his Iiccniiousncss is noi so ocnsivc
lui ihai ii may lc loinc loi his miiih.
Thc moiaI io lc uiawn liomihis icicscniaiion is, ihai no man is
moic uangcious ihan hc ihai, wiih a wiII io coiiui, haih ihc owci
io Icasc; anu ihai nciihci wii noi honcsiy oughi io ihinI ihcm-
scIvcs salc wiih such a comanion, whcn ihcy scc Hcniy scuuccu ly
IaIsia.
4
May wc noi concIuuc ihai ucsiic uivcisiiy ol ciious anu cuIiuics,
ucsiic ihc sccming hciciogcnciiy ol moiaI sianuaius anu sianuaius
ol vaIuc, human lcings uo ncvciihcIcss sccm caalIcnoi inlaIIilIy,
anu cciiainIy noi unanimousIy, lui siiII wiih imicssivc icguIaiiiyol
aicciaiing anu icsonuing io insianccs ol human woiih anu human
wcaIncss, ol human cilcciion anu human imcilcciion, whcicvci
lounu. Ii is ihis univcisaI, il inicimiiicni, owci ol muiuaI aiccia-
iion among mcn which icnucis us caalIc ol such uisuiis as hisioiy
anu ihc humaniiics, anu wiihoui which, ihough wc mighi lccomc sci-
cniisis, wc couIu ncvci lccomc humanisis, oi cihas cvcn human
lcings in ihc iiuc scnsc.
Moicovcianu wiih ihis wc iciuin io ihc ccniiaI aigumcni ol ihc
icscni scciionil aII mcn uo havc such a owci ol muiuaI aic-
ciaiion, an aliIiiy io iccognizc anu icsonu io loih human loIIy anu
human cxccIIcncc, ihcn ii wouIu sccm ihai whai wc havc icimcu ig-
noiancc ol Iaw, in ihc scnsc ol an ignoiancc ol ihc Iaws anu vaIucs
ol oui own human naiuic, is an ignoiancc loi which aII ol us aic in a
mcasuic icsonsilIc, anu loi which wc aic io lc hcIu moic oi Icss ac-
counialIc, howcvci much ihai icsonsiliIiiy anu accounialiIiiy may
vaiy in ucgicc, uccnuing on ihc aiiicuIai ciicumsianccs ol oui vaii-
ous human conuiiions.
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ g |
j. VL.L . ..o., .ro.nre n Le nue o o.nI
n.Iu.e, o. o.nI .enIre n Le nue o .ro.nre
Whai has lccn csialIishcu in ihc icccuing scciion is ihai, givcn
ihc noimaI human conuiiion, ncaiIy aII ol us iolalIy uo Inow, ai
Icasi in iinciIc, whai is lcsi loi us. Wc aic aIso caalIc ol Inowing,
ai Icasi much ol ihc iimc, whai is ihc lciici couisc io loIIow cvcn in
a concicic aiiicuIai casc. Hcncc il many ol us laiI io lccomc goou
mcn IaigcIy lccausc ol ignoiancc ol whai wc oughi io uo, ii musi lc
ihai such ignoiancc, lai liom lcing an uIiimaic iinciIc ol cxIana-
iion, is scIl-causcu anu scIl-imoscui.c., an ignoiancc ihai wc havc
lioughi uon ouiscIvcs anu loi which wc ouiscIvcs aic icsonsilIc. To
ui ihc samc oini a IiiiIc uicicniIy, in ihc naI anaIysis oui human
laiIuics aic uIiimaicIy uuc noi io ihc laci ihai wc uoni Inow whai wc
oughi io uo, lui iaihci io ihc laci ihai wc uoni choosc io aci on oui
InowIcugc.
Wc aic, ihcn, lioughi lacc io lacc wiih ihai scconu causc ol laiI-
uic, mcniioncu caiIici, which now lius laii io alsoil, cvcn io uisIacc,
ignoiancc as a causc ol laiIuic in anyihing IiIc an uIiimaic scnsc. Whai
wc saiu caiIici was ihai oui lau choiccs, quiic as much as oui igno-
iancc, mighi lc ihc souicc ol oui laiIuics. Bui ii acais ihai cvcn
whcn ignoiancc is ihc causc ol laiIuic, ii is usuaIIy an ignoiancc which
is uuc io oui lau choiccs. AccoiuingIy, ii lcgins io IooI as il iighi
choicc, much moic ihan iighi InowIcugc, wcic ihc iimaiy conccin
ol cihics anu moiaIs.
. PIno u..Ie.: ...ue . roL.r !u
Iro.Iene, nrn ..e roL.r !u .ro.nre
Bui no soonci uo wc maIc ihis suggcsiion ihan wc aic suic io nu
ouiscIvcs cmlaiiasscu ly any such noiion ol human choicc, loi iis
unucisianuing is liaughi wiih any numlci ol uicuIiics anu comIi-
caiions. Thcic sccms io lc no lciici way ol lioaching somc ol ihcsc
comIicaiions ihan io consiuci liicy ihc lamous ihcsis, ucncu in
PIaios uiaIoguc ol ihc P.ono.n, ihai viiiuc is InowIcugc.
5
Thc ushoi
[ gS | v.+i o.i x.
ol ihis PIaionic ihcsis is ihai cvciyihing wc havc jusi lccn saying aloui
choicc, iaihci ihan ignoiancc, lcing ihc uIiimaic causc ol laiIuic is so
much siu anu nonscnsc! Insicau, PIaios vicw in ihc P.ono.n sccms
io lc ihai laiIuic can havc no oihci causc ihan ignoiancc, anu ihai
ihc onIy icason anylouy cvci maIcs a lau choicc is simIy lccausc hc
uocs noi Inow any lciici.
Moic sccicaIIy, PIaio iaIcs his sianu on ihc ioosiiion ihai ii is
imossilIc loi anyonc cvci InowingIy io maIc a lau oi wiong choicc.
Ioi whai is ii io maIc such a choicc, il noi io choosc ihai which iuins
oui io lc lau oi injuiious oi haimluI io ihc choosci. Anu who wouIu
cvci ucIilciaicIy choosc ihai which hc Incw wouIu lc uciiimcniaI io
himscIl . Ii is iiuc ihai wc olicn ucIilciaicIy sulmii io ihai which wc
Inow wiII lc huiiluI anu uisagiccalIc. Bui is noi ihis aIways wiih a
vicw io whai wc ihinI wiII in ihc Iong iun lc ol gicaici lcncias, loi
insiancc, whcn wc unucigo ihc suciing ol a suigicaI ociaiion, lui
onIy loi ihc saIc ol icgaining oui hcaIih. Oi il wc uoni aciuaIIy lc-
Iicvc ihai ihc couisc ol aciion wc aic choosing wiII in ihc Iong iun lc
ol gicaici lcnci io us, wc ai Icasi aic convinccu ihai in ihc shoii iun
ii wiII havc somc auvaniagc, anu ihai in ihc Iong iun ii iolalIy woni
huii oi maIc ioo much uicicncc. Hcncc wc say io ouiscIvcs, Why
noi iiy io gci such shoii-iun cnjoymcni anu lcnci as wc can. SuicIy,
ii wiII lc woiih ii. Such is ihc way wc usuaIIy icason. Is ii cvcn con-
ccivalIc ihai a man wouIu cvci choosc ihai which hc was quiic cciiain
wouIu lc moic haimluI io him ihan noi, wiihoui any comcnsaiing
lacioi io maIc ihc vcniuic sccm woiih whiIc alici aII.
Oi IooI ai ii ihis way. Whai icciscIy uocs ii mcan loi us io choosc
onc ihing oi onc couisc ol aciion ovci anoihci. Docs ii noi mcan ihai
wc iclci ihc onc io ihc oihci. Bui io iclci onc ihing io anoihci
mcans ihai wc iaIc ihc onc io lc somchow lciici ihan ihc oihci. Anu
whcn ii is saiu ihai wc iaIc onc ihing io lc lciici oi iclcialIc, ihis
mcans ihai ii ee lciici io us, wc L.rI ii lciici. Inuccu, is ii any moic
ihan a iauioIogy io say ol human choicc ihai ii is aIways a choosing ol
ihai which sccms oi acais lciici io us. Ol couisc, ii may noi icaIIy
lc lciici, lui onIy sccm so. Anu yci ihis lui icnus io conim PIaios
ihcsis. Ioi PIaio is noi loi a minuic conicnuing ihai no onc cvci uocs
in laci choosc whai is woisc iaihci ihan whai is lciici; his conicniion is
onIy ihai no onc cvci uocs so InowingIy. ConscqucniIy, loi him, aII ol
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ gg |
ihc lau choiccs which wc human lcings maIcanu goouncss Inows
wc maIc cnough ol ihcm!iuin oui io lc lui a lunciion ol oui noi
Inowing any lciici.
Bui uocsni ihis concIusion iun uiicciIy counici io whai oui cxcii-
cncc iccaicuIy aiicsis. Havc wc noi aII uon occasion saiu io oui-
scIvcs: I scc whai ihc lciici couisc is anu I aiovc ii, lui I loIIow
ihc woisc (V.neo eI.o.n .o!oque nee..o.n equo. )
Noi is ii mcicIy io common scnsc ihai ihis PIaionic ihcsis uocs vio-
Icncc. In auuiiion, ii iuns counici io AiisioiIcs conicniion, which wc
cxIaincu anu uclcnucu so ainsiaIingIy in ihc icccuing chaici,
ihai loi ihc Icauing ol a goou oi hay Iilc, ii wiII noi succ io havc
onIy inicIIcciuaI viiiuc; onc musi havc moiaI viiiuc as wcII. Bui now
PIaio comcs aIong anu says ihai whaicvci ihc lciici couisc ol aciion
may lc, il a man Inows whai ihis is, hc wiII ncccssaiiIy loIIow ii; on
ihc oihci hanu, il a man uocs somcihing ihai is lau oi looIish, ihis
can onIy lc lccausc hc uiuni icaIizc whai hc was uoing. Whai cIsc, in
laci, couIu lc ihc scnsc ol ihc ccIcliaicu PIaionic maxim ihai viiiuc is
simIy a maiici ol InowIcugc anu vicc ol ignoiancc. SimiIaiIy, on ihis
PIaionic vicw, ihc lusincss ol Iiving wcII iuins oui io lc a mcic maiici
ol sIiII oi Inow-how, anu ol noihing cIscjusi IiIc ihc oihci aiis.
j. 1 Le.e ro e.r n.ourn PIno n.uer
How is onc io mcci ihis PIaionic ihcsis. Ioi howcvci many giounus
wc may havc loi ihinIing ii uulious, oi cvcn sohisiic, ii is cxiicmcIy
uicuIi io icluic. Suosc wc iiy io counici PIaios ihcsis ly acaI-
ing io ihc consiuciaiion ihai ignoiancc, so lai liom lcing ihc onIy
icason loi oui lau choiccs, is iiscIl noi inlicqucniIy ihc icsuIi ol oui
own choiccs. Alici aII, human InowIcugc, anu coiicsonuingIy human
ignoiancc, uo noi aiisc in a comIcic vacuum. Much, il noi mosi, ol
oui InowIcugc icsuIis liom oui having ucIilciaicIy choscn io inloim
ouiscIvcs anu io nu oui aloui ihings. Anu as loi ignoiancc, wc havc
aIicauy icmaiIcu on how olicn ii is ihai wc uoni Inow aloui somc-
ihing, loi ihc icason ihai wc uiu noi choosc io iaIc ihc iioulIc io
Icain, oi cihas lccausc wc ucIilciaicIy chosc noi io Icain. Inuccu,
ihc moic onc consiucis ihc maiici, ihc moic ii sccms ihai oui igno-
[ 1oo | v.+i o.i x.
ianccs anu siuiuiiics aic cihas mainIy uuc io oui own Iazincss, oi
maylc lcai, oi smugncss, oi caicIcssncss. Hcncc why noi iuin ihc
ialIcs on PIaio anu say ihai ii is noi lccausc ol ignoiancc ihai oui
chaiacicis aic wcaI anu oui choiccs lau, lui iaihci lccausc oui chai-
acicis aic wcaI ihai wc aic so much ol ihc iimc ignoiani ol whai wc
shouIu Inow anu couIu Inow.
Bui PIaio couIu havc an casy answci loi ihis oncaIihough ly now
oui iniciiciaiion ol PIaio has lai ouiiun ihc aciuaI PIaionic icxis.
PIaio nccu onIy oini oui ihai ii mcicIy shilis ihc issuc ol ihc uccisivc
ioIc ol InowIcugc anu ignoiancc in moiaI lchavioi io a luiihci ic-
movc, lui uocs noi cIiminaic ii. Gianicu ihai my IacI ol InowIcugc
may lc uuc io my noi choosing io nu oui, oi cihas io my noi choos-
ing io consiuci whai I vciy wcII Inow, siiII whai aloui ihis iioi maiici
ol my noi choosing io nu oui, oi ol my noi choosing io cxcicisc ihc
InowIcugc I havc. Why uiu I noi choosc io uo so. SuicIy il I hau icaI-
izcu (i.c., il I hau Inown) how imoiiani ii was io nu oui, oi how
much lciici ii wouIu havc lccn loi mc io liing io lcai ihc InowIcugc
I aIicauy hau, ihcn mosi assuicuIy I wouIu havc choscn io uo so. Bui
I uiu noi icaIizc anu uiuni Inow; hcncc I uiuni choosc. Oncc again,
ihc iinciIc lccomcs loih Iain anu incscaalIc: any choicc ncccs-
saiiIy icsuoscs somc soii ol juugmcni as io lciici anu woisc; anu
whcihci ihc juugmcni lc a iiuc oi a laIsc onc is a maiici ol whcihci
onc Inows oi uocsni Inow. In oihci woius, viiiuc oi iighi choicc is
simIy a maiici ol Inowing whai ihc iighi ihing io uo is, jusi as noi
maIing ihc iighi choicc is simIy a maiici ol noi Inowing.
Thcic uocsni sccm io lc any way ol cnciiaiing PIaios uclcnscs.
Ioi no soonci uocs onc auuucc cviucncc io show ihai somc such lac-
ioi as lau choicc cnicis inio oui human laiIuics, quiic as much as
ignoiancc oi IacI ol InowIcugc, ihan PIaio can immcuiaicIy maIc ic-
joinuci ihai any choicc wc human lcings maIc can onIy lc a choicc ol
whai sccms lcsi io us ai ihc momcni. Hcncc il whai sccms lcsi io us
iuins oui io lc noi icaIIy lcsi loi us, ihcn oui choicc wiII havc lccn a
lau onc; lui ii wiII aIways uIiimaicIy lc noihing lui ignoiancc which
is ihc causc ol such lau choiccs, anu so ii can onIy lc ignoiancc ihai
is ihc uIiimaic causc ol aII ol oui laiIuics.
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ 1o1 |
0. A o.!Ie nr.e. o PIno
Yci ihcic is a wcaIncss in ihis PIaionic aigumcni alici aII. Ioi noic
ihai PIaios uclcnsc is cvci io acaI io ihc iinciIc ihai a mans
choiccs can onIy lc choiccs ol whai sccms lcsi io him ai ihc momcni.
Noi can ihis iinciIc lc aiiacIcu, loi ii is noi onIy iiuc, lui ci-
has cvcn a iauioIogy sincc io choosc simIy mcans io choosc ihai
which sccms lcsi. SiiII, ihis iinciIc aIonc uocs noi succ io maIc
goou PIaios casc. Ioi noi onIy musi hc show ihai oui choiccs, whcn
wc maIc ihcm, aic ucicimincu ly oui oinions ol whai is lcsi; hc
musi aIso show ihai oui oinions ol whai is lcsi, whcn wc havc ihcm,
ncccssaiiIy uciciminc oui choiccs. Noi uo ihcsc iwo iinciIcs ly any
mcans comc uown io ihc samc ihing. Ioi whiIc ii may lc iiuc ihai il
anu whcn I maIc a choicc, I can onIy choosc ihai which ai ihc iimc
sccms lcsi, ii uocs noi ncccssaiiIy loIIow liom ihis ihai il anu whcn I
havc an oinion ol whai is lcsi loi mc, I ncccssaiiIy choosc io aci on
ihis oinion.
Howcvci, ii is icciscIy wiih iclcicncc io ihc Iaiici siiuaiion ihai
AiisioiIcs insisicncc uon ihc nccu loi moiaI viiiuc, as uisiinci liom
inicIIcciuaI viiiuc, is ol aiiicuIai ciiincncc. Ioi AiisioiIc was noi
qucsiioning ihc laci ihai wc aIways maIc oui choiccs on ihc lasis ol
somc soii ol immcuiaic oinion oi juugmcni as io whai is lcsi loi
us. Raihci whai woiiicu him was ihai aII ioo licqucniIy oui lciici
juugmcni uocs noi sccm io uciciminc oui choicc. On ihc coniiaiy,
whcn aciuaIIy wc gci aiounu io maIing a choicc, wc olicn choosc ihai
which in a caImci momcni wc icauiIy iccognizc io havc lccn cxcccu-
ingIy looIish anu unwisc. Hcncc ihc nccu loi moiaI viiiuc, in auuiiion
io inicIIcciuaI viiiucmoiaI viiiuc, ihai is io say, which wiII scivc io
liing oui aciuaI choiccs anu iclcicnccs inio Iinc wiih whai oui lciici
juugmcni icIIs us is ihc lciici couisc loi us io loIIow.
Vicwcu in ihis Iighi, PIaios iinciIc lcgins io acai noi so much
iiuc, as mcicIy iiiviaIIy iiuc. Ioi gianicu ihai ai ihc momcni ol choos-
ing I aIways uo choosc ihai which sccms lcsi io mc jusi ihcn, whai
uocs ihis iovc. Ii cciiainIy uocs noi iovc ihai I wiII ncccssaiiIy go
ihiough wiih my choicc. Ioi ii may wcII lc ihai no soonci uo I siaii
io uo so ihan I changc my minu; somc oihci couisc ol aciion suggcsis
iiscIl io mc as lcing lai lciici; my caiIici choicc wiII ihcn ccasc io lc
[ 1o: | v.+i o.i x.
ociaiivc anu wiII lc icIaccu ly a ncw anu uicicni choicc in Iinc
wiih my ncw anu uicicni oinions. Evcn il onc wcic io go aIong wiih
PIaios vicw io ihc oini ol conccuing ihai my juugmcnis as io whai is
lciici oi woisc uo, ciihci aII ol ihc iimc oi mosi ol ihc iimc, ucici-
minc my choiccs, ihcic is noihing in ihis siiuaiion io guaianicc any
consiancy io such juugmcnis. Hcncc io concIuuc liom ihis ihai viiiuc
is simIy a maiici ol InowIcugc wouIu sccm io lc ciihci iiiviaI anu
insignicani, oi cIsc uowniighi misIcauing anu cvcn misiaIcn.
To iaIc a lamiIiai, il iiiic, cxamIc, suosc ihai I wcII Inow ihai
my iiiiialiIiiy anu lau icmci aic sciious wcaIncsscs in my chaiacici,
Icauing mc iccaicuIy io uo ihings ihai aic looIish anu icgiciialIc. No
uouli ihis InowIcugc ol my own wcaIncss givcs iisc on my aii io ic-
caicu im icsoIvcs io iiy io coiicci my lau haliis. Bui il a icIchonc
caII iniciiuis mc as I am iaIing a na, il a uiivci on ihc highway suu-
ucnIy uis on ihc liaIcs wiihoui signaIIing, il a scciciaiy laiIs io gci
ihc Iciici iycu which I hau saiu hau io go oui in ihc alicinoon maiI
ihcn whai hacns. I lIow my io; I loigci aII aloui ihosc caiIici scn-
silIc consiuciaiions as io how siuiu such uisIays ol icmci aic anu
whai a sciious iccciion ihcy aic uon my chaiacici anu cisonaIiiy.
Anu whai aloui PIaio. In onc scnsc, hc is noi cxaciIy icluicu, loi
cvcn in my i ol icmci I uo choosc io aci in accoiuancc wiih whai my
juugmcni n Ln oer icIIs mc is aII iighi anu whai I shouIu uo. Bui
in anoihci scnsc hc is comIcicIy icluicu. Viiiuc is noi simIy a maiici
ol InowIcugc; ii is lai moic a maiici ol aliuing ly oncs InowIcugc oi
icmaining consiani io ii, insicau ol Iciiing ii lc loicvci uisIaccu ly
numlciIcss counici-oinions anu juugmcnis ihai aic ucicimincu ly
oui assions anu whims ol ihc momcni.
. 1I.n.or ..L .ee o Lunr .eor.!.I.,
Alici ihis iaihci Iong uigicssion on PIaio, wc may lc in a somcwhai
lciici osiiion io unucisianu ihc ccuIiai naiuic ol human choicc,
anu moic sccicaIIy, jusi how anu in whai scnsc oui lau choiccs aic a
causc ol oui human laiIuics. Thcic is aIso ihc qucsiion ol oui icson-
siliIiiy loi such laiIuics, oncc ii lc gianicu ihai ihcsc laiIuics aic uuc
noi so much io ignoiancc as io lau choiccs.
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ 1o |
On ihis Iaiici scoic ii is inicicsiing io noic ihai il ihc PIaionic
ihcoiy (i.c., ihai iniciiciaiion anu ucvcIomcni ol PIaios iucas ihai
wc havc lccn icscniing) wcic coiicci anu il ignoiancc wcic ihc soIc
icason loi oui laiIuics, ihcn ihcic wouIu lc no way in which wc couIu
lc jusiIy hcIu icsonsilIc loi oui own laiIuics. Quiic ihc coniiaiy,
sincc on ihc PIaionic vicw cvciy human lcing aIways uocs ihc lcsi hc
Inows how; hcncc a mans noi uoing any lciici wouIu lc uuc simIy io
his noi Inowing any lciici. Noi couIu hc lc lIamcu loi his ignoiancc,
consiuciing ihai, hau hc lccn alIc io nu oui whai hc nccucu io Inow,
anu hau hc icaIizcu how imoiiani ii was io nu oui, hc wouIu cci-
iainIy havc uonc so. AccoiuingIy, on any vicw which hoIus ihai viiiuc
is lui a maiici ol InowIcugc anu vicc onc ol ignoiancc, no man can
vciy wcII lc hcIu cisonaIIy icsonsilIc loi lcing as hc is.
On ihc oihci hanu, oncc ihis PIaionic ihcoiy is icluicu anu ic-
jccicu, wiII ii noi lc a uicicni sioiy as icgaius human icsonsiliIiiy.
Ioi now, aIihough ii musi siiII lc conccucu ihai no man can choosc
any couisc ol aciion oihci ihan ihai which sccms lcsi io him ai ihc
momcni, siiII ihc mcic laci ihai a cciiain couisc hacns io sccm lcsi
io him uocs noi mcan ihai hc wiII ncccssaiiIy choosc ii. On ihc con-
iiaiy, ii is aIways ossilIc loi him io changc his oinion: hc can ihinI
luiihci aloui ihc maiici anu so comc io icaIizc ihai his oiiginaI icl-
cicncc was unwisc; oi hc can simIy Ici himscIl lc cajoIcu inio ihinI-
ing oihciwisc unuci ihc inucncc ol a changc ol lccIing oi moou. Ioi
ihai maiici, cvcn his oiiginaI oinion ol ihc siiuaiion mighi wcII havc
lccn a uicicni onc. Alici aII, ii is a simIc laci loinc in uon us ic-
caicuIy ihai cvcn ihough ai a givcn momcni ihings uo acai io us
as ihcy uo, siiII ihcy mighi noi havc sccmcu ihai way ai aII, hau wc lui
choscn io IooI laiihci, oi hau wc iaIcn ains io invcsiigaic moic caic-
luIIy; oi coniiaiiwisc, hau wc noi lcsiiiicu ouiscIvcs io scc whai wc
uiu scc, oi hau wc noi iaIcn ihc iioulIc io inloim ouiscIvcs as wc uiu.
B. Hunr .eor.!.I., n .r.oI..r Lunr .eeno
]usi whai aic wc io unucisianu ly ihis cxicssion ii is aIways os-
silIc loi us io changc oui oinions as io whai is lciici oi woisc loi
us, oi io havc icachcu a uicicni oinion in ihc isi Iacc. Whai is
[ 1oq | v.+i o.i x.
invoIvcu hcic is noi mcicIy a IogicaI ossiliIiiy, oi cvcn a mcic hysi-
caI ossiliIiiy, in ihc scnsc ihai ihc vaiious cxicinaI causcs anu laciois
iouuciivc ol my oinions mighi havc lccn uicicni oi mighi siiII lc-
comc uicicni, ihus causing my oinions ciihci io havc lccn oi io lc
oihci ihan whai ihcy aic. Whai is mcani hcic is a ossiliIiiy ihai is
ocn io mc in ihc scnsc ol lcing wiihin my own owci anu uisosiiion.
Thus whcn I say, I shouIu ncvci havc uonc ihai, il onIy I hau siocu
io ihinI, oi I Incw whai a looIish ihing ihai was io uo; why ihcn uiu
I Ici my icmci gci ihc lciici ol mc.in aII such cascs ihc imIica-
iion is noi mcicIy ihai ihc icsuIis wouIu havc lccn uicicni, hau ihc
ciicumsianccs lccn uicicni, lui aIso ihai ii was somchow uuc io mc
ihai ihc ciicumsianccs wcic noi uicicni: I couIu havc changcu ihcm,
lui I uiuni. Thus ihc icsonsiliIiiy loi ihc naI icsuIi icsis wiih mc.
You mighi icIy, Ii is iiuc ihai wc olicn scaI ihis way aloui oui-
scIvcs, as il ii wcic wiihin oui owci io havc acicu uicicniIy liom ihc
way wc uiu. Bui is ihis any moic ihan jusi a common way ol scaIing.
Whai cxaciIy uocs ii mcan. Docs ii noi caII u aII ihc iolIcms con-
nccicu wiih licc wiII, a noiion which in ihc naI anaIysis icuuccs io
shcci uninicIIigiliIiiy.
.. v.iii ircxi+s .s ivii ircxi+s
Thus lai wc havc avoiucu usc ol ihc icim licc wiII, lccausc ol
ihc many uicuIiics connccicu wiih ihis cxicssion. Bui cihas wc
can avoiu iis usc no Iongci. Oi maylc loi oui uioscs ihc SchoIasiic
icim, I.!e.u n.!...u, licc choicc oi cihas cvcn licc juugmcni,
wouIu lc lciici. In any casc, ucsiic ihc uicuIiics ihai aiisc in using
such noiions, wc lcIicvc ihai ihcy can lc icnucicu mcaningluI anu in-
icIIigilIc. In cxIaining ihcm, wc ioosc io loIIow, loi ihc mosi aii,
an cxIanaiion ihai has lccomc iiauiiionaI in Wcsicin hiIosohy. Ii
iuns somcihing IiIc ihis.
Thcic is a cciiain scnsc in which wc human lcings ncvci sccmsaiis-
cu wiih anyihing. Whaicvci ii is ihai a man osscsscs, wcaIih oi Icain-
ing oi lamc oi comcicncc oi cvcn a lcauiiluI woman, hc can aIways
ihinI ol somcihing cIsc ihai hc siiII uocs noi havc anu ihai hc wanis.
Thc icason loi ihis insaiialiIiiy in ihc ucmanus anu ucsiics ol human
naiuic is ihai man is a lcing who can loim whai wc mighi caII ihc
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ 1o |
noiion ol an alsoIuic anu inniic goou. Tiuc, mosi ol us in oui uaiIy
Iivcs uoni go aiounu iaIIing aloui ihc inniic goou. Noi is ii any-
ihing ihai wc can aciuaIIy oini io, lcing a uicIy alsiiaci noiion, oi
cihas lciici, a noiion ihai loicvci iiansccnus anyihing ihai wc comc
uon in concicic cxciicncc. Bui howcvci IiiiIc wc may iaII aloui
ii, oui conuuci anu lchavioi aic noi inlicqucniIy uominaicu ly ihc
noiion ol iiwiincss oui icsiIcssncss, oui siiiving, oui loicuom anu
uissaiislaciion wiih whai wc havc, oui cvci iccuiicni uisuii ol ihc
novcI anu ihc uicicni. Onc couIu aImosi say ihai ihc vciy Iogic ol oui
human siiuaiion maIcs ihis soii ol icnsion anu uissaiislaciion aImosi
incviialIc. Ioi whaicvci ii is ihai I am, oi whaicvci ii is ihai I havc, in
ihc vciy naiuic ol ihc casc ihcic is lounu io lc somcihing cIsc ihai
I am noi, oi ihai I uo noi havc. Whais moic, as an inicIIigcni lcing,
I can scaiccIy avoiu icaIizing ihai in lcing oi having anyihing, ihcic
aic couniIcss oihci ihings ihai in ihc vciy naiuic ol ihc casc I musi
uo wiihoui.
IiiiIc wonuci, ihcn, ihai such lcing oui human conuiiion, oui
choiccs wiII ncvci lc alsoIuicIy ucicimincu ly any onc oinion as io
whai is lciici oi woisc loi ouiscIvcs. Ioi no soonci wiII onc couisc
ol aciion acai io lc ihc lcsi onc ocn io us ihan ihc Iimiiaiions ol
such a couisc wiII lcgin io imicss ihcmscIvcs uon us: il wc loIIow
ihis aiiicuIai couisc, wc shaII lc unalIc io uo cciiain oihci ihings
ihai lcgin io acai aiiiaciivcwc shaII lc uciivcu ol ihis, laiicu
liom ihai, ucccicu liom somcihing cIsc. Unuci a lomlaiumcni ol
such consiuciaiions, oui oiiginaI juugmcni as io whai was lcsi loi us
may changc comIcicIy; somcihing cIsc may lcgin io acai moic io
oui IiIing.
Moicovci, ihc iionicaI ihing is ihai ihis liccuom ol juugmcni, oi
liccuomol wiII, ociaics cvcn wiih icscci io ihosc ihings which icaIIy
aic lcsi loi us, anu noi onIy wiih icscci io ihosc which onIy sccm
io lc so. Ioi cxamIc, as icgaius ihc cxamincu Iilc iiscIl, ii maIcs no
uicicncc how cIcaiIy I may iccognizc iis suciioi cIaims oi how con-
vinccu I may lc ihai ii is ihc onIy Iilc loi mc, siiII ii is a way ol Iilc
which is cciiainIy Iimiicu whcn comaicu wiih ihc alsiiaci sianuaiu
ol ihc inniic goou. In conscqucncc, my juugmcni ihai ii is ihc lcsi
Iilc loi mc, howcvci iiuc ii may lc, is siiII noi a ncccssaiiIy ucicimincu
juugmcni. On ihc coniiaiy. I can haiuIy laiI io iccognizc ihai in oiuci
[ 1o6 | v.+i o.i x.
io lc a Sociaics, say, I shaII havc io givc u a Ioi ol ihings ihai may
lc vciy ucai io mccomloiis anu Iuxuiics, oi Iacc anu osiiion, oi
wcaIih, oi cvcn my caicci as schoIai oi gcnciaI oi uiIomai oi scicn-
iisi; I mighi cvcn havc io uiinI ihc hcmIocI! Whcn ihc icaIizaiion ol
such saciiccs is loinc in uon mc, ii wouIu haiuIy suiiisc anyonc
il I wcic io lcgin io lccI ihai ihc cxamincu Iilc icaIIy uiuni havc so
much io iccommcnu ii alici aIIucsiic ihc laci ihai in iiuih ii mighi
siiII lc ihc lcsi Iilc loi mc anu inuccu loi any man.
Wc aic now in a osiiion io uisccin ihc icaI mcaning ol ihcsc no-
iions ol licc wiII anu licc juugmcnis. Iicc juugmcni mcans no moic
ihan ihai in maiicis ciiaining io whai is ol vaIuc loi us anu whai ii is
lcsi loi us io uo, oui juugmcni is ncvci ncccssaiiIy ucicimincu io any
onc oinion aIonc. Evcn il oui oinion hacns io lc a iiuc oinion
anu wc Inow ii io lc iiuc, ihai oinion siiII uocs noi ncccssaiiIy ucici-
minc oui couisc ol aciion. Ioi comaicu wiih ihc alsiiaci noiion ol
an alsoIuic oi inniic goou, any concicic noiion ol whai is goou loi us
hcic anu now wiII incviialIy acai icsiiicicu. Hcncc as wc consiuci
aII ihai wc shaII noi lc gciiing, aII ihai wc shaII lc giving u anu sac-
iicing, il wc aci uon oui icscni juugmcni, ii is noi suiiising ihai
oui juugmcni iiscIl may changc anu ihai whai hau loimciIy sccmcu
so aiiiaciivc anu woiih whiIc may now acai Icss so.
v. ivii ircxi+s .r ivii tuoitis
NcvciihcIcss, ihis noiion ol licc juugmcni cannoi lc iociIy un-
ucisioou savc in cIosc conncciion wiih ihc coiicIaiivc noiion ol licc
wiII oi licc choicc. To lc suic, a juugmcni, cvcn ihough ii lc a juug-
mcni ol vaIuc, is ncvciihcIcss a ioci juugmcni. Thai is io say, in any
juugmcni ol vaIuc, wc uo in a scnsc juugc ihai somcihing is ihc casc,
c.g., ihai a cciiain couisc ol aciion is ihc lcsi onc io loIIow unuci ihc
ciicumsianccs. Anu lcing a juugmcni, ihis wiII lc ciihci iiuc oi laIsc.
Ai ihc samc iimc, ihis is ihc soii ol juugmcni ihai can onIy lc a coniin-
gcni iiuih, noi a ncccssaiy iiuih: ii is somcihing which, cvcn ihough ii
lc iiuc, mighi conccivalIy havc lccn oihciwisc. Ioi cxamIc, suosc
I maIc ihc siaicmcni: Ai ihis houi, 1o:o v.x., on ihis uay, Maich :q,
1g6:, I am siiiing ai my ucsI wiiiing. This siaicmcni is in laci iiuc;
anu yci ii is cilcciIy conccivalIc ihai ii mighi noi havc lccn so: in-
A.e Fn.Iu.e nrn UrLn.re Ou. Feor.!.I., [ 1o |
sicau ol lcing ai my ucsI I mighi, aIas, havc lccn sounu asIcc in lcu,
oi uiinIing a gIass ol lcci wiih a liicnu, oi icauing a goou looI.
In ihis scnsc, ihcn, an oiuinaiy juugmcni ol vaIuc is no moic ihan a
coniingcni iiuih: ii couIu lc iiuc, lui ii nccu noi lc. NcvciihcIcss, in
hoIuing ihcsc juugmcnis ol vaIuc io lc licc juugmcnis moic is mcani
ihan mcicIy ihai ihcy aic coniingcni. Ioi in auuiiion io lcing coniin-
gcni, such juugmcnis ol vaIuc aic imIicu insiiuciions oi commanus
commanus io ouiscIvcs io choosc io aci in accoiuancc wiih whai
wc havc juugcu io lc ihc lciici couisc. NcvciihcIcss, sincc as human
lcings wc can scaiccIy avoiu mcasuiing oui juugmcnis ol vaIuc againsi
an uIiimaic anu alsiiaci sianuaiu ol inniic goou oi alsoIuic vaIuc,
anu sincc such a comaiison aIways icvcaIs ihc Iimiicu anu icsiiiciivc
chaiacici ol ihc vaIuc ihai is lcing icsciilcu loi us, ii is incviialIc
ihai ihc imIicu uiicciivc oi commanu ihai is invoIvcu in oui juug-
mcni wiII noi ncccssaiiIy movc us io aci. On ihc coniiaiy, wc aic aIways
licc io choosc noi io aci. In oihci woius, ihc liccuom ol such a juug-
mcni ol vaIuc musi lc unucisioou wiih iclcicncc io ihc liccuom ol
choicc which ihai juugmcni Icavcs, so io scaI, unucicimincu anu un-
ncccssiiaicu.
Bui luiihci, ihc liccuom ihai is invoIvcu in licc wiII anu licc choicc
musi aIso lc unucisioou wiih iclcicncc io a cciiain liccuom ihai is
invoIvcu in whai wc havc caIIcu a licc juugmcni in icgaiu io vaIucs. As
wc havc aIicauy sccn in oui uiscussion ol PIaio, a choicc can onIy lc
ol ihai which sccms lcsi io us ai ihc momcni. In ihis scnsc any human
choicc aIways icsuoscs a juugmcni ol vaIuc as a soii ol guiuc oi ui-
icciivc. Whcn wc say ihai any ol oui niic human juugmcnis ol vaIuc
aIways Icavcs us licc io choosc oihciwisc, ihis can onIy mcan ihai oihci
anu aIicinaiivc juugmcnis ol vaIuc musi Iic icauy ai hanu, in accoi-
uancc wiih which wc may maIc a uicicni choicc. Noi onIy ihai, lui
oui vciy uissaiislaciion, oi ai Icasi oui lccIing ihai wc aic noi cniiicIy
saiiscu, wiih ihc Iimiicu anu icsiiicicu vaIucs ihai aic lcing iccom-
mcnucu io us cicaics a ucmanu loi ncw anu uicicni uiicciivcs, i.c.,
loi oihci anu aIicinaiivc juugmcnis ol vaIuc. This is why, wc wouIu
suggcsi, oui vciy juugmcnis ihcmscIvcs acai io lc noi so much uc-
icimincu ly ihc lacis, as cIiciicu ly oui nccus anu wanis. In ihis scnsc,
ihcy acai io lc licc anu ai oui uisosaI. Anu so, wc shouIu lc alIc io
unucisianu a IiiiIc moic cIcaiIy whai is mcani ly human liccuom. In
[ 1oS | v.+i o.i x.
coniiasi io aII oihci insianccs ol aciiic, imuIsc, icnucncy, iioism,
cic., such as occui ihioughoui ihc icsi ol naiuic, ihc vaIucs ihai cIicii
oui uisiinciivcIy human choiccs anu iclcicnccs aic ncvci uniqucIy
ucicimining. Insicau, lcing suljcci io comaiison wiih a sianuaiu ol
alsoIuic vaIuc, such vaIucs aIways Icavc us licc io choosc somcihing
cIsc; ihai is io say, wc nu ouiscIvcs, wiih icscci io ihc oljccis ol oui
wishcs anu ucsiics, aIways caughi u in an iniciIay ol licc juugmcni
anu licc choicc ol ihc soii wc havc jusi lccn ucsciiling.
Bui, ol couisc, whcic ihcic is liccuom, ihcic is icsonsiliIiiy. In-
uccu, ihis is ihc scnsc ol ihosc Iocuiions anu iuins ol hiasc which
aic ihc common coin ol oui uaiIy Iivcs anu which no amouni ol hiIo-
sohicaI sohisiicaiion can cvci cnalIc us io uiscnsc wiih: I chosc
io uo ihis, lui I uiuni havc io, I couIu havc choscn oihciwisc; I uc-
ciucu on ihis couisc ol aciion lccausc ai ihc iimc ii sccmcu lcsi io mc;
lui il onIy I hau siocu io ihinI, I shouIu havc icaIizcu how looIish
ihc whoIc ihing was; cic.
Moic gcnciaIIy, howcvci, whcic ihis maiici ol human icsonsiliIiiy
is imicsscu uon us, anu cvcn somciimcs ovciwhcIms us, ii is in con-
ncciion wiih ihc goou Iilc as a whoIc. Whai human cilcciion consisis
in, whai iiuc human haincss invoIvcs, is in onc scnsc ucicimincu ly
human naiuic iiscIl; lui ii is noi ucicimincu ai aII ihai wc shaII aciu-
aIIy Iivc ihis way. On ihc coniiaiy, wc ouiscIvcs musi choosc io uo so.
Moicovci, wc havc io choosc such a mouc ol Iilc in ihc lacc ol ihc laci
ihai in comaiison wiih an alsoIuic goou, ii can acai uisiicssingIy
Iimiicu anu IacIing in aII soiis ol ihings ihai wc mighi wish loi. Bui ii is
siiII ihc lcsi Iilc loi us. Wc aic aII caalIc ol iccognizing ihis; inuccu,
wc aII, in a scnsc, uo iccognizc ii. Anu yci how lcw ol us caincsiIy sccI
io aiiain ii, io say noihing ol aciuaIIy succccuing. Hcic is whcic wc
uo sccm io lc wiihoui cxcusc. Ii is noi lccausc ol ignoiancc ihai wc
laiI, uIiimaicIy, ii is lccausc wc uoni choosc whcn wc couIu choosc.
In ihis scnsc, ihcic is no onc anu no ihing ihai wc can uIiimaicIy hoIu
icsonsilIc loi such laiIuic, savc onIy ouiscIvcs.
6
Bad Luck and the Force
of Circumstances as the
Causes of Failure
1. Bu Lo. nr .e !e !Inen .Ler . .
ro .e .Lo nIe ou.eI.e .Ln .e n.e
Bui is noi aII ihis iaII aloui how oui lau choiccs oi oui noi Inow-
ing any lciici may lc causcs ol oui laiIuic anu unhaincssis noi aII
ihis wiuc ol ihc maiI. To lc suic, lcw ol us cihas aic iiuIy hay,
anu many ol us uo noi maIc much ol a go ol oui Iivcs. Bui isni ihis
lccausc ol ihc couniIcss auvcisc ciicumsianccs ihai lcsci any human
lcing ihioughoui ihc couisc ol his IilcaII ol us somc ol ihc iimc
anu somc ol us aII ol ihc iimc. Such ciicumsianccs aic noi ol oui
own choosing, cciiainIy noi ol oui own cicaiion. Wc jusi nu ouiscIvcs
uisucu anu cnguIlcu ly ihcm, anu ihcic is noihing wc can uo aloui
ii. A human lcing cannoi Iivc his Iilc in a icsi-iulcanu cvcn il hc
couIu his conuiiion wouIu noi lc onc ol his own maIing, lui onc ihai
was mauc loi him. AII ol us, as soon as wc lcgin io iccci anu io cx-
aminc oui Iivcs, nu ouiscIvcs aIicauy Iungcu .r en.n .e. Things,
coIc, inucnccs, ciicumsianccs, cnviionmcni, conuiiions ol Iilc,
hcicuiiy, anu a ihousanu anu onc oihci laciois havc aIicauy mauc us
whai wc aic.
Whai is moic, oui caiIici anaIogy lciwccn ihc Iilc ol man anu ihc
Iilc ol an acoin icinloiccs ihc oini ihai oui so-caIIcu succcss oi laiI-
uic in Iilc is noi, siiiciIy scaIing, oui own uoing, lui iaihci somc-
ihing ihai is uonc loi us, oi lciici, io us. Nolouy hoIus ihc acoin ic-
sonsilIc loi ciihci succccuing oi laiIing io giow inio an oaI. Il ihc
[ 11o | v.+i o.i x.
conuiiions aic iighi, ihc acoin wiII ucvcIo anu maiuic auiomaiicaIIy;
anu il noi, noi. IiIcwisc, onc mighi aiguc, il ihcic is such a ihing as
human naiuic, which icuisoscs cvciy man io ucvcIo iowaiu ci-
lcciion, whcihci a givcn inuiviuuaI aciuaIIy aiiains such cilcciion wiII
uccnu noi on him, lui on ciicumsianccs. Thc aiiainmcni ol such ci-
lcciion may uccnu uon having ihc iighi InowIcugc anu maIing ihc
iighi choiccs, lui givcn lavoialIc ciicumsianccs ol Iilc, such InowI-
cugc anu such choiccs wiII lc loiihcoming auiomaiicaIIy; il ciicum-
sianccs aic unlavoialIc, ihcy wiII noi. In ihc naI anaIysis, human suc-
ccss oi laiIuic sccms io lc IiiiIc moic ihan a maiici ol goou IucI oi
lau IucI, loi which wc ouiscIvcs cannoi lc hcIu accounialIc.
z. TLe .ue o .er. nee..r.nr eL.nI .en Le...r
In conimaiion ol ihc vicw ihai ihcic is no such ihing as cisonaI
moiaI icsonsiliIiiy loi oncs aciions, onc has onIy io shili lioma com-
monscnsc conicxi io ihc ciscciivc ol conicmoiaiy scicncc. Gcnci-
aIIy scaIing, in moucin sychoIogy anu socioIogy, io say noihing ol
hysioIogy anu lioIogy, noiions IiIc licc wiII anu cisonaI icson-
siliIiiy aic noi cmIoycu ai aII; ihcy maIc no scnsc in ihc conicxi
ol a scicniic cxIanaiion. Noi is ihis suiiising. Ioi whiIc ihc oIuci
schcmcs ol a iigoious, mcchanisiic uciciminism may noi lc comai-
ilIc wiih many ol ihc icccni ucvcIomcnis in quanium hysics, wc aic
siiII noi jusiicu in iciniiouucing conccis IiIc liccuom anu moiaI
icsonsiliIiiy inio ihc scicniic uomain.
On ihc coniiaiy, ihc lasic schcma ol cxIanaiion ihai coniinucs io
lc aImosi ihc cxcIusivc icsouicc ol aII ihc uicicni scicnccs in ihc con-
icmoiaiy woiIu is a simIc ucvicc ol lunciionaI coiicIaiion. Evcnis
oi hcnomcna ol iyc A aic coiicIaicu wiih cciiain oihci cvcnis ol
iyc B, so ihai ihc occuiicncc ol an A is iaIcn io lc simIy a lunciion
ol B. Ioi cxamIc, ihc siimuIus-icsonsc schcmc in moucin sychoI-
ogy ociaics in ihis way: ihc icsonsc ol ihc oiganism is iicaicu as a
mcic lunciion ol ihc siimuIus Ius a cciiain iniiiaI siaic ol ihc oigan-
ism ai ihc iimc ol ihc siimuIus. In ihc conicxi ol such an cxIana-
ioiy schcmc ihcic uocs noi sccm io lc ihc sIighicsi nccu loi ihc moic
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 111 |
usuaI, commonscnsc, anihioomoihic iyc ol cxIanaiion, accoiu-
ing io which an animaI oi a human lcing sccs oi iccognizcs somcihing
as vaIualIc anu in conscqucncc comcs io wani ii anu choosc ii.
Wiih his usuaI cIaiiiy, Bciiianu RusscII cxIains how onc can iians-
Iani oi iiansosc oncscIl liom oncs commonscnsc, cvciyuay way ol
icgaiuing ihings inio ihc scicniic ciscciivc ol moucin sychoIogy:
Wc aII ihinI ihai, ly waiching ihc lchavioui ol animaIs, wc can
uiscovci moic oi Icss whai ihcy ucsiic. Il ihis is ihc cascanu I luIIy
agicc ihai ii isucsiic musi lc caalIc ol lcing cxhiliicu in ac-
iions, loi ii is onIy ihc aciions ol animaIs ihai wc can olscivc. Thcy
n, havc minus in which aII soiis ol ihings iaIc Iacc, lui wc can
Inownoihing aloui ihcii minus cxcci ly mcans ol inlcicnccs liom
ihcii aciions; anu ihc moic such inlcicnccs aic cxamincu, ihc moic
uulious ihcy acai. Ii wouIu sccm, ihcicloic, ihai aciions aIonc
musi lc ihc icsi ol ihc ucsiics ol animaIs. Iiom ihis ii is an casy
sic io ihc concIusion ihai an animaIs ucsiic is noihing lui a chai-
aciciisiic ol a cciiain sciics ol aciions, namcIy, ihosc which wouIu
lc commonIy icgaiucu as insiicu ly ihc ucsiic in qucsiion. Anu
whcn ii has lccn shown ihai ihis vicw aoius a saiislacioiy accouni
ol animaI ucsiics, ii is noi uicuIi io scc ihai ihc samc cxIanaiion
is aIicalIc io ihc ucsiics ol human lcings.
Wc juugc casiIy liom ihc lchavioui ol an animaI ol a lamiIiai
Iinu whcihci ii is hungiy oi ihiisiy, oi Icascu oi uisIcascu, oi
inquisiiivc oi iciiicu. Thc vciicaiion ol oui juugmcni, so lai as
vciicaiion is ossilIc, musi lc uciivcu liom ihc immcuiaicIy suc-
cccuing aciions ol ihc animaI. Mosi coIc wouIu say ihai ihcy in-
lci isi somcihing aloui ihc animaIs siaic ol minuwhcihci ii is
hungiy oi ihiisiy anu so onanu ihcncc uciivc ihcii cxcciaiions
as io iis sulscqucni conuuci. Bui ihis ucioui ihiough ihc animaIs
suoscu minu is whoIIy unncccssaiy. Wc can say simIy: Thc ani-
maIs lchavioui uuiing ihc Iasi minuic has hau ihosc chaiaciciisiics
which uisiinguish whai is caIIcu hungci, anu ii is IiIcIy ihai iis ac-
iions uuiing ihc ncxi minuic wiII lc simiIai in ihis icscci, unIcss
ii nus loou, oi is iniciiuicu ly a siiongci imuIsc, such as lcai.
An animaI which is hungiy is icsiIcss, ii gocs io ihc Iaccs whcic
loou is olicn io lc lounu, ii snis wiih iis nosc oi ccis wiih iis
[ 11: | v.+i o.i x.
cycs oi oihciwisc incicascs ihc scnsiiivcncss ol iis scnsc-oigans; as
soon as ii is ncai cnough io loou loi iis scnsc-oigans io lc accicu,
ii gocs io ii wiih aII sccu anu iocccus io cai; alici which, il ihc
quaniiiy ol loou has lccn sucicni, iis whoIc ucmcanoui changcs:
ii may vciy IiIcIy Iic uown anu go io sIcc. Thcsc ihings anu oihcis
IiIc ihcm aic olscivalIc hcnomcna uisiinguishing a hungiy ani-
maI liomonc which is noi hungiy. Thc chaiaciciisiic maiI ly which
wc iccognizc a sciics ol aciions which uisIay hungci is noi ihc ani-
maIs mcniaI siaic, which wc cannoi olscivc, lui somcihing in iis
louiIy lchavioui; ii is ihis olscivalIc iiaii in ihc louiIy lchavioui
ihai I am ioosing io caII hungci, noi somc ossilIy myihicaI
anu cciiainIy unInowalIc ingicuicni ol ihc animaIs minu.
1
Ioi oui icscni uioscs, wc mighi noic onc scnicncc in aiiicu-
Iai in ihis quoiaiion liom RusscII: Anu whcn ii has lccn shown ihai
ihis vicw aoius a saiislacioiy accouni ol animaI ucsiics, ii is noi uil-
cuIi io scc ihai ihc samc cxIanaiion is aIicalIc io ihc ucsiics ol
human lcings. Inuccu, ii is jusi ihis soii ol cxIanaiion ihai moucin
sychoIogisis uo cmIoy wiih iclcicncc io human lchavioi; anu ii is
ioialIy cmIoycu, loi on ihc lasis ol such a schcmc, ihc lchavioi
ol human lcings, loih inuiviuuaIIy anu in gious, can lc icuicicu
wiih icmaiIalIc succcss.
Such a mouc ol cxIanaiion anu icuiciion cnalIcs ihc sychoIo-
gisi io uiscnsc aIiogcihci wiih ihc cniiic aiahcinaIia ihai wc havc
lccn using ihus lai in oui uiscussion ol human moiaI conuuci, ihai
is, ihc noiions ol human unucisianuing anu ol human choicc lascu
on such unucisianuing, in oihci woius, ol inicIIcciuaI viiiuc anu ol
moiaI viiiuc. Thc imIicaiions ol such scicniic lchavioiism, oi ucici-
minism, loi qucsiions ol human icsonsiliIiiy aic cilcciIy cIcai. On
such a vicw, ihcic is no such ihing as human icsonsiliIiiy oi accouni-
aliIiiy, loi such iucas aic unncccssaiy anu iiicIcvani io ihc cxIanaiion
ol human lchavioi.
Thcic is an inicicsiing aiaIIcI hcic wiih PIaios ihcoiy ihai viiiuc
is mcicIy a maiici ol InowIcugc, anu vicc ol ignoiancc. In ihc PIaionic
vicw, il a man Inows whai is lcsi loi him hc wiII auiomaiicaIIy uo whai
is lcsi loi him; il hc uocsni hc woni. Hc himscIl has no coniioI ovci
whcihci oi noi hc osscsscs such InowIcugc. SimiIaiIy on ihc scicn-
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 11 |
iic, uciciminisiic vicw ol human naiuic, givcn a cciiain siimuIus, ii
can lc icuicicu ihai a givcn oiganism wiII icsonu in a cciiain way.
Thc oiganism iiscIl has no coniioI ovci ihc way ii icsonus io siimuIi,
oi ovci whai siimuIi aic icscnicu io ii. On nciihci vicw can an inui-
viuuaI lc hcIu accounialIc loi his own lchavioi, sincc in nciihci casc
can ihc inuiviuuaI cxcii any inucncc ovci his own aciions oi cvcn
ovci his own choiccs.
Bui il ihcic is io lc any such ihing as cihics, ihcic musi lc such
a ihing as cisonaI icsonsiliIiiy. Anu il ihcic is io lc cisonaI ic-
sonsiliIiiy, ihcn onc musi mainiain ihc cIaims ol somcihing IiIc licc
choicc as a causc ol human lchavioi, againsi ihc PIaionisi cIaim ihai
InowIcugc is ihc cxcIusivc uciciminani ol such lchavioi, anu againsi
ihc uciciminisis cIaim ihai cxicinaI laciois aic ihc soIc causcs.
In unuciiaIing a icluiaiion ol uciciminism, wc mighi as wcII siaii
ly quoiing Di. ]ohnson: Sii, aII ihcoiy is againsi ihc liccuom ol ihc
wiII; aII cxciicncc loi ii.
2
Howcvci iiiiiaicu onc may lc ly ]ohnsons
uogmaiism, onc musi lc imicsscu ly his acaI io cxciicncc. Ioi
scicniic uciciminism is, alici aII, onIy ihc iouuci ol a hiIosohic
ihcoiy which is coniiovciicu ai aImosi cvciy sic ly oui own unsohis-
iicaicu, lui incscaalIc, cvciyuay human cxciicncc. Wc may cvcn
suggcsi ihai uciciminism is ihc soii ol ihing ihai is uclcnsilIc onIy in
ihcoiy lui noi in iaciicc.
Noi is ihis conicniion lascu simIy on ihc laci ihai in oui cvciy-
uay cxciicncc wc uo sccm io lc licc, wc uo ihinI anu lccI as il wc
hau liccuomol choicc, no maiici how convinccu wc may havc lccomc
inicIIcciuaIIy ihai oui lchavioi is comIcicIy ucicimincu ly loiccs
ouisiuc oui coniioI. In auuiiion, wc wouIu suggcsi ihai ihc ucicimin-
isi can scaiccIy avoiu laIIing inio a Iinu ol iaciicaI inconsisicncy ihai
is noi unIiIc ihc inconsisicncy ol which wc lounu ihc icIaiivisi io lc
guiIiy. To scc how ihis musi lc so, Ici us iiy io iojcci ouiscIvcs imagi-
naiivcIy inio ihc cxciicncc ol a man who is a uciciminisi ly con-
viciion.
Such a man musi lc convinccu ihai mcns aciions anu lchavioi uo
noi iocccu liomanyihing IiIc InowIcugc anu unucisianuing oi liom
choiccs lascu on such InowIcugc. Bui whai ol his own choiccs. As wc
havc sccn, any human choicc ncccssaiiIy imIics somc juugmcni ol
vaIuc, somc juugmcni io ihc ccci ihai onc couisc ol aciion is iclci-
[ 11q | v.+i o.i x.
alIc io anoihci. Bui il onc is a uciciminisi, whai imIicaiions wiII his
uciciminism havc loi his own juugmcnis ol vaIuc.
Howcvci ihc uciciminisi may answci ihis qucsiion, hc cannoi avoiu
lcing inconsisicni wiih his own iinciIcs. Ioi whaicvci ihc imIica-
iions ol uciciminism may lc wiih icscci io oui juugmcnis ol vaIuc,
ihc vciy laci ihai uciciminism is acInowIcugcu io havc such imIica-
iions ai aII is sucicni io icluic ihai uciciminism. Havc wc noi sccn
ihai ii is a aii ol whai onc mcans ly uciciminism io suosc ihai oui
conuuci anu lchavioi uo noi iocccu liom anyihing IiIc InowIcugc
oi oinions aloui oui human siiuaiion oi liom choiccs lascu on such
oinions. Anu yci il oui juugmcnis ol vaIuc aic aumiiicu io lc somc-
how accicu ly oui uciciminisiic conviciions, in ihc scnsc ihai ihc
loimci icnu io lc ciihci usci oi conimcu oi ai Icasi in somc way
inucnccu ly ihc Iaiici, ihcn ii wouIu sccm ihai wc uo maIc choiccs
lascu on juugmcnis ol vaIuc which in iuin aic lascu on such InowI-
cugc anu oinions as wc hacn io havc icgaiuing ouiscIvcs anu ihc
woiIu iounu aloui us.
On ihc oihci hanu, il ihc uciciminisi, wishing io cscac ihcsc con-
scqucnccs, iuins io ihc oihci aIicinaiivc ol suosing ihai his ucici-
minisiic ihcoiics anu conviciions havc alsoIuicIy no ccci on his juug-
mcnis ol vaIuc, ihcn hc musi nu himscIl in an cvcn Icss uclcnsilIc
osiiion. Ioi how can a man lc convinccu ol somcihing wiihoui lcing
ciiiicaI ol, cihas cvcn IooIing uown his nosc ai, ihosc who aic noi
so convinccu oi who aic ol a coniiaiy oinion. Inuccu, ihc lchavioi-
isiic sychoIogisiio scIcci him ly way ol cxamIcis noi noicu loi
IacIing conucncc ihai hc is iighi. In laci, io lc imIy convinccu ol
anyihing is incviialIy io auoi a mouc ol lchavioi ihai imIics ihai
onc ihinIs oncs ooncnis aic misiaIcn, il noi looIish.
In oihci woius, so lai as oncs own scIl is conccincu, anu oncs own
lchavioi, ihcic is no way ihai any mancvcn a uciciminisican io-
iaIIy isoIaic his cisonaI choiccs anu iclcicnccs liom his conviciions
as io whai is so. Ii is iiuc ihai whcn a scicniisi, oi a sychoIogisi, oi an
oIu-lashioncu uciciminisi in hiIosohy, IooIs ai his ncighloi, oi his
acaucmic coIIcagucs, oi his own wilc anu chiIu, hc couIu consisicniIy
iicai ihcm as il ihcy wcic jusi so many ucis oi auiomaia whom
hc, ihc cxcii, can maniuIaic anu conuiiion much as onc uocs mon-
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 11 |
Icys, iais, anu guinca igs. Bui ihai hc shouIu liing himscIl unuci
ihc samc uciciminisiic iinciIcs ihai hc aIics io oihci mcnihis,
wc wouIu suggcsi, is simIy imossilIc wiihoui laIIing inio ihc mosi
gIaiing iaciicaI inconsisicncy.
j. TLe o.e o ..unre: noe .
nee..re u o. orI, LnIIere u
Howcvci casy ii may lc io cxosc ihc inconsisicncics ol vaiious
ihcoiics ol uciciminism, wc can scaiccIy lIinI ihc lacis ol Iilc so com-
IcicIy as noi io iccognizc ihai ihcic aic couniIcss ucicimining laciois
ihai ociaic io maIc us whai wc aic, anu io maIc us hay oi misci-
alIc. Inuccu, onc mighi lc icmicu io icvivc oncc moic ihc iuca ihai
wc havc aIicauy iiicu io Iay io icsi, ihc iuca ihai moiaIiiy, oi Iiving
oncs Iilc succcssluIIy anu wcII, is noihing lui a maiici ol aii, ol sIiII
anu cIcvcincss, ol mcic inicIIcciuaI viiiuc.
Il wc suosc ihai Iiving wcII is onIy a maiici ol osscssing cciiain
lavoialIc ooiiuniiics, Ius ihc wii io cxIoii ihcm, ihcn ihc whoIc
ihing is iciiy much a maiici ol IucI. Il I hau uicu in inlancy, onc
couIu scaiccIy say ihai I hau hau sucicni ooiiuniiy io aiiain my
naiuiaI human cilcciion. Oi il I suivivcu, lui wiih an I.Q. ol a
moion, I couIu haiuIy lc cxccicu io achicvc much in ihc way ol
human cilcciion ciihci. Wc cannoi uouli ihai ihc ciicumsianccs ol
human Iilc vaiy gicaiIy, ianging liom ihc mosi lavoialIc io ihc mosi
unlavoialIc. Noi inlicqucniIy, ihcy aic such as io maIc cilcciion in
anyihing IiIc ihc scnsc in which wc havc ucncu ii simIy imossilIc;
lui loi ihcsc ciicumsianccs wc ouiscIvcs cannoi lc hcIu icsonsilIc.
NcvciihcIcss, loi mosi ol us, mosi ol ihc iimc, oui auvcisiiics anu
iII loiiunc aic noi such as io Icavc us comIcicIy wiihoui icsouicc.
Noi is such icsouicc cxcIusivcIy an inicIIcciuaI aaii. Quiic ihc con-
iiaiy. Suosc I nu myscIl unjusiIy ihiown inio iison, oi suosc I
suuucnIy Iosc my nanciaI inuccnucncc anu am icuuccu io ihc mosi
scvcic cnuiy anu wani. Unuci such ciicumsianccs somc coIc, no
uouli, mighi lchavc much moic cIcvciIy ihan I: ihcy mighi guic
oui ways io cscac liom iison, oi ihcy mighi ucvisc somc ingcnious
[ 116 | v.+i o.i x.
mcans ol iccouing ihcii nanciaI Iosscs. Bui ihis Iinu ol inicIIcc-
iuaI ingcnuiiy is noi ol iimaiy momcni in a moiaI conicxi. Iiom ihc
moiaI sianuoini ihc imoiiani ihing is noi whcihci I am shicwu
cnough io avoiu cciiain misloiiuncs, oi io cxiiicaic myscIl liom ihcm
oncc ihcy havc lclaIIcn mc, lui whcihci I havc sucicni chaiacici
(moiaI viiiuc) io susiain ihcm in such a way as a goou man oi a wisc
man wouIu uo. Ioi imiisonmcni anu nanciaI iuin aic misloiiuncs
which may lc loinc ciihci nolIy oi ignolIy. Which way, ihcn, shaII I
lcai ihcm.
Moic gcnciaIIy, is noi much ol ihc auvcisiiy which aicis human
lcings ol a soii io Icavc us wiih consiucialIc choicc as io how wc shaII
icsonu anu aujusi io iiaiicniIy oi IiIc soiIcu chiIuicn; IiIc goou
soiis oi lau soiis; liavcIy oi ignominousIy; mainiaining oui scnsc
ol jusiicc anu laIancc, oi giving way io mcanncss anu vinuiciivcncss.
Anu whai hoIus in iII loiiunc is cquaIIy iiuc as icgaius goou loiiunc.
Icw ol us aic such ihoioughgoing hiIosohcis ihai wc wouIu noi IiIc
io waIc u somc nc moining io nu ihai wc hau laIIcn hcii io a miI-
Iion uoIIais. Bui aic wc suic ihai wc wouIu noi Ici such goou loiiunc
go io oui hcaus. How uo wc Inow ihai, lai liom lchaving wiscIy anu
inicIIigcniIy, wc mighi iovc io lc jusi as lig a looI as ihc ncxi man.
Ol couisc, ii is haiuIy IiIcIy ihai such somlci hiIosohicaI iccc-
iions wiII uissuauc many ol us liom uicaming now anu ihcn ol whai wc
mighi uo wiih a IiiiIc lii, wiih a IiiiIc lii, wiih a IiiiIc lii ol lIoomin
IucI. Noi is ihcic any icason why ihcy shouIu; loi whais wiong wiih
having a IiiiIc lii ol IucI. Noihing ai aII. Bui ihc imoiiani ihing is
how wc iaIc oui goou loiiunc, oi oui iII loiiunc. Thai is whai ucici-
mincs whcihci wc aic wcII o oi noi, noi ihc goou oi iII loiiunc iiscIl.
In oihci woius, so Iong as ihc ciicumsianccs ol oui Iivcs anu ihc
changcs anu chanccs ol loiiunc Icavc us wiih ai Icasi somc liccuom ol
choicc oi ol juugmcni as io how wc shaII aci in ihc lacc ol whai has
lclaIIcn us, ihcn oui laic as wisc mcn oi as looIs wiII siiII lc IaigcIy
in oui own hanus. Oui succcss oi laiIuic wiII noi lc uuc simIy io ihc
loicc ol ciicumsianccs, lui io oui own chaiacici anu oui own cxcicisc
ol moiaI viiiuc.
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 11 |
. TLe o.nI .o!Ie .nroen .ro
n IenI ore: !, .n, o .IIu.n.or
Icsi aII ihis sccma lii imIausilIc anu lai-lcichcu, Ici us oncc moic
shili ihc uiscussion io ihc conicxi ol ciiminaI Iaw. ]usi as caiIici in
icgaiu io ihc qucsiion ol oui icsonsiliIiiy loi ignoiancc, so now in
icgaiu io ihc qucsiion ol ihc cxicni io which ihc mcic loicc ol ciicum-
sianccs ucicimincs oui wcII-lcing, ii may iovc insiiuciivc io consiuci
how ihc iinciIcs ihai aic ociaiivc in ihc ciiminaI Iaw aic anaIo-
gous io, anu hcncc iIIusiiaic, ihc iinciIcs ihai aic icIcvani in ihc
shcic ol moiaIs anu cihics. In ciiminaI Iaw ihc qucsiion is usuaIIy a
laiiIy siiaighiloiwaiu onc ol a mans icsonsiliIiiy loi ihc iniciion
ol cciiain IcgaIIy ucncu haims; moic sccicaIIy, in ihc icscni con-
ncciion, ii wouIu lc a qucsiion ol a cisons icsonsiliIiiy loi haims
which hc hau inicicu whcn, in laci, hc hau lccn in somc way cociccu
inio uoing whai hc uiu.
Il in a givcn insiancc ii couIu lc shown ihai ihc accuscu hau icaIIy
lccn comcIIcu io uo somcihing, in ihc scnsc ihai hc quiic IiiciaIIy
hau no choicc ai aII lui io uo ii, ihcn cIcaiIy in ihc cycs ol ihc Iaw hc
wouIu noi lc hcIu icsonsilIc loi his aciion. Ioi insiancc, il ucsiic
my vioIcni icsisiancc a giou ol ihugs shouIu ovciowci mc, loicc a
gun inio my hanu, anu ihcn movc my ngci so as io uII ihc iiiggci
anu causc ihc gun io go o, I couIu scaiccIy lc hcIu icsonsilIc loi
any injuiics ihai ihc shoi mighi causc io somconc cIsc.
NcvciihcIcss, mosi cascs invoIving ncccssiiy oi comuIsion aic noi
as cIcai-cui as ihis. Il ihcy wcic, ihcy wouIu iolalIy ncvci cvcn havc
lccn iosccuicu. Thc moic usuaI siiuaiion is onc in which ihc agcni
is suljccicu io icssuics which aic lcyonu his coniioI, lui in ihc lacc
ol which hc is siiII Icli wiih cciiain aIicinaiivcs as io how hc shaII icaci
in ihc lacc ol ihcsc ciicumsianccs. Ioi insiancc, consiuci ihc loIIow-
ing summaiy accouni ol a vaiiciy ol aiiicuIai cascs, quoicu liom a
icxilooI ly a uisiinguishcu conicmoiaiy auihoiiiy on ciiminaI Iaw:
Thus, il a shi is casi ly a sioim uon a shoic, ihc cniiy is noi
iIIcgaI; hcncc a asscngci on ihc loai, ucoiicu liom ihc couniiy,
is noi guiIiy ol iIIcgaI ic-cniiy in such a casc. So, aIso, as io laiI-
uic io lc icscni ai a icquiicu iimc anu Iacc (e.., a juioi, wiincss,
[ 11S | v.+i o.i x.
oi soIuici on Icavc) lccausc ol a oou oi a lioIcn liiugc, oi any
oihci hysicaI loicc ihai maIcs Iocomoiion imossilIc. Il a juioi oi
wiincss has lccn imiisoncu, ihc laci ihai a human agcncy cicaicu
ihc laiiicis maIcs such cascs no Icss insianccs ol hysicaI causa-
iion so lai as ihc alovc cisons aic conccincu, e.., a calc ownci
whosc csialIishmcni icmaincu ocn lcyonu ihc xcu cIosing iimc
lccausc hc was iicu hanu anu looi ly his aiions. Thus, aIso, a mai-
iicu woman who was iacu uiu noi commii auuIiciy, accoiuing io
UIian. Whcic auiomoliIc Iighis aic ui oui ly an cIcciiic sioim,
ihis uocs noi consiiiuic a vioIaiion ol ihc oiuinancc icquiiing ihcm.
Bui a lcach-laihci whosc cIoihcs wcic sioIcn can noi Icau hysi-
caI ncccssiiy io a chaigc ol nuucncss sincc hc hau ihc aIicinaiivc ol
icmaining in ihc waici uniiI icIicvcu.
3
Thc soIcmniiy wiih which ihcsc cascs aic icvicwcu may lc amus-
ing, lui ihc iinciIc ihai sccms io govcin in ihcsc wcighiy juuiciaI
uccisions icgaiuing nuuc lcach-laihcis, iacu maiions, anu icsisiani
calc owncis is noi unIiIc ihc iinciIc ihai wouIu icsumalIy govcin
in cascs ol comaialIc moiaI oi cihicaI juugmcnis.
Thc icIcvani qucsiion is aIways, isi, whcihci ihc ciicumsianccs
wcic such as io Icavc ihc agcni any choicc, anu scconu, whcihci,
gianicu ihai hc uiu havc a cciiain choicc, hc mauc ihc choicc ihai a
icasonalIc man, oi a moiaIIy goou man, mighi lc cxccicu io maIc
in such ciicumsianccs.
To iaIc anoihci cIassicaI cxamIc liom ihc Iaw, whai aloui jciiison-
ing a shis caigo in oiuci io savc ihc Iivcs ol ihc asscngcis. Olvi-
ousIy, loi a shis occi io jciiison a caigo whcn ihcic was no ncccssiiy
loi his uoing so wouIu lc a ciiminaI aci. On ihc oihci hanu, whcn
in ihc casc ol a scvcic sioim ai sca ii icaIIy uiu lccomc ncccssaiy io
jciiison ihc caigo, jusi whai uocs ncccssaiy mcan hcic. CIcaiIy, ii
is noi an alsoIuic ncccssiiy: ihc occi couIu aIways havc choscn noi
io ihiow ihc caigo ovciloaiu; lui hau hc so choscn hc wouIu havc
cnuangcicu ihc whoIc shi anu ihc Iivcs ol ihc cicw anu ihc asscn-
gcis. In oihci woius, whai is invoIvcu hcic is noi ihc soii ol ncccssiiy
ihai cxcIuucs human choicc aIiogcihci, lui iaihci ihc soii ol ncccs-
siiy ihai comcs inio Iay whcn wc havc io choosc lciwccn ihc Icssci
ol iwo cviIs.
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 11g |
As ihc oIuci moiaIisis wouIu say, acis ol ihc soii hcic unuci con-
siuciaiion aic mixcu acis, i.c., acis which wc uo choosc io ciloim,
lui which wc choosc noi lccausc wc iclci ihcm in ihcmscIvcs, lui
lccausc no lciici aIicinaiivc sccms ocn io us. Moicovci, so Iong as
any choicc is ocn io us ai aII, ihcn ii wouIu sccm ihai whcihci in a
moiaI oi mcicIy a IcgaI conicxi, oui choicc is onc loi which wc may
iociIy lc hcIu icsonsilIc.
j. BnI .o In. o eL. nn.r
Oncc moic Ici us scc how ihis iinciIc woiIs oui in icims ol a
sccic IcgaI oi moiaI siiuaiion. Quoiing again liom ihc samc IcgaI
auihoiiiy:
Thc Icauing uccision in ihis couniiy on ihc uclcncc ol ncccssiiy
is U.S. v. HoImcs. Thc casc is cscciaIIy signicani lccausc ii is un-
cxccIIcu in iis suggcsiivcncss ol ihc quaIiiy ol aciion iaIcn in siaics
ol ncccssiiy.
In Maich ol 1Sq1 ihc Amciican shi, V.II.n B.o.r, saiIcu liom
IivciooI, caiiying a cicw ol scvcniccn, anu sixiy-vc cmigianis
lounu loi ihc Uniicu Siaics. On AiiI 1gih, alici ihiiiy-cighi uays
ai sca, ii siiucI an icclcig Iaic ai nighi anu lcgan io II iaiuIy.
Thiiiy-iwo asscngcis, ihc isi maic anu cighi scamcn goi inio a
Iong-loai; ihc caiain, cighi scamcn anu onc asscngci iooI io
ihc smaIIci joIIyloai. In IiiiIc moic ihan an houi ihc V.II.nB.o.r
sanI, caiiying wiih hci ihiiiy-onc asscngcis, ihc majoiiiy ol ihcm,
chiIuicn. Bui noi onc ol ihc occis oi cicw wcni uown wiih ihc
shi. Thc iwo Iilcloais aiicu ihc ncxi moining, whcn ii was a-
aicni ihai ihc Iong-loai wouIu lc unmanagcalIc, inuccu, ihc isi
maic hau aIicauy inloimcu ihc caiain ihai ii wouIu lc ncccssaiy
io casi Iois anu ihiow somc ovciloaiu. Ici ii lc ihc Iasi icsoii,
saiu ihc caiain, oiuciing his cicw io uII away. AImosi immcui-
aicIy alici lcing occuicu, ihc Iong-loai hau lcgun io iaIc waici
ihiough a Iuggcu hoIc ihai lccamc Iooscncu. Thc loai was so
ciowucu ihai ihc asscngcis wcic Iying anu siiiing on onc anoihci;
ihcic was noi sucicni ioom io laiI oui ihc waici quicIIy. Ioi
[ 1:o | v.+i o.i x.
iwcniy-loui houis ihcy caiiicu on in ihc icy waicis o ihc coasi ol
Ialiauoi. Thcn ii lcgan io iain anu ii iaincu aII ihc ncxi uay, anu
ly nighi ihc sca hau lccomc vciy iough anu ihc winu siiongci ihan
cvci. Thc mcn laiIcu lianiicaIIy lui ihc loai sccmcu uoomcu. A
woman asscngci, immciscu in waici aImosi io hci Inccs, hcaiu
somconc ciy, wc aic sinIing, anu saiu, wc shaII aII lc Iosi. An-
oihci shouicu: Thc Iug is oui. Thc loai is sinIing. Gou havc
mcicy on oui ooi souIs. Thc maic gavc ihc oiuci io casi ovci-
loaiu aII ihc maIc asscngcis cxcci iwo whosc wivcs wcic icscni.
Unhccucu, hc iccaicu ihc oiuci; ihcn, louiiccn mcn wcic ihiown
ovciloaiu, anu iwo young womcn, sisicis ol onc ol ihcm, ciihci mci
a IiIc laic oi chosc io join ihcii lioihci. Thc ncxi moining iwo oihci
mcn who hau hiuucn ihcmscIvcs wcic uiscovcicu, anu ihc cicw ui
loih ol ihcm ovciloaiu. AImosi immcuiaicIy aliciwaius ihc Iong-
loai was sighicu ly ihc C.eer; aII suivivois wcic iianslciicu io ii,
anu Iaici uiscmlaiIcu ai Ic Havic.
4
In iiying io asscss ciihci ihc moiaI oi ihc IcgaI icsonsiliIiiy ol
ihc isi maic loi ihc ucaihs ol ihc mcn ihiown ovciloaiu, ihc iol-
Icm lccomcs onc iimaiiIy ol xing ihc Iinu oi ucgicc ol ncccssiiy
unuci which ihc maic acicu. Thc man couIu cciiainIy say in his own
uclcnsc, anu oihcis couIu say on his lchaIl, ihai hc uiu noihing lui
whai incxoialIc ncccssiiy ucmanucu, ihai hc uiu noi wani io causc
ihc ucaihs ol ihc mcn who wcic ihiown ovciloaiu, lui ihai hc hau
io, ciicumsianccs having mauc ii ncccssaiy.
Onc immcuiaicIy iccognizcs ihai ihcic was no alsoIuic ncccssiiy in-
voIvcu hcic: ii was onIy in conscqucncc ol ihc maics own uccision ihai
ihc mcn wcic scni io ihcii ucaihs, anu hc couIu havc choscn oihci-
wisc. Ii was ihus onc ol ihosc mixcu acis, in which ihc aciion uiu
iocccu liom ihc agcnis own choicc, aIlcii a choicc which uiu noi
commcnu iiscIl io him in iiscIl, lui onIy as ihc Icssci ol iwo cviIs.
NcvciihcIcss, sincc ihc aciion was onc which ihc agcni uiu choosc anu
ucciuc uon himscIl, ii was onc loi which hc was himscIl icsonsilIc.
AccoiuingIy, uiiing asiuc ihc siiiciIy IcgaI qucsiion ol guiIi oi inno-
ccncc, anu conning oui aiicniion io ihc moiaI qucsiion aIonc, whai is
io lc saiu loi ihc maics choicc in such a casc. Was ii ihc iighi choicc.
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 1:1 |
Was ii a choicc ihai a goou man oi wisc man wouIu havc mauc in simi-
Iai ciicumsianccs.
To juugc liom ihc somcwhai scani uciaiIs which aic givcn in ihc
summaiy ol ihc casc, ii wouIu haiuIy sccm ihai ihc isi maic acicu in
a aiiicuIaiIy hcioic oi cvcn moiaIIy commcnualIc lashion. Thcic is
cvcn a suggcsiion ihai hc shaicu wiih ihc caiain ihc lIamc loi ihcm-
scIvcs iaIing io ihc Iilcloais anu iiying io savc ihcii own sIins, cvcn
ihough many ol ihc asscngcis wcic Icli aloaiu anu wcni uown wiih
ihc shi. Onc wouIu haiuIy say ihai ihc maics uccisions anu aciions
icccicu any vciy icmaiIalIc uisIay ol moiaI viiiucol couiagc, ol
uigniiy, ol scnsc ol icsonsiliIiiy, ol gicaincss ol souI.
NcvciihcIcss, loi oui icscni uioscs, ihc moic inicicsiing qucs-
iion is noi whcihci ihc maic iovcu unuci ihc ciicumsianccs io lc
a man ol somcwhai qucsiionalIc moiaI siaiuic. Raihci I suggcsi ihai
wc osc ihc qucsiion a IiiiIc uicicniIy: suosc wc asI how a man ol
unqucsiioncu moiaI siaiuic wouIu havc acicu unuci ihc samc ciicum-
sianccs. Whai wouIu hc havc uonc. Suosc Sociaics himscIl wcic in
ihc shocs ol ihc isi maic, anu suosc ihai hc hau mauc his choicc,
cxcicising ihc icIcvani inicIIcciuaI anu moiaI viiiucs, whai wouIu his
uccision havc lccn. SiiangcIy cnough, his uccision mighi vciy wcII
havc lccn ihc samc as ihc isi maics.
Ii is quiic conccivalIc ihai a man in comIcic osscssion ol him-
scIl, scnsing luIIy his icsonsiliIiiics in ihc siiuaiion, noi loi a momcni
ihinIing simIy ol saving himscIl, lui lcing quiic icauy io saciicc his
own Iilc isi il nccu lc, mighi ncvciihcIcss ucciuc ihai in ihcsc ai-
iicuIai ciicumsianccs ihc ioci couisc was loi him io saciicc ihc
Iivcs ol somc ol ihc asscngcis isi. Hc mighi icaIizc ihai onIy a vciy
sIiIIluI scaman couIu Icc ihc Iongloai aoai ai aII; ihai onIy an o-
cci wiih sucicni auihoiiiy couIu Icc ihc uisiiaughi asscngcis, io
say noihing ol ihc cowaiuIy anu iiicsonsilIc mcmlcis ol ihc cicw,
in Iinc. Hcncc ii is icauiIy imaginalIc ihai icIucianiIy, anu uouliIcss
cvcn wiih many misgivings, oui Sociaics, iuincu shis occi, mighi
havc mauc ihc samc choicc as ihc iaihci shally-sccming isi maic:
ihc onc, quiic as much as ihc oihci, mighi havc givcn ihc oiuci io havc
somc ol ihc asscngcis ihiown ovciloaiu in oiuci io savc ihc Iivcs ol
ihc oihcis.
[ 1:: | v.+i o.i x.
.. ro vi iir oivsiivis toxxi++ir +o .
xivi i+uits oi coor i+i+ios .i+iv .ii.
Bui uocs ihis noi oini u a cuiious aiauox, cihas cvcn a gIai-
ing wcaIncss, in ihc whoIc cihicaI ihcoiy wc havc ihus lai lccn cx-
ounuing. Il oui hyoihciicaI Sociaics in ihc ioIc ol isi maic uiu
whai hc uiu, cxcicising ihc moiaI viiiucs, ihcn ly oui accouni his con-
uuci wouIu lc moiaIIy commcnualIc anu iighi. On ihc oihci hanu,
ihc aciuaI isi maic uoing ihc samc ihing, noi liom moiaI viiiuc, lui
iiicsonsilIy anu iimaiiIy in oiuci io savc his own sIinin his casc
ihc vciy samc conuuci wouIu havc io lc aujuugcu icichcnsilIc anu
lau. WouIu ii noi sccm, ihcn, ihai on oui vicw ol cihics, ii maIcs noi
ihc sIighicsi uicicncc whai a man uocs; ii is onIy how hc uocs ii ihai
counisi.c., in whai siiii hc uocs ii, anu whcihci hc uocs ii wiih goou
wiII oi noi. In shoii, ihc cihics ol ihc cxamincu Iilc, ol ihc inicIIigcni
Iilc, iuins oui io lc no moic ihan an cihics ol goou inicniions. Oi
uocs ii.
Bcloic answciing ihis qucsiion, Ici us consiuci siiII anoihci imIi-
caiion ol ihc way in which wc havc lccn suggcsiing ihai onc asscss ihc
moiaI woiih ol aciions ciloimcu unuci so-caIIcu ncccssiiy. To iccui
oncc moic io ihc sinIing ol ihc V.II.n B.o.r, ii is conccivalIc ihai noi
cvciy goou man, nuing himscIl in ihc shocs ol ihc isi maic, wouIu
havc ucciucu io uo whai ihc isi maic uiu. Sociaics mighi havc uc-
ciucu io ihiow somc ol ihc asscngcis ovciloaiu, lui ii is aIso concciv-
alIc ihai hc mighi havc comc io a vciy uicicni uccision. Hc mighi
havc icasoncu in somc such way as ihis: Iis iiuc ihai my sIiII anu my
auihoiiiy aic iolalIy ncccssaiy io Icc ihc Iongloai aoai; hcncc
il I saciiccu myscIl, ihc icsi aic much moic IiIcIy io ciish. On ihc
oihci hanu, as a shis occi, ii is my icsonsiliIiiy io suloiuinaic my
own wcIlaic io ihai ol ihc asscngcis anu ihc shi as a whoIc; noi onIy
ihai, lui as a human lcing I icaIizc ihai ii is haiuIy ihc aii ol a liavc
man, io say noihing ol a man wiih a scnsc ol his own uigniiy anu ic-
sonsiliIiiy, io iiy io woiI ihings aiounu in such a way ihai ii is his
own Iilc ihai is savcu, whiIc oihcis aic saciiccu. Whais moic, cvcn
ihough ii mighi wcII sccm in ihis aiiicuIai casc as il uuiy icsciilcu
ihc samc couisc ol aciion as ihai uiciaicu ly scIl-inicicsi, siiII such a
sccming coinciucncc ol uuiy anu scIl-inicicsi is aIways io lc icgaiucu
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 1: |
wiih susicion: ii is onIy ioo IiIcIy ihai in such ciicumsianccs oncs su-
oscuIy icasoncu juugmcni ol whai oncs uuiy is wiII in laci lc mcicIy a
cowaiuIy iaiionaIizaiion. ConscqucniIy, aII ihings consiucicu, ii wouIu
sccm io lc ihc lciici aii loi mc io ihiow myscIl ovciloaiu isi. In
ihis way I can maIc suic ihai I Icc my own sIaic cIcan; anu in auui-
iion, ii mighi ossilIy scivc as an cxamIc io oihcis, cncouiaging anu
cvcn insiiing ihcm io iaIc ihcmscIvcs in hanu, anu ovcicomc ihcii
anic, anu aci somcwhai moic IiIc sanc anu scnsilIc human lcings.
Accciing such a Iinc ol icasoning as sounu anu uclcnsilIc, ihc con-
cIusion liom oui cxamIc sccms cIcai: iwo moiaIIy goou mcn, whcn
conlionicu wiih ihc samc ciicumsianccs, mighi wcII ucciuc ihai ihc
siiuaiion caIIcu loi iauicaIIy uicicni iycs ol conuuci, anu loih uc-
cisions wouIu lc cniiicIy waiianicu anu moiaIIy commcnualIc. Moic-
ovci, ihis concIusion icnus io icinloicc anu conim ihc caiIici hy-
oihcsis which wc consiucicu alovc, viz., ihai in icsonsc io a givcn
siiuaiion ihc samc couisc ol aciion wouIu havc io lc aujuugcu moiaIIy
iighi anu commcnualIc whcn ciloimcu ly a goou man, anu noi so
whcn ciloimcu ly a man who was noi goou. In loih insianccs, ii
wouIu sccm ihai ii is noi ihc aci iiscIl ihai counis, lui onIy ihc inicn-
iions ol ihc acioi oi agcni. In oihci woius, whai wc havc hcic uocs
sccm io lc an cihics ol goou inicniions.
v. vi+ +ui coor iiii xis+ vi . i+iiiici+
iiii, o+ is+ . viii-xi.ic iiii
Noi cniiicIy so, howcvci. Ii is iiuc ihai il ihc goaI ol oui cihicaI cn-
ucavois is noihing Icss ihan ihc achicvcmcni ol an cxamincu Iilc, ihcn
wc aic conccincu io juugc noi ihc isoIaicu aci, oi cvcn ihc cccis ol
such an aci uon oihcis anu uon sociciy; iaihci ii is ihc human lcing
himscIl ihai wc aic iiying io juugc.
Oh, you wiII say, ihis is onIy io ush ihc issuc onc sic luiihci
lacI. Ioi whai is ii ihai maIcs a man a goou man, on ihc ihcoiy hcic
cxounucu, il ii lc noi simIy his lcing wcII-mcaning oi wcII-inicn-
iioncu. Iis noi whai hc uocs ihai counis so much as ihc quaIiiy ol his
choiccs. Iis noi cvcn whai ihc man Inows ihai sccms io couni. Ioi
uIiimaicIy ihc quaIiiy ol his choiccs is ucicimincu noi so much ly ihc
shicwuncss ihai hc uisIays in maIing ihcmas ly ihc moiaI viiiuc ihai
[ 1:q | v.+i o.i x.
hc cxciciscs. Docs ihis givc ihc Iic io ihc whoIc iuca ol ihc goou Iilc
lcing ihc inicIIigcni Iilc. InicIIigcncc sccms io lc IaigcIy iiicIcvani:
you mighi lc a cilcci ass, lui so Iong as you mcani wcII, you wouIu
ai Icasi lc cniiiIcu io ihc uisiinciion ol lcing goou, loi whaicvci ihai
mighi lc woiih!
This ciiiicism misscs ihc maiI, ihough, in iis cquaiion ol moiaI vii-
iuc wiih mcic goou inicniions. Ioi as wc havc aIicauy sccn, moiaI
viiiuc is noi somcihing ihai lunciions inuccnucniIy ol InowIcugc
anu inicIIigcncc; on ihc coniiaiy, ihc moiaI viiiucs aic noihing lui
haliis oi uisosiiions io choosc in accoiuancc wiih oui inicIIigcncc
anu oui lciici juugmcni. Yci ihc Iinu ol juugmcni ihai is icIcvani
hcic is noi juugmcni aloui how lcsi io win wais, avoiu ucicssions,
oi iciiic caiIy anu Iivc Iongci. Ii is ihc Iinu ol inicIIigcni juugmcni
ihai is conccincu simIy wiih oncscIl anu wiih whai ii iaIcs io lc a
iiuIy human lcing. Wiihoui ihis InowIcugc, noi aII ihc goou inicn-
iions in ihc woiIu wiII scivc io maIc oncs aciions ihc aciions ol a goou
man. Anu wiih such unucisianuing, onc siiII nccus ihc so-caIIcu moiaI
viiiucs in oiuci ihai hc wiII aciuaIIy wani anu comc io choosc ihosc
aciions which aic icquisiic in an inicIIigcni, cxamincu Iilc.
Coming lacI io ihc main ihcmc ol ihc icscni scciion, ii shouIu
now lc cIcai ihai ii is noi ihc loicc ol ciicumsianccs oi ihc chanccs
ol loiiunc ihai uIiimaicIy maIc us wcII o oi lauIy o. So Iong as ihc
cvcnis which lclaII us Icavc us wiih any choicc ai aII as io how wc shaII
icaci io oui laic, wc ihcn havc ihc ooiiuniiy ol icaciing ciihci in
ihc way ihai a goou man oi a wisc man wouIu icaci, oi oihciwisc. Thus
oui wcII-lcing siiII sccms io icmain iciiy much in oui own hanus anu
io lc oui own icsonsiliIiiy.
0. A rnI nou! n o ou. .eeno nrn .eor.!.I.,
.r Le ne o nn.e.e ..unre
AII ihc samc, wc musi noi Ici ouiscIvcs lc caiiicu away ly oui own
cIoqucncc on ihc suljcci ol mans liccuom in ihc lacc ol comcIIing
ciicumsianccs anu his icsonsiliIiiy loi his own uccisions anu choiccs.
Inuccu, ihcic is somcihing uisingcnuous, noi io say haiisaic, aloui
oui whoIc uiscussion ol ihc iiagcuy ol ihc V.II.n B.o.r. Ii is casy
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 1: |
cnough io sii comloiialIy in oncs siuuy anu wiiic omousIy anu juui-
ciousIy aloui how ihc isi maic laiIcu io uisIay ihc icquisiic moiaI
viiiuc in ihc siiuaiion in which hc lounu himscIl. Bui suosc wc oui-
scIvcs hau lccn oui in ihc Iongloai in ihc icy waicis ol ihc AiIaniic,
icaIizing ihai ihc loai was shiing waici lasici ihan ii couIu lc laiIcu
oui, Iisicning io ihc scicams anu shiicIs ol ihc ucsciaic asscngcis,
Inowing ihai ihc iosccis ol icscuc wcic so sIighi as io lc aImosi
non-cxisicni, jusi how wouIu wc havc conuucicu ouiscIvcs. Is ii noi
IiIcIy ihai wc shouIu havc lccn, il anyihing, cvcn Icss liavc anu Icss
hcioic ihan ihc isi maic. How ihcn can wc lc so gIil in oui con-
ucmnaiion ol him. Anu jusi how mcaningluI is ii io say ihai ihc maic,
siiiciIy scaIing, was noi loiccu io aci as hc uiu, ihai hc couIu havc
lchavcu oihciwisc.
In IiIc mannci, onc couIu say ihai ihc Amciican soIuicis who wcic
caiuicu in Koica, anu who wcic suljccicu io wccIs anu wccIs ol
consiani icssuic anu ioiiuic anu liain-washingonc couIu say, ol
couisc, ihai ihcsc mcn uiu noi havc io givc in, ihai ihcy couIu havc
icsisicu ihc icssuics cxciicu uon ihcm, anu ihai ihcy wcic ihcic-
loic icsonsilIc loi any moiaI wcaIncsscs ihai any ol ihcm may havc
shown in ihc couisc ol ihcii oiucaI. Oi, io changc ihc cxamIc, is ihcic
any scnsc in saying ihai a cison lioughi u in a ioiaIiiaiian icgimc,
anu conuiiioncu liom inlancy io lcIicvc aII ihc ouiouiings ol aiiy
ioaganua anu io manilcsi aII ihc haiicu anu lanaiicism ihai such
ioaganua is mcani io cvoIcis ihcic any scnsc in saying ihai such
a cison ncvciihcIcss icmains licc noi io lc iaIcn in ly such Iics anu
ihai hc is ihcicloic icsonsilIc loi noi having iiicu io iaciicc a moic
cxamincu Iilc.
CciiainIy, wainings againsi scIl-iighicousncss anu a hoIici-ihan-
ihou aiiiiuuc aic cniiicIy jusiicu. Moicovci, ihcic is aIways a oini
whcic cxicinaI icssuics lccomc so comcIIing ihai ihcii viciimis Icli
wiih no liccuomol choicc ai aII. Oui cxamIc ol ihis was ihc man who
was comIcicIy ovciowcicu anu IiiciaIIy loiccu io uII ihc iiiggci ol
a gun. Onc couIu aIso ciic cxamIcs ol whcic ihis oini was icachcu,
whcn ihc icssuics cxciicu wcic noi mcicIy ciuuc hysicaI icssuics
lui sychoIogicaI oncs.
Ii may lc uicuIi, il noi imossilIc, in iaciicc io uciciminc cxaciIy
whcn ihis oini is icachcu in ihc casc ol a givcn inuiviuuaI. Hcncc
[ 1:6 | v.+i o.i x.
onc can ncvci lc suic jusi whcn a mans liccuom ol choicc, anu hcncc
his icsonsiliIiiy loi his aciions, uisacai cniiicIy. NcvciihcIcss, cvcn
Iong lcloic any such cnu oini is icachcu, ii is olvious ihai ihc cxici-
naI loiccs cxciicu uon an inuiviuuaI may lccomc so gicai ihai cvcn
ihough in ihc IiiciaI scnsc hc may lc saiu siiII io havc somc liccuom
ol choicc, loi aII iaciicaI uioscs wc iccognizc ihai ihc icssuics on
him wcic so gicai ihai wc couIu noi lIamc ihc man loi aciing as hc
uiu unuci ihc ciicumsianccs.
Bui cvcn ihough chaiiiy anu unucisianuing aic aIways in oiuci in
oui asscssmcni ol ihc shoiicomings ol oihcis, ai ihc samc iimc ii is
imoiiani ihai wc ouiscIvcs noi Iosc sighi ol ihc laci ihai, uniiI ihai
cnu oini ol whai mighi lc caIIcu alsoIuic comuIsion is icachcu,
any human lcing, ouiscIvcs incIuucu, siiII has somc sIighi liccuom
ol choicc Icli anu ihus icmains lunuamcniaIIy a icsonsilIc human
lcing. This simIc laci may lc a souicc ol no IiiiIc uncasincss io us; ii
may cvcn lc a souicc ol whai ihc cxisicniiaIisis aic woni io caII uicau
oi anxiciy. Ioi such a icsonsiliIiiy is vciy haiu io Iivc u io. Yci ai ihc
samc iimc ii is ihc uIiimaic souicc ol oui uigniiy as human lcings, anu
hcncc ol any hoc ihai wc may chciish loi ouiscIvcs anu oui luiuic.
. S.II ore o.e nou!, L. .e ore.r.r Ln.re:
. Le oon I.e reen..I, Le Ln, I.e
Anu now loi onc Iasi oini ihai may havc sccmcu aiiicuIaiIy im-
IausilIc anu unicaIisiic in ihc loicgoing accouni ol mans comaia-
iivc inuccnucncc ol ihc changcs anu chanccs ol loiiunc. Wc havc
aigucu ihai no maiici whai hacns io a man, so Iong as hc has any
liccuom ol choicc Icli ai aII, hc wiII coniinuc io havc ihc oiion ol ic-
aciing io his laic in ihc way in which a wisc anu inicIIigcni man wouIu
uo, noi wiih whining anu comIaining, noi wiih giovcIIing anu cow-
aiuicc, noi wiih scIl-iiy anu icscnimcni, noi wiih lIusici anu liagga-
uocio, lui wiih loiiiiuuc, aiicncc, anu uigniiy.
Aumiiiing aII ihis, whai uocs ii havc io uo wiih haincss. Ioi ic-
mcmlci, oui cniiic jusiicaiion ol ihc goou Iilc oi ihc cxamincu Iilc
consisicu in ihc laci ihai ihis, loi a human lcing, is ihc hay Iilc. Yci
consiuciing ihc incicuilIy vaiicu anu liighiluI anu unloicsccalIc mis-
Bnn 1uI nrn C..unre n Cnue o Fn.Iu.e [ 1: |
loiiuncs ihai can lclaII a man in ihc couisc ol his Iilc, is ii noi lcing
laiuous io say ihai no maiici whai may hacn io him, aII hc nccus io
uo in oiuci io lc hay is simIy io cxcicisc ihc moiaI viiiucs.
Ii is onc ihing io iccommcnu ihc so-caIIcu goou Iilc on ihc giounu
ihai ii is oui uuiy, oi whai Gou ucmanus ol us, oi somcihing ol ihc
soii; lui ii is anoihci ihing io iccommcnu ii on ihc giounu ihai onIy
ihc goou Iilc is ihc hay Iilc. Ioi ihcic is no gciiing aiounu ihc laci
ihai human Iilc is liaughi wiih so many ciiIs ihai cvcn ihc moiaI
viiiuc ol a Sociaics couIu noi guaianicc anyihing ihai ly any siicich
ol ihc imaginaiion couIu lc caIIcu gcnuinc haincss.
This iolIcm Iagucu AiisioiIc himscIl in ihc vciy isi looI ol ihc
EL.:
Haincss, as wc saiu, icquiics loih comIcic goouncss anu a
comIcic Iilciimc. Ioi many icvciscs anu vicissiiuucs ol aII soiis
occui in ihc couisc ol Iilc, anu ii is ossilIc ihai ihc mosi iosci-
ous man may cncounici gicai uisasicis in his uccIining ycais, as ihc
sioiy is ioIu ol Piiamin ihc cics; lui no onc caIIs a man hay who
mccis wiih misloiiuncs IiIc Piiams, anu comcs io a miscialIc cnu.
5
AiisioiIcs icsoIuiion ol ihc iolIcm sccms ai isi icauing io lc somc-
whai cvasivc anu uisaoiniing:
Bui ihc acciucnis ol loiiunc aic many anu vaiy in ucgicc ol mag-
niiuuc; anu aIihough smaII icccs ol goou IucI, as aIso ol misloi-
iunc, cIcaiIy uo noi changc ihc whoIc couisc ol Iilc, yci gicai anu
iccaicu succcsscs wiII icnuci Iilc moic lIissluI, sincc loih ol ihcii
own naiuic ihcy hcI io cmlcIIish ii, anu aIso ihcy can lc nolIy anu
viiiuousIy uiiIizcu; whiIc gicai anu licqucni icvciscs can ciush anu
mai oui lIiss loih ly ihc ain ihcy causc anu ly ihc hinuiancc ihcy
oci io many aciiviiics. Yci ncvciihcIcss cvcn in auvcisiiy noliIiiy
shincs ihiough, whcn a man cnuuics iccaicu anu scvcic misloi-
iunc wiih aiicncc, noi owing io inscnsiliIiiy lui liom gcnciosiiy
anu gicaincss ol souI. Anu il, as wc saiu, a mans Iilc is ucicimincu
ly his aciiviiics, no suicmcIy hay man can cvci lccomc misci-
alIc. Ioi hc wiII ncvci uo haicluI oi lasc aciions, sincc wc hoIu
ihai ihc iiuIy goou anu wisc man wiII lcai aII Iinus ol loiiunc in a
sccmIy way, anu wiII aIways aci in ihc nolIcsi mannci ihai ihc cii-
[ 1:S | v.+i o.i x.
cumsianccs aIIow; cvcn as a goou gcnciaI maIcs ihc mosi ccciivc
usc ol ihc loiccs ai his uisosaI, anu a goou shocmaIci maIcs ihc
ncsi shoc ossilIc oui ol ihc Icaihci suIicu him, anu so on wiih
aII ihc oihci cialis anu iolcssions. Anu ihis lcing so, ihc hay
man can ncvci lccomc miscialIc; ihough ii is iiuc hc wiII noi lc
suicmcIy lIcsscu il hc cncounicis ihc misloiiuncs ol a Piiam.
6
How saiislacioiy is ihis as an answci io ihc chaIIcngc ihai ihc goou
Iilcihc Iilc ol inicIIcciuaI anu moiaI viiiucis no guaianicc ol ha-
incss. AiisioiIcs conccssion is a majoi onc: hc aumiis ihai, in cascs
ol cxiicmc auvcisiiy, ihc goou man cannoi lc saiu io cnjoy luII ha-
incss; in laci, hc cannoi couni on much moic ihan ihc nonc-ioo-
consoIing cciiainiy ihai hc wiII ai Icasi ncvci lccomc miscialIc.
This, you mighi say, is a iciiy sIimiccommcnuaiion loi a Iilc ol viiiuc!
Ii is wcII io Icc in minu whai AiisioiIc is iiying io iovc. Hc is
noi conccincu io ucmonsiiaic ihai viiiuc is a suic guaianicc ol hai-
ncss. Hc is onIy iiying io show ihai a Iilc ol viiiuc, whiIc noi an also-
Iuic guaianicc ol haincss, is ihc lcsi guaianicc ihcic is, anu ihai
ihc goou man, whiIc hc may noi lc comIcicIy hay unuci ciicum-
sianccs ol auvcisiiy, is ai Icasi haici unuci such ciicumsianccs ihan
ihc non-viiiuous man wouIu lc. In oihci woius, ihc AiisioicIian con-
icniion is ihai onIy ly Iiving in a iiuIy human wayi.c., ly cxcicising
ihc inicIIcciuaI anu moiaI viiiucscan a human lcing assuic himscIl
ol Icauing as hay anu as luII a Iilc as ciicumsianccs wiII cimii.
In ihc Iighi ol such consiuciaiions ii is ihc aii ol wisuom io ac-
InowIcugc ihai ihcic is anoihci uimcnsion io cihics, ovci anu alovc
ihc uimcnsion ol ihc uicIy human anu ihc iociIy hiIosohicaI.
In such a uimcnsion onc can onIy havc laiih ihai ihc Ioiu is my siony
iocI, anu my uclcnsc; my Savioi, my Gou, anu my mighi, in whom I
wiII iiusi, my lucIIci, ihc hoin aIso ol my saIvaiion, anu my iclugc.
7
This, howcvci, is io ass lcyonu hiIosohy anu cnici inio ihc ic-
cincis ol icIigion; lui io go lcyonu hiIosohy is io go lcyonu ihc
iovincc ol ihis looI.
7
But What If God Is Dead?
1. 1r.onu.or
Gou is ucau. This was Nicizschcs iocIamaiion, anu nowauays, ii
is somcihing ihai ncaiIy cvciyonc acccis wiihoui qucsiion. Thc io-
osiiion has comc io lc such a iiuism ihai no onc icmcmlcis io givc
Nicizschc ihc cicuii loi ii. Wc uoni cvcn loihci io iocIaim ii any
moic; wc jusi aci on ii. Ioi ihc imoii ol Nicizschcs iocIamaiion is
simIy ihai ihcic is no oljcciivcIy giounucu moiaI oiuci anywhcic in
ihc univcisc:
*
moiaIiiy can acaI nciihci io Gou noi io naiuic noi
io icaIiiy ol any Iinu as souiccs liom which ii may uciivc iis lasis anu
iis jusiicaiion. Anu il ihc lcIicl in Gou anu in an csscniiaIIy moiaI
oiuciing ol ihings is no Iongci icnalIc, why noi accci ihc consc-
qucncc, viz., ihc lcIicl in ihc alsoIuic immoiaIiiy ol naiuic anu in
ihc uiici uioscIcssncss anu mcaningIcssncss ol oui sychoIogicaIIy
ncccssaiy human imuIscs anu acciions.
1
Thc uiosc ol ihc icscni looI is io suggcsi ihai, in Nicizschcs
icims, Gou is noi ucau alici aII, ihai naiuic iiscIl, oi ai Icasi human
naiuic, uocs invoIvc a moiaI oiuci, which ii shouIu lc ihc conccin ol
human lcings io iccognizc anu io aci uon. Yci wc siiII havc noi luIIy
*Ii gocs aImosi wiihoui saying ihai ihc siaicmcni Thcic is no moiaI oiuci
in ihc univcisc is nciihci cquivaIcni io, noi a ncccssaiy conscqucncc ol, ihc
siaicmcni Gou is ucau. Howcvci, loih Nicizschc anu Saiiic uo consiuci ihai
in ihc moucin woiIu ihc Ioss ol laiih in a moiaI oiuci is in laci conscqucni uon
ihc Ioss ol laiih in Gou. Hcncc ihcy icnu io usc ihc iwo siaicmcnis as il ihcy
wcic iaciicaIIy inicichangcalIc. Wc shaII loIIow ihis usagc in loih ihc icscni
chaici anu ihc ncxi.
[ 1o | v.+i o.i x.
anu honcsiIy laccu u io ihc laci ihai Nicizschcs uicium is wiucIy ac-
ccicu ly oui conicmoiaiics, anu mighi wcII lc uscu as ihc cigiah
ol iaciicaIIy cvciy conicmoiaiy iicaiisc on cihics. In oui isi cha-
ici wc aigucu ihai cihicaI icIaiivism anu sIciicism aic unicnalIc anu
inconsisicni; lui wc havc siiII io mcci hcau-on ihc unshaIalIc cuiicni
conviciion ihai cihics has no oljcciivc lasis oi lounuaiion whaicvci.
To ihis cnu, ii wiII lc aioiiaic io consiuci cciiain chaiaciciisiic cx-
amIcs ol icscni-uay cihicaI osiiions, in which an aiicmi is mauc
io convcii Nicizschcs cihicaI sIciicism inio a osiiion ol siicngih.
z. U.I.n..nr.
.. +ui iriiiiviti oi i+iii+.vi.isx +o iis+ios
vic.vric . ovit+ivi v.sis iov i+uits
Wiih a comlinaiion ol navc cxulciancc anu EngIish smugncss,
]cicmy BcnihamconucniIy insisicu ihai ihc whoIc lusincss ol moiaIs
anu cihics couIu lc icuuccu simIy io a maiici ol iomoiing ihc gicai-
csi haincss ol ihc gicaicsi numlci. This osiiion maIcs scnsc io
many mcn anu womcn Iiving in icscni-uay sociciy. Why woiiy aloui
whcihci naiuic is amoiaI, oi whcihci oui sychoIogicaIIy ucicimincu
lccIings anu imuIscs havc any mcaning. Wc Inow whai wc wani, uoni
wc. So Icis iiy io gci whai wc wani, anu gci ii loi as many ol oui lcI-
Iow human lcings as wc can, wiihoui iioulIing ouiscIvcs ovci whcihci
ihis iinciIc ol conuuci is sanciioncu ly Gou oi ly naiuic oi ly somc
uIiimaic moiaI oiuci ol ihc univcisc.
v. .i+viisx .s . i+uit.i vir uivvic
Anoihci lcaiuic ol ihis uiiIiiaiian iogiam iccommcnus ii io many
coIc, aIihough ii mighi havc uisiuilcu somc ol ihc oiiginaI ioo-
ncnis ol ihc uociiinc, aiiicuIaiIy ]ohn Siuaii MiII. Mosi coIc iouay,
wc wouIu suggcsi, icnu io assumc ihai moiaIs oi cihics invoIvcs onIy
ihcii icIaiions wiih oihcis anu ncvci ihcii icIaiions wiih ihcmscIvcs.
Evciyonc Inows whai hc himscIl IiIcs anu cnjoys, whai wouIu lc a
souicc ol Icasuic anu haincss io himscIl. Thc iolIcm ihus is noi
onc ol Inowing whai onc wanis, lui ol Inowing how io gci ii wiihoui
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 11 |
injuiing ioo many oihci coIc anu uciiving ihcm ol whai Le, wani.
Iiom such a sianuoini moiaIiiy consisis in noihing lui having icgaiu
loi oihcis. Onc has no olIigaiion io uisuc oncs own haincss; onc
wiII uo ihai anyhow; lui onc uocs havc an olIigaiion io consiuci ihc
haincss ol oihcis, ihc gicaicsi haincss ol ihc gicaicsi numlci.
Thc uiiIiiaiians havc aIways hau somc uicuIiy in showing why any-
onc has any olIigaiion io ihinI aloui oihcis. Il onc lcgins ly lasing
oncs cihics on siiaighiloiwaiu hcuonisiic iinciIcs, assciiing ihai
Icasuic is ihc onIy ihing ol any vaIuc in Iilc anu iccommcnuing ihai
ihc moiaI agcni simIy uo as hc Icascs, ii is aicniIy uicuIi io maIc
ihc iiansiiion liom such a siaiiing oini io ihc luiihci assciiion ihai
ihis samc moiaI agcni oughi io conccin himscIl noi mcicIy wiih his
own Icasuic, lui cquaIIy wiih ihc Icasuic ol oihcis.
To lc suic, a uiiIiiaiian can iiy io jusiily having icgaiu loi oihcis
simIy on ihc giounu ihai ihis is in oncs own lcsi inicicsis. This wouIu
lc an aIiiuismlascu on uicIy cgoisiic giounus. Bui, as has olicn lccn
icmaiIcu, ihis wouIu noi lc gcnuinc aIiiuism ai aII: ihc haincss ol
oihcis oi ihc gicaicsi haincss ol ihc gicaicsi numlci wouIu noi lc
iniiinsicaIIy vaIualIc oi woiih whiIc; ihc onIy vaIuc aiiaching io ihc
haincss ol oihcis wouIu lc ihc uicIy insiiumcniaI onc ihai ii wouIu
somchow coniiiluic io oncs own gicaici haincss.
Again, onc can iiy io Iaunch an aigumcni, invoIving uicIy Iogi-
caI oi Iinguisiic consiuciaiions, io show ihai ii cani lc jusi oncs own
haincss ihai is ol vaIuc, lui iaihci ihc haincss ol aII, oi ai Icasi
ihc gicaicsi haincss ol ihc gicaicsi numlci. Many coIc wiII iccaII
MiIIs aigumcni io ihis ccci:
Qucsiions aloui cnus aic, in oihci woius, qucsiions whai ihings
aic ucsiialIc. Thc uiiIiiaiian uociiinc is ihai haincss is ucsiialIc,
anu ihc onIy ihing ucsiialIc, as an cnu; aII oihci ihings lcing onIy
ucsiialIc as mcans io ihai cnu. Whai oughi io lc icquiicu ol ihis
uociiinc, whai conuiiions is ii icquisiic ihai ihc uociiinc shouIu luI-
IIio maIc goou iis cIaim io lc lcIicvcu.
Thc onIy iool caalIc ol lcing givcn ihai an oljcci is visilIc is
ihai coIc aciuaIIy scc ii. Thc onIy iool ihai a sounu is auuilIc
is ihai coIc hcai ii; anu so ol ihc oihci souiccs ol oui cxcii-
cncc. In IiIc mannci, I aichcnu, ihc soIc cviucncc ii is ossilIc io
[ 1: | v.+i o.i x.
iouucc ihai anyihing is ucsiialIc is ihai coIc uo aciuaIIy ucsiic
ii. Il ihc cnu which ihc uiiIiiaiian uociiinc iooscs io iiscIl wcic
noi, in ihcoiy anu in iaciicc, acInowIcugcu io lc an cnu, noih-
ing couIu cvci convincc any cison ihai ii was so. No icason can
lc givcn why ihc gcnciaI haincss is ucsiialIc, cxcci ihai cach
cison, so lai as hc lcIicvcs ii io lc aiiainalIc, ucsiics his own ha-
incss. This, howcvci, lcing a laci, wc havc noi onIy aII ihc iool
which ihc casc aumiis ol, lui aII which ii is ossilIc io icquiic, ihai
haincss is a goou, ihai cach cisons haincss is a goou io ihai
cison, anu ihc gcnciaI haincss, ihcicloic, a goou io ihc aggic-
gaic ol aII cisons.
2
As siaicu, ihis aigumcni is uulious, io say ihc Icasi. Whcihci ii can
lc savcu liom coIIasc ly a moic suliIc loimuIaiion ol ihc icluia-
iion ol cgoism in ihc mannci ol G. E. Mooic
3
is a qucsiion wiih which
wc nccu noi conccin ouiscIvcs hcic. NcvciihcIcss uiiIiiaiianism uocs
commcnu iiscIl io many coIc, as an cihicaI uociiinc ihai sccms io
icsi on no moic ihan ihc laci ihai human lcings Inow ihc uicicncc
lciwccn lcing hay anu lcing miscialIc. Ii commcnus iiscIl loi ihc
vciy icason ihai ii icquiics no qucsiionalIc icsuosiiion ol a moiaI
oiuci iooicu in ihc naiuic ol ihings. Ii commcnus iiscIl, aIso, as a uoc-
iiinc which icnus io ccnici oui moiaI conccin aImosi cxcIusivcIy on
ihc wcIlaic anu haincss ol oihcis. Ioi somc siiangc icason mosi
coIc iouay sccm io assumc ihai moiaIiiy lcgins anu cnus wiih hcI-
ing oihcis. UiiIiiaiianism acaIs io ihcm lccausc ii is ihcii iccon-
ccivcu noiions
4
ol whai an cihicaI oi moiaI ihcoiy shouIu lc.
Whcihci oi noi such a uiiIiiaiian iyc ol aIiiuism can lc jusiicu,
any such iucniicaiion ol cihics wiih aIiiuism is iauicaIIy ai vaiiancc
wiih ihc soii ol cihics ol ihc iaiionaI man ihai wc havc lccn iiying
io uclcnu in ihis looI. In AiisioiIcs cycs cihics uocs noi lcgin wiih
ihinIing ol oihcis, ii lcgins wiih oncscIl. Thc icason is ihai cvciy hu-
man lcing laccs ihc iasI ol Icaining how io Iivc, how io lc a human
lcing, jusi as hc has io Icain how io waII oi io iaII. No onc can lc
iiuIy human, can Iivc anu aci as a iaiionaI man, wiihoui isi going
ihiough ihc uicuIi anu olicn ainluI lusincss ol acquiiing ihc inicI-
IcciuaI anu moiaI viiiucs, anu ihcn, having acquiicu ihcm, aciuaIIy
cxcicising ihcm in ihc concicic, lui iiicIy, lusincss ol Iiving.
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1 |
This is noi io say ihai loi AiisioiIc cihics has no conccin wiih ihc
wcIlaic ol oihcis. Noi aic wc aiguing ihai AiisioiIc is ncccssaiiIy any
moic succcssluI ihan ihc uiiIiiaiians in ioviuing an aucquaic jusii-
caiion loi ihc olIigaiion, which is cciiainIy incumlcni uon us aII,
io conccin ouiscIvcs wiih ihc iighis anu ihc wcII-lcing ol oui lcIIow
mcn. PcisonaIIy, I ihinI ihai AiisioiIc uocs ioviuc a lciici jusiica-
iion ihan ihc uiiIiiaiians. Bui sincc ihc invcsiigaiion in ihis looI is
icsiiicicu io inuiviuuaI cihics, as coniiasicu wiih sociaI cihics, io iol-
Icms ol ihc inuiviuuaIs ucvcIomcni anu cilcciion as coniiasicu wiih
ihosc ol ihc siaic anu sociciy, wc can ass ovci ihis issuc as noi lcing
icIcvani io oui icscni uiosc.
t. +ui isiiiitiitiis oi +vvic +o totiivi u.vviiss
.v.v+ ivox .v ovit+ivi tvi+ivio
To iciuin io qucsiions ihai aic icIcvani, wc olscivcu caiIici ihai
in ihc cycs ol many coIc nowauays ihcic is no iolIcm in ucning
whai ihcy ihcmscIvcs wani oi whai wouIu maIc ihcm hay oi lc lcsi
loi ihcm; ihc onIy iolIcmis whcihci in uisuing ihcii own lcsi inici-
csis ihcy may comc inio conici wiih ihc inicicsis ol oihcis. Sociaics,
howcvci, lai liom suosing ihai cvciyonc iciiy much Inows whai
is lcsi loi him, assumcs ihai ihc iimaiy, il noi ihc cxcIusivc, iol-
Icm ol cihics is icciscIy ihai ol Inowing oncscIl. In ihc Iighi ol oui
whoIc iaihci cIaloiaic anaIysis ol ihc human moiaI siiuaiion, can any
ol us any Iongci lc unuci any misaichcnsion as io whai looIs wc
moiiaIs lc. Wc uo noi Inow ouiscIvcs, wc aic loicvci ucIuuing oui-
scIvcs, maIing ouiscIvcs lcIicvc wc aic somcihing which wc aic noi,
iiying aIways io siiiIc a osc oi io aci a aii, iclusing consianiIy io
scc ouiscIvcs as oihcis scc us.
Thc souicc ol ihis scIl-lIinuncss, which uiiIiiaiianismso olicn sccms
io losici, can lc Iocaicu in ihai vciy icnucncy on ihc aii ol uiiIiiai-
ian moiaIisis io iiy io cicci an cihics mcicIy on ihc lasis ol human
Icasuic anu haincss, anu noi on ihc lasis ol human naiuic oi ihc
moiaI oiuci ol naiuic as whoIc. Noihing wouIu sccm io lc casici ihan
loi a man io lc conicnicu wiih himscIl, whcn in laci ihc scIl hc is so
conicnicu wiih laIIs wocluIIy shoii ol whai his scIl mighi lc cxccicu
io lc, in ihc Iighi ol mans naiuiaI human caaciiics loi an inicIIigcni
[ 1q | v.+i o.i x.
anu cxamincu Iilc. Thc cxamIc ol Sii WaIici EIIioii shouIu lc cnough
io convincc us ihai ihc whoIc iasI ol moiaIs anu cihics is noi io maIc
mcn hay anu conicnicu; on ihc coniiaiy, ihc iasI ol cihics is io
maIc ihcmunhay wiih whai ihcy aic ai icscni, io iousc ihcmliom
ihcii smugncss anu comIaccncy. Ioi in AiisioiIcs cycs ihc ihing io lc
soughi in Iilc is noi haincss as such, lui haincss oi saiislaciion in
ihc aiiainmcni ol oncs naiuiaI human cnu ol cilcciion. This is why
wc caiIici soIc ol AiisioiIcs oljcciivc ucniiion
5
ol haincss anu
ol his coii io maIc ol haincss somcihing oljcciivcIy uciciminalIc.
To maIc ihis oini againsi ihc uiiIiiaiians, wc havc ciicu ihc hay
anu saiiscu cxisicncc ol Sii WaIici EIIioii. Wc mighi cvcn moic aiIy
havc uscu ihc cxamIc ol MaiccIs man on ihc Unucigiounu,
6
whosc
Iilc was olviousIy lIighicu anu miscialIc whcn juugcu ly ihc sian-
uaius ol mcns naiuiaI human caaciiics, lui who ncvciihcIcss mighi
havc lccn ihoioughIy hay anu saiiscu wiih his own csiimaic ol
himscIl.
Now, cihas, wc can lcgin io scc how HuxIcys B.n.e Ne. Vo.In is
a lai moic ucvasiaiing icluiaiion ol uiiIiiaiianism ihan aII ihc suliIc
anu cIaloiaic hiIosohicaI aigumcnis ihai onc can musici. HuxIcy
cIcaiIy ciccivcs, as wc aII musi nowauays il wc sio io ihinI aloui ii,
ihai ihc mosi ccicni anu ainIcss way ol achicving ihc gicaicsi ha-
incss ol ihc gicaicsi numlci is io conuiiion human lcings so as io
maIc ihcm unqucsiioningIy anu unqucsiionalIy hay in ihcii ioIcs
as AIhas, Bcias, Gammas, oi DcIias ol ihc iwcniicih-ccniuiy Icvia-
ihan.
As ihc ConiioIIci icminucu ihc Savagc,
You cani maIc ivvcis wiihoui siccIanu you cani maIc iiagc-
uics wiihoui sociaI insialiIiiy. Thc woiIus sialIc now. PcoIc aic
hay; ihcy gci whai ihcy wani, anu ihcy ncvci wani whai ihcy cani
gci. Thcyic wcII o; ihcyic salc; ihcyic ncvci iII; ihcyic noi aliaiu
ol ucaih; ihcyic lIissluIIy ignoiani ol assion anu oIu agc; ihcyic
Iagucu wiih no moihcis oi laihcis; ihcyvc goi no wivcs, oi chiI-
uicn, oi Iovcis io lccI siiongIy aloui; ihcyic so conuiiioncu ihai
ihcy iaciicaIIy cani hcI lchaving as ihcy oughi io lchavc. Anu
il anyihing shouIu go wiong, ihcics on. Which you go anu chucI
oui ol ihc winuow in ihc namc ol Iilciiy, Mi. Savagc. 1.!e., Hc
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1 |
Iaughcu. Excciing DcIias io Inow whai Iilciiy is! Anu now cx-
cciing ihcm io unucisianu OLeIIo My goou loy!
Thc Savagc was siIcni loi a IiiiIc. AII ihc samc, hc insisicu ol-
siinaicIy, OLeIIos goou, OLeIIos lciici ihan ihosc lccIics.
Ol couisc ii is, ihc ConiioIIci agiccu. Bui ihais ihc iicc wc
havc io ay loi sialiIiiy. Youvc goi io choosc lciwccn haincss anu
whai coIc uscu io caII high aii. Wcvc saciiccu ihc high aii. Wc
havc ihc lccIics anu ihc sccni oigan insicau.
Bui ihcy uoni mcan anyihing.
Thcy mcan ihcmscIvcs; ihcy mcan a Ioi ol agiccalIc scnsaiions
io ihc auuicncc.
7
]ohn Siuaii MiII himscIl iccognizcu ihis soii ol uangci whcn hc uc-
cIaicu, Ii is lciici io lc a human lcing uissaiiscu ihan a ig sai-
iscu; lciici io lc Sociaics uissaiiscu ihan a looI saiiscu.
8
Bui in
ihus voicing his own honcsi conviciions, MiII uiiciIy lciiaycu his own
uiiIiiaiian iinciIcs. Bcsiucs, MiII Iivcu in ihc comloiialIc Vicioiian
cia. Hau hc Iivcu iouay, whcn ioiaIiiaiian uiciaiois sccm io osscss
such IimiiIcss icsouiccs loi maIing mcn hay ly iuining ihcm inio
igs anu looIs, onc wonucis whcihci MiII wouIu noi havc lccn among
ihc isi io iccognizc ihai mcic Icasuic anu haincss, whcn unuci-
sioou in alsiiaciion liom ihc moiaI icquiicmcni ol mans naiuic as
a human lcing, so lai liom lcing sucicni ciiiciia ol ihc goou Iilc,
may wcII iovc io lc ihc insiiumcnis ol mans uiici ucgiauaiion anu
liuiaIizaiion.
j. C. E. Aoo.e nrn Le .o!Ie o Le rnu.nI.. nIIn,
.. vuiiosovuit.i sovuis+it.+io .r i+iii+.vi.isx
Bui isni aII ihis ciiiicism ol uiiIiiaiianism iaihci IiIc whiing a
ucau hoisc. AIihough uiiIiiaiian iinciIcs may lc among ihc siaIc
icsuosiiions ol ihc comaiaiivcIy unciiiicaI cihicaI ihinIing ol
icscni-uay inicIIcciuaIs, uiiIiiaiianism uocs noi sccm io lc iaIcn
ioo sciiousIy ly acaucmic hiIosohcis. Evci sincc G. E. Mooic io-
ounucu his lamous aigumcni aloui ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy,
9
loih
hcuonism anu uiiIiiaiianism havc sccmcu ihoioughIy uiscicuiicu.
[ 16 | v.+i o.i x.
Oi havc ihcy. IionicaIIy cnough, whiIc ihc ccci ol Mooics aigu-
mcni has lccn io Icavc uiiIiiaiianism comIcicIy unuonc, ii sccms io
havc Icli unuonc cvciy oihci iyc ol cihics as wcII; noi havc moic ic-
ccni EngIish wiiicis on cihics comc loiwaiu wiih anyihing much io
iaIc ihc Iacc ol uiiIiiaiianism. On ihc coniiaiy, ihcii aciiviiy sccms
io havc lccn uivciicu liom iociIy cihicaI conccins io conccin wiih
ihc mcic anaIysis ol cihicaI Ianguagc. ShouIu you asI ihcsc anaIysis io
whai soii ol cihics ihcy wouIu lc incIincu cisonaIIy io commii ihcm-
scIvcs, ihcy wouIu iolalIy say ihai a mans cisonaI commiimcnis
aic in no wisc a hiIosohicaI maiici, anu hcncc no oncs lusincss lui
ihcii own. ShouIu you ciscvcic, assuiing ihcm ihai you icaIizc ihai
hiIosohy is alovc anyihing so cisonaI as conviciions anu lcIicls,
anu ihai aII you aic uoing is manilcsiing a vciy unhiIosohicaI cuii-
osiiy as io whai ihcii moiaI conviciions may hacn io lc, ii is jusi
ossilIc ihai ihcy mighi comc oui liom lchinu ihcii sohisiicaiion
Iong cnough io aumii ihai ihcy wcic uiiIiiaiians, ihough IaigcIy as a
maiici ol couisc anu lccausc ihcy haiuIy Inow whai cIsc io lc. ]usi iiy
sciaiching ihc sIin ol an u-io-ihc-minuic Oxloiu hiIosohci, anu
you may nu ihai hc is noihing lui a simIc uiiIiiaiian unucincaih.
v. +ui .+iv.iis+it i.ii.tv: +ui .++ixv+ +o
+iv +ui xiviiv .+iv.i i+o +ui coor
Howcvci, wc cannoi avoiu lacing u io G. E. Mooics aigumcni ic-
gaiuing ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy. Ioi ihis aigumcni noi onIy siiiIcs ai
ihc iooi ol uiiIiiaiianism, ii aIso acais io cui ihc giounu iighi oui
liom unuci ihc AiisioicIian cihicaI osiiion, accoiuing io which ihc
goou loi man is simIy mans naiuiaI cnu, ihai iowaiu which a human
lcing is naiuiaIIy oiicnicu simIy ly viiiuc ol lcing human. Inuccu,
aII ol ihc consiuciaiions which wc iaiscu in oui isi chaici aloui ihc
scaiaiion ol laci liom vaIuc, ol ihc is liom ihc oughiaII ihcsc
mighi lc saiu io nu ihcii uIiimaic jusiicaiion in Mooics cxosuic
ol ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy.
Ioi oui uiosc, a iccaiiuIaiion ol ihc aigumcni icciscIy in
Mooics icims mighi noi lc vciy iIIuminaiing. Insicau wc shaII aiicmi
io givc a somcwhai simIicu vcision ol ii, in oiuci io lciici cxhilii
iis ciiincncc in ihc icscni conicxi.
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1 |
As wc havc sccn, loi AiisioiIc ihc goou is simIy ihai ai which
aII ihings aim.
10
Moic sccicaIIy, wiih icscci io human lcings, il
you wani io Inow whai ihc human goou is, AiisioiIcs counscI is ihai
you iiy io uciciminc whai ii is ihai man aims ai, whai his naiuiaI cnu
is, whai ihai luIIncss oi cilcciion is iowaiu which a human lcing
naiuiaIIy icnus. This wiII ncvci uo, Mooic ihinIs, lccausc in such an
accouni ol whai ihc human goou is, AiisioiIc is ociing ai Icasi im-
IiciiIy, il noi cxIiciiIy, a ucniiion ol goouncss;
11
anu ihc ucniiion,
unloiiunaicIy, commiis ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy.
Whai is ihis naiuiaIisiic laIIacy anyway. In answci io such a qucs-
iion Mooic wouIu unuoulicuIy oini oui, isi, ihai in his ucniiion
ol goouncss AiisioiIc sccms io cquaic ihc goou ol man, oi ol anyihing
cIsc loi ihai maiici, wiih ihai iowaiu which ihc ihing in qucsiion naiu-
iaIIy icnus. Thc goou ol an acoin is io lc a luII-giown oaI; ihc goou
ol man is io Icau an cxamincu Iilc.
Bui ihcic is somcihing vciy uulious, Mooic ihinIs, aloui ihis ai-
icmi io iucniily ihc goou ol anyihing wiih ihai iowaiu which ii naiu-
iaIIy icnus. Why shouIu a naiuiaI icnucncy ncccssaiiIy lc a icnucncy
iowaiu ihc goou. To connc oui aiicniion io human lcings loi ihc
momcni, why shouIu ihc mcic laci ihai I aim ai somcihing, oi ihai
you uo, oi ihai aII mcn uo, ncccssaiiIy mcan ihai whai wc aic aiming
ai is goou. Is ii noi ai Icasi conccivalIc ihai whai mcn uo in laci aim
ai mighi wcII lc anyihing lui goou, mighi cvcn lc cviI, oi mighi lc
nciihci onc noi ihc oihci.
In oihci woius, Mooic is accusing AiisioiIc ol iiying io convcii a
mcic laci ol naiuic inio a vaIuc, anu ii cani lc uonc. In oiuci io scc
ihai ihis is whai AiisioiIc is u io, Ici us liicy iccaiiuIaic ihc main
consiuciaiions in suoii ol ihc AiisioicIian vicw ihai mans naiuiaI
cnu is simIy io Iivc inicIIigcniIy. To lcgin wiih, AiisioiIc uigcs ihai
ihc chaiaciciisiic cnu loi a human lcing cannoi lc simIy io siay aIivc
in ihc mannci ol a vcgcialIc. Nciihci can ii lc io Iivc on an animaI
IcvcI, sincc cvcn a cow oi a hoisc uocs ihis. Thcicloic, AiisioiIc con-
cIuucs, mans iiuc cnu can onIy lc io usc ihc inicIIigcncc which hc
aIonc osscsscsio Iivc inicIIigcniIy, io Icau an cxamincu Iilc.
Suosc ihai, loi ihc uioscs ol aigumcni, wc aumii ihai ihc cx-
amincu Iilc is mans naiuiaI cnu. Docs ihai iovc ihai ii is goou. Mooic
wouIu say No. Yci ihis is icciscIy whai AiisioiIc musi unuciiaIc
[ 1S | v.+i o.i x.
io show il his aigumcni is io havc any ciiincncc loi cihics. Bui hc
cannoi show ihis, sincc his aigumcni commiis ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy,
lcing an aiicmi io ass liom ihc laci ihai somcihing is naiuiaI io ihc
laci ihai ii is goou, liom ihc is io ihc oughi,
12
liom laci io vaIuc.
t. +ui totiiv.viii+v oi +ui ovvosi+i .s +ui
tvi+ivio oi +ui .+iv.iis+it i.ii.tv
Bui wc siiII havc noi goiicn io ihc iooi ol ihc laIIacy as Mooic sccs
ii. Mooic is noi conicni io icsi his casc simIy on ihc sccming imIau-
siliIiiy ol AiisioiIcs cquaiion ol laci wiih vaIuc, ol ihc naiuiaI wiih
ihc goou. Mooic wanis aIso io show ihai ihis is IogicaIIy imossilIc,
lccausc AiisioiIc has vioIaicu ihc IogicaI ciiiciia ol goou ucniiion.
How has hc uonc so.
By way ol answci, wc mighi noic ihai ihc cigiah ol Mooics looI
is a quoiaiion liom Bisho BuiIci: Evciyihing is whai ii is, anu noi
anoihci ihing. AccoiuingIy, io ucnc a ihing, onc musi ucnc ii as
whai ii is anu noi as somcihing cIsc. No onc couIu vciy wcII iaIc cx-
cciion io ihis. Bui ii is noi haiu io gucss whai ihc ihiusi ol such a
iiuism is IiIcIy io lc in ihc icscni conicxi. Mooic is olviousIy going
io insisi ihai io ucnc ihc goou as ihai ai which aII ihings aimoi,
moic accuiaicIy, io ucnc ihc goou ol anyihing as ihai ai which ii aims
oi iowaiu which ii icnus ly naiuiccIcaiIy vioIaics BuiIcis canon, loi
ii ucncs ihc goou as ihc naiuiaI, i.c., ii ucncs ii noi as whai ii is, lui
iaihci as somcihing cIsc. Ii cquaics vaIuc wiih laci, ihc oughi wiih
ihc is.
Whais moic, Mooic ihinIs hc has a iouchsionc ly which hc can uc-
iciminc in any givcn casc, anu aiiicuIaiIy in ihc insiani casc ol Aiis-
ioiIc, whcihci a ucniiion uocs vioIaic ihc canon ol ncvci cquaiing ihc
ihing io lc ucncu wiih anyihing oihci ihan iiscIl. Thc ucvicc is ihis: il
a ucniiion ol a ihing is a Icgiiimaic ucniiion, ii musi lc such ihai iis
oosiic is simIy inconccivalIc oi scIl-coniiauicioiy. Thus suosc
ihc ucniiion ol x io lc ihus anu so, say, y. Thcn ii musi lc alsoIuicIy
inconccivalIc ihai x shouIu lc oihci ihan y. Ioi io suosc oihciwisc
wouIu lc IiIc saying ihai ii was conccivalIc ihai x mighi lc oihci ihan
x, which is alsuiu.
AIying ihis iouchsionc io ihc AiisioicIian ucniiion ol ihc goou,
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1g |
ihc Iaiici is ai oncc lounu io lc waniing, Mooic ihinIs. As wc havc aI-
icauy sccn, no soonci uocs onc iiy io iucniily ihc goou ol a ihing wiih
ihai iowaiu which ii is naiuiaIIy oiucicu oi iowaiu which ii naiuiaIIy
icnus, ihan ihc qucsiion immcuiaicIy lccomcs mcaningluI anu ciii-
ncni: is such a naiuiaI cnu ncccssaiiIy goou, alici aII; mighi noi ihc
naiuiaI in ihis casc lc anyihing lui goou. In oihci woius, ihc oo-
siic ol ihc iooscu ucniiion is ai Icasi conccivalIc; anu il so, ihcn
ihc ucniiion is noi a ioci ucniiion ai aII.
Noi uocs Mooic sio wiih ihis. Suosc ihai insicau ol iiying io
cquaic ihc goou wiih ihc oljcci ol somc naiuiaI icnucncy, wc iiicu io
cquaic ii wiih somc oihci naiuiaI iociiy, say, wiih ihc Icasani as
ihc hcuonisis ioosc, oi wiih ihc ucsiicu, oi wiih any oljcci ol any
inicicsi, as R. B. Pciiy hcIu. In cach ol ihcsc cascs ihc samc iouch-
sionc can lc aIicu anu wiih ihc samc icsuIi. Ioi insiancc, onc can
quiic mcaningluIIy asI wiih icscci io ihc hcuonisiic ucniiion: Bui
il a ihing is Icasani, uocs ihai ncccssaiiIy mcan ihai ii is goou. No
moic is nccucu ihan ihai such a qucsiion shouIu lc mcaningluI, in
oiuci io show ihai ihc iooscu ucniiion is no ucniiion ai aII.
AaicniIy, ihcn, accoiuing io Mooics ciiiciion goouncss cannoi
lc cquaicu wiih any naiuiaI iociiy ai aII, oi wiih any sucinaiu-
iaI iociiy ciihci. Ii cannoi lc cquaicu wiih any oihci iociiy ol
any Iinu whaicvci. Thc iociiy ol goouncss, ihcicloic, cannoi lc
iucniicu wiih any iociiy savc ihai ol goouncss iiscIl; which mcans
ihai ii cannoi lc ucncu ai aII. Ii is an inucnalIc iociiy, as Mooic
wouIu say.
r. +ui .+iv.iis+it i.ii.tv i+v.vs i+s ov ivi+ov
So much loi Mooics oini aloui ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy. Thc oini
is cciiainIy ingcnious, lui is ii sounu. Thc inicicsiing ihing aloui ii is
ihai ii sccIs io usci AiisioiIcs accouni ol goouncssoi loi ihai mai-
ici any accouni ol goouncss, whcihci naiuiaIisiic oi sucinaiuiaIis-
iicnoi ly an acaI io ihc lacis, lui ly an acaI io Iogic. AiisioiIcs
ucniiion ol ihc goou is hcIu io lc misiaIcn, noi lccausc ii uocs noi
i ihc lacis, lui lccausc ii vioIaics ihc IogicaI canons ol goou ucni-
iion: ii aiicmis io ucnc somcihing noi in icims ol whai ii is, lui in
icims ol whai ii is noi.
[ 1qo | v.+i o.i x.
UnassaiIalIc as ihis sccms, onc wonucis whcihci Mooic may noi
havc aigucu himscIl inio a cuI-uc-sac. Il any ucniiion ol ihc goou
musi commii a laIIacy, ihcn on ihc samc iinciIcs jusi aloui any uc-
niiion ol anyihing musi aIso commii a laIIacy. Il onc ucncs A as A,
ihis is mcicIy a iauioIogy, noi a ucniiion. On ihc oihci hanu, il onc
ucncs A as B oi C, ihcn onc is ucning A in icims ol whai is oihci
ihan A, anu ihis vioIaics ihc iinciIc ihai cvciyihing is whai ii is anu
noi anoihci ihing. Howcvci, onc musi ucnc A ciihci in icims ol A
oi in icims ol somcihing oihci ihan A. Hcncc, on such iinciIcs, ii
wouIu sccm imossilIc cvci io ucnc anyihing. Anu ihis is lai moic
ihan Mooic himscIl cvci laigaincu loi.
13
Noi is ihis aII. Mooic insisis ihai ihc ciiiciion ol any gcnuinc uc-
niiion is ihai iis oosiic is inconccivalIc, lccausc scIl-coniiauicioiy.
On ihc lasis ol ihis ciiiciion hc was alIc io iuIc oui AiisioiIcs uc-
niiion ol goou, oi any simiIai ucniiion. Iiom ihis ii loIIows ihai no
ucniiion can cvci lc ol a loim oihci ihan ihai ol an cmiy iauioIogy,
A is A. Ioi il ihc oosiic ol any ioci ucniiion is ciloicc scIl-
coniiauicioiy, ihcn such an oosiic wiII lc ol ihc loim A is non-A.
Bui ihcn, ihc ucniiion iiscIl can onIy lc ol ihc loim, A is A. This
mcans ihai a ucniiion can ncvci icII us anyihing, oi convcy any soii
ol inloimaiion whaicvci. Wc can onIy say ihai cais aic cais, oi ihai ycI-
Iow is ycIIow. Wc cannoi icaIIy say anyihing aloui cais oi aloui ycIIow.
In oiuci io ciccivc ihc iiuih ol a siaicmcni io ihc ccci ihai cais aic
cais, I uoni cvcn nccu io Inow whai a cai is. Thc siaicmcni is iiuc in
viiiuc ol iis loim aIonc, A is A. Ii is a mcic loimaI iiuih oi IogicaI
iiuih. Bui such a ucniiion as ihc siaicmcni, Cais aic cais, uocs noi
icaIIy givc us any inloimaiion aloui cais ai aII.
Hcics a howuy-uo. Any ucniiion ihai mccis Mooics ciiiciion musi
lc ol a loim ihai maIcs ii quiic imossilIc loi ii io lc a ucniiion ai
aII, ai Icasi in ihc scnsc ol icIIing us whai ihc ihing lcing ucncu is.
In shoii, io ucnc anyihing is, on Mooics iinciIc, io laiI io ucnc
ii, anu io aim ai Inowing whai anyihing is, is io commii oncscIl io ihc
IogicaI imossiliIiiy ol cvci Inowing whai ii is.
To say, ihcicloic, ihai Mooics lamcu uociiinc ol ihc naiuiaIisiic
laIIacy is scIl-uclcaiing is an unucisiaicmcni. Thc simIc iiuih is ihai
ii is a IogicaI mcss, which wc nccu noi iiy io cIcan u hcic. Wc shaII
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1q1 |
conicni ouiscIvcs wiih a lcw suggcsiions as io whcic Mooic sccms io
havc iaIcn a wiong iuining.
i. vuivi xoovi vi+ vvoc
Suosc wc giani ihai cvciyihing is whai ii is anu noi anoihci ihing.
Docs ii loIIow liom ihis ihai as soon as wc ihinI wc havc lounu oui
whai a givcn ihing is, ii musi ai oncc lccomc imossilIc ihai wc couIu
cvci lc wiong. Accoiuing io Mooic, il ii . conccivalIc ihai wc mighi
lc wiong, ihcn ihis in iiscIl is sucicni inuicaiion ihai wc uo noi Inow
whai ihc ihing in qucsiion is. This uocs sccm lai-lcichcu. Whai wc
aic suggcsiing is ihai whiIc wc may giani Mooic his lasic iinciIc,
iaIcn liom BuiIci, wc cannoi giani him his ciiiciion loi ucicimining
whcihci oi noi oui InowIcugc ol a ihing (i.c., oui ucniiion ol ihai
ihing) is accuiaic InowIcugc. Hc hcIu, you icmcmlci, ihai il a ucni-
iion is Icgiiimaic, iis oosiic musi lc inconccivalIc oi scIl-coniiauic-
ioiy. Thus ii is Mooics ciiiciion ol ucniiion, noi BuiIcis iinciIc,
ihai causcs aII ihc iioulIc.
Oncc wc uiscaiu Mooics ciiiciion,
*
anu coniinuc oui coiis io
Inow ihings loi whai ihcy aic, ii wiII aIways lc mcaningluI io asI
whcihci whai, in a givcn insiancc, wc havc suoscu somcihing io lc
is icaIIy whai ihai ihing is. Wc can asI such a qucsiion wiihoui icju-
uicing ihc ossiliIiiy ihai whai wc havc suoscu a givcn ihing io lc is
whai ii aciuaIIy is, oi ihai whai wc havc iaIcn ihc ihings ucniiion io
lc is icaIIy iis ucniiion. To iaIc a ciuuc iIIusiiaiion, wc may suosc
*Ii wiII lc noicu ihai oui icuuiaiion ol Mooics ciiiciion icsis uon iwo
Iinus ol consiuciaiion. Accoiuing io ihc onc, ihc ciiiciion musi lc icuuiaicu
lccausc ii Icaus io a .enu.o nn n!u.nu. Accoiuing io ihc oihci, ihc ciiiciion
shouIu lc icuuiaicu lccausc, ai Icasi commonscnsicaIIy, ii is giaiuiious: wc uo
in laci consianiIy qucsiion oui ucniiion ol ihings as io ihcii soununcss anu auc-
quacy, wiihoui loi ihai icason suosing oui iooscu ucniiions noi cvcn io
lc ucniiions. NcvciihcIcss, ihis siiII Icavcs uniouchcu ihc siiiciIy IogicaI oini
which is icsumalIy ihc uIiimaic siiong oini loi any uclcnsc ol Mooics cii-
iciion, namcIy, ihai a ucniiion lcing a siaicmcni ol whai a ihing is, viz., A is
A, iis oosiic wiII lc simIy a coniiauiciion, viz., A is noi A. This IogicaI oini,
howcvci, is onc which wc cannoi aiicmi io ucaI wiih in ihc icscni cssay.
[ 1q: | v.+i o.i x.
ihai ihcic aic such ihings as human lcings anu ihai ihcy aic whai ihcy
aic anu noi anyihing cIsc. Wc may suosc luiihci ihai in answci io
ihc qucsiion, Whai is a human lcing. wc givc as oui ucniiion, A
human lcing is a iaiionaI animaI. Anu wc may ihcn iaisc ihc qucsiion
whcihci oi noi ihis is ihc iighi ucniiion ol human lcing wiihoui
icjuuicing ihc ossiliIiiy ihai ii . ihc iighi ucniiion.
Moic gcnciaIIy, ol any naiuiaI Iinu ol sccicssiIvci, amoclas, hy-
uiogcn, cIcciiiciiywc can asI whai such iycs oi Iinus ol ihing aic
anu wc can oci ucniiions ol ihcm. Thcn wc can aIways asI ouiscIvcs:
Is my ucniiion coiicci. Is ihc Iinu ol ihing I am consiuciing icaIIy
ol ihc soii I havc suoscu ii io lc. Oi musi I changc my ucniiion.
Bccausc qucsiions ol ihis Iinu aic aIways mcaningluI, ii uocs noi loI-
Iow ihai ihc ihings wc cncounici in ihc woiIu aic unucnalIc, oi ihai
any aiicmicu ucniiion ol ihcm musi lc ciihci unqucsiionalIc oi
cIsc noi a ucniiion ai aII. Thai wouIu lc laniasiic.
Inuccu, il wc misiaIc noi, whai Mooics ciiiciion ol ucniiion
amounis io is somcihing IiIc ihis: il a iaiionaI animaI is simIy whai a
human lcing is, il ihis is whai wc mcan ly man, ihcn ii shouIu lc as
alsuiu io asI whcihci man is, alici aII, icaIIy a iaiionaI animaI, as ii is
io asI whcihci man is man oi noi. To usc such a ciiiciion ol ucniiion
sccms loih giaiuiious anu lai-lcichcu.
To iciuin, ihcn, io AiisioiIc anu his iooscu ucniiion ol ihc goou
as ihai ai which aII ihings aim, why shouIuni ii lc cilcciIy ioci io
asI whcihci such a ucniiion is sounu oi aucquaic. Is ihis icaIIy whai
wc mcan ly goou. Is ihai ai which somcihing naiuiaIIy aims ncccs-
saiiIy goou. Bui il Mooic is iighi, anu il whai AiisioiIc is ioosing as
a ucniiion ol goou is iociIy a ucniiion, ihcn ii is as alsuiu io
asI whcihci ihc goou is icaIIy ihai ai which aII ihings aim as ii wouIu
lc io asI whcihci ihc goou is ihc goou.
Isni ii olvious ihai Mooics ciiiciion ol ucniiion is ioo scvcic. As
icgaius AiisioiIc anu his iooscu ucniiion ol goou, isni ihc icaI
qucsiion whcihci his ucniiion is sounu, noi whcihci his ucniiion is
a ucniiion. AiisioiIc may havc lccn cniiicIy misiaIcn in his concc-
iion ol ihc naiuic ol goouncss. Yci mcicIy lccausc ii is conccivalIc ihai
hc may havc lccn misiaIcn, wc cannoi say loi ihai icason aIonc ihai
his ucniiion is noi cvcn a ucniiion lccausc ii commiis ihc naiuiaIis-
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1q |
iic laIIacy. Ii may noi lc a goou ucniiion, lui suicIy ii isni IogicaIIy oi
IinguisiicaIIy laIIacious. Bui il noi, ihcn isni ihis whoIc lusincss aloui
ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy noihing moic ihan a icu hciiing.
Having ihus (wc hoc) cIcaicu ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy oui ol oui
aih, wc can now go ahcau anu iiy io unucisianu goouncss anu vaIuc
in icims ol icaI icnucncics anu uisosiiions in naiuic. Wc may cvcn
hoc ihai il ihc luglcai ol Mooics naiuiaIisiic laIIacy can lc ic-
movcu, ihcic is a chancc ihai Biiiish moiaI hiIosohcis may oncc
moic iaIc hcaii anu aciuaIIy sccI io nu icaI uisiinciions lciwccn
goou anu lau, anu iighi anu wiong.
i. +ui .+iv.iis+it i.ii.tv .s . soivti oi sxiv+itisx
Ii was cciiainIy noi Mooics inicniion ihai his uociiincs shouIu in-
ucncc cihicaI ihinIcis in a sIciicaI uiicciion; lui ihis is icciscIy ihc
ccci ihai ihcy havc, ly anu Iaigc, icnucu io iouucc. Mooic sccmcu
io lccI ihai hc hau onIy io show ihai noiions ol vaIuc couIu noi os-
silIy lc unucisioou in icims ol ihc lacis ol naiuic, anu hiIosohcis
wouIu immcuiaicIy iccognizc ihai vaIuc icims wouIu havc io ucsig-
naic iociiics ihai wcic somchownon-naiuiaI. Bui sulscqucni ihinI-
cis concIuucu oihciwisc. Thcy conicnucu ihai ihc aigumcni ucsigncu
io show ihai vaIuc icims couIu noi ucsignaic naiuiaI iociiics aIso
showcu ihai such icims uiu noi ucsignaic iociiics ai aII. Hcncc
woius IiIc goou anu lau, iighi anu wiong, wcic noi ucscii-
iivc ol anyihing in ihc icaI woiIu; in laci, ihcy jusi wcicni ucscii-
iivc. In ihc naI anaIysis ihcic couIu lc no scnsc in sccIing io Inow
whai ihc goou Iilc is oi whcihci a cciiain aciion is iighi oi wiong, loi
ihcsc ihings cannoi lc maiicis ol InowIcugc, sincc ii is a simIc laci
ol Iogicanu inuiicciIy a laci ol Iilc iooihai moiaI anu cihicaI juug-
mcnis aic uIiimaicIy non-cogniiivc.
Conicmoiaiy EngIish wiiicis on cihics aic quiic as convinccu as
Nicizschc ihai Gou is ucau. Bui lcing commiiicu io ihc Biiiish iac-
iicc ol unucisiaicmcni, ihcy wouIu ncvci uicam ol uiiciing uiamaiic,
Zaiaihusiia-IiIc ionounccmcnis on ihc suljcci. Thcy wouIu onIy
iicai uclcnucis ol Gou oi ol a moiaI oiuci wiih suciciIious conicmi,
much as ihcy wouIu iicai a man who aic cas wiih his Inilc. To any-
[ 1qq | v.+i o.i x.
onc so navc as io scaI ol a uivincIy giounucu oi naiuiaIIy giounucu
moiaI oiuci ihcy wouIu mcicIy say, My goou man, uoni you icaIizc
ihai you aic commiiiing ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy.
c. +ui oir vicvi.v oi +ui siv.v.+io oi i.t+
.r v.iii; ii+s u.vi roi vi+u i+
Gianiing ihai a ucIivciancc liom ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy is aIso a uc-
Iivciancc liom ihc moiimain ol conicmoiaiy EngIish cihics, wc aic
siiII lai liomhaving csialIishcu ihai ihc goou is ihai ai which aII ihings
aim. AII wc havc uonc so lai has lccn io show ihai such a ucniiion
ol goou is noi IogicaIIy oi IinguisiicaIIy laIIacious. Bui ihis siiII uocs
noi iovc ihai ihc ucniiion is coiicci.
In laci, musi wc noi aumii ihai in ihc AiisioicIian ucniiion, ihc
goou is lcing ucncu in icims ol a naiuiaI iociiy, ihai vaIuc is lcing
cquaicu wiih laci. Il so, ihcn is noi AiisioiIc ucning goouncss anu
vaIuc, noi in icims ol whai ihcy aic, lui in icims ol somcihing which
ihcy ucniicIy aic noi.
EviucniIy wc can no Iongci cvauc lacing u io ihc iolIcm ol ihc
scaiaiion ol laci anu vaIuc. Il ihcsc aic scaiaic anu incommcn-
suialIc, as is cusiomaiiIy assumcu, ihcn ihcic is no way in which,
ihiough a consiuciaiion ol ihc naiuiaI oiuci ol ihings, wc can cvci
uciciminc ihc moiaI oiuci ol ihings. Il laci anu vaIuc aic whoIIy sca-
iaic anu uisiinci, ihcn no invcsiigaiion ol ihc lacis ol human naiuic
can cvci uiscIosc whai human goou is oi whai is ihc goou Iilc loi man.
As wc icmaiIcu in ihc icccuing scciion, ii maIcs noi ihc sIighicsi
uicicncc how convincingIy ii can lc shown ihai ihc cxamincu Iilc
is ihc Iilc iowaiu which man is oiucicu anu uiiccicu ly naiuic. Thai
siiII wiII noi iovc ihai ihc cxamincu Iilc is ihc goou Iilc, unIcss ii can
isi lc shown ihai, wiih icscci io any lcing, noi onIy human lcings,
ihai iowaiu which such a lcing is naiuiaIIy oiucicu is ihc goou ol ihai
lcing. Iiom such a ioosiiion ii wouIu cciiainIy loIIow ihai mans
naiuiaI cnu is mans iiuc goou. Bui wiihoui such a majoi icmisc, ihc
Iaiici concIusion musi acai lascIcss anu wiihoui waiiani.
Whai, ihcn, ol ihis majoi icmisc. Whai ol AiisioiIcs own loimu-
Iaiion ol ihc iinciIc, Thc goou is ihai ai whichnII ihings aim. How
may ihis lc sulsianiiaicu. Thc answci wc musi givc io such qucsiions
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1q |
may sccm noi onIy unuuIy simIc, lui unuuIy uogmaiic. Ioi wc io-
osc io chaIIcngc uiicciIy ihc iniiiaI scaiaiion ol vaIucs liom lacis,
anu wc shouIu IiIc io suggcsi, insicau, ihai aII lacis, il noi iucniicaI
wiih vaIucs, ai Icasi havc vaIuc asccis.
Thc oosiic vicw may havc aiiscn liom an cxccssivcIy siaiic anu
aiomisiic concciion ol lacis; il wc ui ihis concciion oui ol oui
minus, ihc whoIc iciuic changcs. IooI ai ii ihis way: is ihcic any laci
ai aII ihai uocs noi suggcsi aII soiis ol ossiliIiiics ol how ii mighi
lccomc oihci anu uicicni. Is ihcic any laci ai aII ihai has noi io-
cccucu liom somc iioi siaic ol lacis, ihis Iasi having lccn, as ii wcic,
lig wiih ihc ncw laci cvcn lcloic ihc Iaiici camc inio lcing. In oihci
woius, ihc whoIc ol icaIiiy is shoi ihiough wiih ihc uisiinciion lciwccn
oicniiaIiiy anu aciuaIiiy, lciwccn whai is siiII onIy alIc io lc anu whai
aciuaIIy is. Thc oicniiaI is icIaicu io ihc aciuaI as ihc imcilcci io ihc
cilcci, ihc incomIcic io ihc comIcic, ihc cmiy io ihc luII.
Anu whai aloui goouncss. Why noi consiuci ihai, in ihis aII-
cmliacing conicxi, ihc goou is simIy ihc aciuaI as icIaicu io ihc o-
icniiaI. Ii is ihai iowaiu which ihc oicniiaI is oiucicu anu uiiccicu,
ihai which luIIIs anu comIcics anu aciuaIizcs ii. Thc goou, in oihci
woius, is any aciuaI siaic oi conuiiion ol ihings which is ihc luIIImcni
oi comIciion ol somc iioi siaic ihai was onIy oicniiaI wiih icscci
io ii.
On such a vicw ihcic is cIcaiIy a scnsc in which goou is noi an
alsoIuic icim ai aII, loi anyihing ihai is goou is aIways goou loi, oi
ol, oi wiih iclcicncc io, somcihing cIsc. Onc mighi cvcn icai a Ical
liom somc ol ihc conicmoiaiy EngIish wiiicis anu say ihai goou
uocs noi ucsignaic a iociiy ol ihings ai aIIiociiy lcing a
quaIiiy IiIc icuncss oi wcighi. Bui onc cannoi concIuuc liom ihis ihai
goou is ihcicloic noi a ucsciiiivc icim. Raihci ii is a icim which
aIways oinis io ihai icIaiionaI osiuic ol ihings accoiuing io which
anyihing ihai cxisis can aIways lc comaicu loih io whai ii mighi lc
lui as yci is noi, anu io whai loimciIy mighi havc lccn ii, oi couIu
havc lccomc ii, lui which now is no moic, having aciuaIIy lccomc ii.
Bui, you wiII say, ihis can haiuIy lc a iiuc accouni ol ihings, loi
in ihc naiuiaI scicnccs wc uo noi consiuci ihc lacis ol naiuic as lcing
ihus iniimaicIy associaicu wiih vaIucs anu as cach having iis own vaIuc
asccis oi vaIuc icIaiionshis. To which ihc answci is ihai il scicncc
[ 1q6 | v.+i o.i x.
chooscs io alsiiaci liom, oi noi io consiuci, ihc vaIuc asccis ol ihings
oi ihc vaIuc-icIaicuncss ol ihings, ihai is scicnccs iiviIcgc; lui ihis
uocs noi mcan ihai ihings in ihc naiuiaI woiIu aic noi shoi ihiough
wiih icIaiions ol oicncics io acis anu ol acis io oicncics, wiih ihc ic-
suIi ihai noihing in ihc naiuiaI woiIu, no laci ol naiuic, is cvci icaIIy
scaiaicu liomiis own vaIuc asccis. VaIucs aic aIways ihcic in naiuic,
il wc choosc io IooI loi ihcm.
Thus io anyonc who lccIs ii simIy incicuilIc ihai lacis shouIu cvci
imIy vaIucs oi ihai is shouIu cvci imIy oughi, oui icIy is ihai ii
is lai moic incicuilIc ihai ihcsc iwo shouIu cvci havc lccn scaiaicu
in ihc isi Iacc. Moicovci, il wc misiaIc noi, ihc icason such a sca-
iaiion has comc io lc gcnciaIIy acccicu nowauays, anu cvcn io sccm
aImosi scIl-cviucni, is ihai ihc aiicmi io associaic ihc iwo is aIways
mauc io acai as an cxcciion anu an anomaIy. Accusiomcu as wc
aic io iucniilying ihc naiuiaI woiIu wiih ihc scicniic univcisc, anu
vaIucs having lccn cxcIuucu liom ihc scicniic univcisc aIiogcihci
anu n ..o.., ii is noi suiiising ihai wc shouIu iaIc ii as a maiici ol
couisc ihai waici ows uownhiII noi lccausc ii oughi io, lui simIy
lccausc ii uocs, oi ihai an acoin ucvcIos inio an oaI, noi lccausc
ihis is lcsi loi ihc acoin, lui simIy lccausc ihis is ihc way acoins aic
in laci olscivcu io lchavc. AccoiuingIy, whcn againsi ihis lacIgiounu
wc iuin io consiuci oui human vaIucs anu ihc juugmcnis ol succcss oi
laiIuic ihai in oui cvciyuay Iivcs wc ass uon ouiscIvcs anu oihcis,
ii is lounu io sccm as ihough such juugmcnis wcic conccincu wiih
somcihing ouisiuc ihc icaIm ol naiuic.
Bui is ihis anyihing moic ihan a simIc uisioiiion oi Ioss ol ci-
scciivc. Ioi no soonci uo wc go lchinu ihc somcwhai aiiiciaI con-
siiuci ol ihc scicniic univcisc, anu consiuci ihc Iivcu woiIu ol cvciy
uay, whcic ihings aic cvciywhcic in ioccss ol changc anu ucvcIo-
mcni, whcic onc Iinu ol ihing naiuiaIIy changcs oi maiuics in iis ac-
cusiomcu way anu anoihci ihing in iis uicicni way, whcic cciiain
ihings havc ihcii caaciiics anu oicniiaIiiics anu oihcis ihciiswhcn
oncc wc Iacc ouiscIvcs in ihis Iivcu conicxi ol oui cvciyuay Iivcs, ihcn
cnus anu goaIs, vaIucs anu uioscs, hcaIihy sccimcns anu uiscascu
oncs, ihc cilcci anu ihc imcilcci, ihc goou anu ihc lau, aII ol ihcsc
comc io lc iccognizcu as ihings ihai aic naiuiaI, noi cxcciionaI oi
anomaIous. Wc uo noi havc io aoIogizc anu iiy io maIc ioom loi ihc
Bu VLn 1 Con 1 Denn [ 1q |
iucas ol changc anu ol vaIuc, oi consiuci ihcm as conccis vaIiu onIy
wiih iclcicncc io oui human uioscs. On ihc coniiaiy, ihc whoIc
ol naiuic is cimcaicu wiih vaIucs; wc cannoi conccivc ihc naiuiaI
woiIu as siiicu ol vaIucs, unIcss wc conccivc ol ii as siiicu ol aII
ihosc maniloIu anu vaiicu owcis, caaciiics, oicniiaIiiics, anu aliIi-
iics which chaiaciciizc ihc oljccis ol naiuic. Thc goou ol any ihing is
io ihai ihing as ihc aciuaI is io ihc oicniiaI.
Ai ihc samc iimc, ii shouIu lc noicu ihai sincc vaIucs anu goous
aic aIways vaIucs anu goous o. somcihing, ii is unucisianualIc ihai
as human lcings wc shouIu lc aImosi cxcIusivcIy conccincu wiih whai
is vaIualIc anu goou loi ouiscIvcs anu loi man. Ioi ihis icasonio ic-
vcii io oui oIu cxamIcwhiIc ihc luII-giown oaI may lc ihc acoins
goou, ihai is, iis naiuiaI cnu, ii is noi, cIcaiIy, ihc naiuiaI cnu ol man.
Wc mighi choosc io caII a iicc goou lccausc ii hacncu io scivc
oui human uioscs. Bui ihai ii shouIu lc somcihing goou oi ol vaIuc
loi ihc unucvcIocu sccu uocs noi usuaIIy occui io us; noi shouIu wc
lc incIincu in such a conicxi io asciilc io ii such icims as goou oi
vaIualIc. Bui ii wouIu noncihcIcss !e goou, il ihc goou is ucncu
simIy as ihc cilcci wiih icscci io ihc imcilcci, ihc comIcic wiih
icscci io ihc incomIcic, ihc aciuaI wiih icscci io ihc oicniiaI.
Anu whai aloui ihis way ol ucning goou. Is ii ihc coiicci uc-
niiion alici aII. Wc shouIu noi maIc any cIaims io alsoIuic cciiainiy
on ihis scoic, cciiainiy lcing no uouli unaiiainalIc ly niic, laIIilIc
human lcings. Moicovci, as wc havc mauc cIcai in oui oosiiion io
Mooic, ihis ucniiion ol goou is noi onc ihc oosiic ol which is in-
conccivalIc oi scIl-coniiauicioiy. Bui ii is a IausilIc ucniiion, anu
many signs oini io iis soununcss. AIso ii is lascu on ihc assumiion
ihai, ihough laci anu vaIuc aic ly no mcans ihc samc ihing, ihcy aic
ncvciihcIcss inscaialIc, in cciiain icsccis ai Icasi. Il ihcy aic insca-
ialIc, ii is a mcaningluI cniciiisc io iiy io uiscovci ihc goou loi man
ly invcsiigaiing ihc naiuic ol manoi loi ihai maiici, ihc goou ol
anyihing ly invcsiigaiing iis naiuic.
8
Existentialism and the Claims
of Irrational Man
1. E:.er.nI. n .euo.r Le nenL o Con
Many may siiII wonuci how ihc loicgoing iaihci acaucmic uclcnsc
ol ihc AiisioicIian iinciIc ol ihc goou can scivc as a mcans ol iaising
Gou liom ihc ucau, in Nicizschcs hiasc. Nicizschcs iaihci amloy-
ani Ianguagc mighi Icau onc io ihinI ihai in ihc moucin agc somc-
ihing moic has uicu ihan mcicIy ihc oljcciiviiy ol vaIuc.
Wc havc lccn iimaiiIy conccincu wiih showing how moiaIs anu
cihics can, alici aII, lc lascu on ihc lacis ol naiuic anu on a uuc ic-
gaiu loi ihc naiuic ol ihings, aiiicuIaiIy ihc naiuic ol man. Now wc
musi iuin oui aiicniion io a chaIIcngc io ihis conicniion which cma-
naics noi liomconicmoiaiy EngIish ihinIcis, lui liomihinIcis who,
cuiiousIy cnough, sccm io lc uiici siiangcis io ihc EngIishihcii coI-
Icagucs on ihc Coniincni. Ioi wani ol a lciici icim, wc shaII iclci io
ihcm aII IooscIy as cxisicniiaIisis, howcvci imiccisc ihis icim may
lc in any givcn casc. Oui uiscussion ol cxisicniiaIism wiII lc nciihci
comIcic noi cxhausiivc. Wc shaII ailiiiaiiIy scIcci cciiain cuiicni cx-
isicniiaIisi ihcmcs in oiuci io liing oui ihc coniiasi, anu aIso cciiain
oinis ol comaiison, lciwccn an AiisioicIian cihics ol iaiionaI man
anu an cxisicniiaIisi cihics ol iiiaiionaI man.
Thc cihics ol iaiionaI man invoIvcs as iis lasic imciaiivc ihc simIc
injunciion io lc iaiionaI, io Iivc inicIIigcniIy, io cxcicisc ihc inicIIcc-
iuaI anu moiaI viiiucs. Thc alsoIuic icsuosiiion ol ihis cihics ol
iaiionaIiiy anu ihc cxamincu Iilc is ihc ossiliIiiy ihai a human lcing
can aciuaIIy comc io Inow whai ihc goou Iilc is anu whai ii is incum-
lcni uon himas a human lcing io uo. Bui such InowIcugc is ossilIc
E:.er.nI. nrn Le CIn. o 1..n.ornI Anr [ 1qg |
onIy il ihcic aic cciiain oljcciivc vaIucs in naiuicil Gou, in laci, is
noi ucau lui aIivc.
Iiomihc cxisicniiaIisi oini ol vicw, as wc aic iaihci ailiiiaiiIy con-
siiuing ii, ihcic is no vaIuc oi goou in ihings whaicvci. Exisicncc is
csscniiaIIy ugIy, mcaningIcss, anu alsuiu. Mi. Baiicii has sIiIIluIIy
lioughi ihis oui ly an ai coniiasi lciwccn ihc mcuicvaI icIigious ai-
iiiuuc anu ihc cuiicni cxisicniiaIisi aiiiiuuc:
Thc waning ol icIigion is a much moic concicic anu comIcx laci
ihan a mcic changc in conscious ouiIooI; ii cnciiaics ihc ucc-
csi siiaia ol mans ioiaI sychic Iilc. . . . Thc Ioss ol ihc Chuich was
ihc Ioss ol a whoIc sysicm ol symloIs, imagcs, uogmas, anu iiics
which hau ihc sychoIogicaI vaIiuiiy ol immcuiaic cxciicncc, anu
wiihin which hiihciio ihc whoIc sychic Iilc ol Wcsicin man hau
lccn salcIy coniaincu. In Iosing icIigion, man Iosi ihc concicic con-
ncciion wiih a iiansccnucni icaIm ol lcing; hc was sci licc io ucaI
wiih ihis woiIu in aII iis liuic oljcciiviiy. Bui hc was lounu io lccI
homcIcss in such a woiIu, which no Iongci answcicu ihc nccus ol
his siiii. A homc is ihc acccicu liamcwoiI which haliiuaIIy con-
iains oui Iilc. To Iosc oncs sychic coniainci is io lc casi auiili, io
lccomc a wanucici uon ihc lacc ol ihc caiih. Hcnccloiih, in sccI-
ing his own human comIcicncss man wouIu havc io uo loi him-
scIl whai hc oncc hau uonc loi him, unconsciousIy, ly ihc Chuich,
ihiough ihc mcuium ol iis saciamcniaI Iilc.
1
Again, in conncciion wiih a uiscussion ol IauIInci, Baiicii icmaiIs:
Thc liuic, iiiaiionaI, givcn quaIiiy ol ihc woiIu comcs ihiough so
siiongIy in IauIIncis ccuIiai icchniquc ihai hc aciuaIIy shows, anu
uocs noi mcicIy siaic, ihc mcaning ol ihc quoiaiion liom which his
iiiIc is uciivcu:
[Iilc| is a iaIc,
ToIu ly an iuioi, luII ol sounu anu luiy,
Signilying noihing.
ShaIcscaic Iaccs ihcsc Iincs in ihc conicxi ol a laiiIy wcII-mauc
iiagcuy in which cviI is ucsiioycu anu goou iiiumhs; lui IauIInci
shows us ihc woiIu ol which ShaIcscaics siaicmcni wouIu lc iiuc;
[ 1o | v.+i o.i x.
a woiIu oaquc, ucnsc, anu iiiaiionaI, ihai couIu noi havc cxisicu
loi ShaIcscaic, cIosc as hc was siiII io mcuicvaI Chiisiianiiy.
2
Thc issuc nccu noi lc oscu, as Baiicii oscs ii, in icIigious icims.
Ii can lc unucisioou as a uicIy hiIosohicaI oi cihicaI onc: on ihc
onc siuc, ihcic is whai wc havc choscn io caII ihc cihics ol iaiionaI
man; on ihc oihci, an cihics in which ihcic can lc no mcaning whai-
cvci io ihc injunciion ihai a man lc iaiionaI. Why, on ihc Iaiici aIici-
naiivc, is such an injunciion mcaningIcss. Noi lccausc man is noi a
iaiionaI animaI, lui lccausc icason cannoi icII man anyihing aloui
how io Iivc oi whai io Iivc loi. Human inicIIigcncc is owciIcss anu
uscIcss in an cihicaI conicxi lccausc no cihicaI iiuih can lc lounu any-
whcic in ihc univcisc. Siuuy naiuic as you wiII anu you wiII nu noih-
ing ol an cihicaI oi moiaI imoii: ihcic is no oljcciivc moiaI oiuci;
hcncc cxisicncc is mcaningIcss anu alsuiu.
NcvciihcIcss, among ihc cxisicniiaIisis ihc suoscu ucaih ol Gou
has noi Icu io a comIcic sIciicism in icgaiu io cihics, as ii sccms io
havc uonc among conicmoiaiy Biiiish ihinIcis; insicau, on ihc Con-
iincni ihc conscqucncc sccms io havc lccn ihc cmcigcncc ol a ncw
anu uicicni cihics, an cihics ol iiiaiionaI man. As Saiiic uis ii vciy
movingIy:
Thc cxisicniiaIisi, on ihc coniiaiy, nus ii cxiicmcIy cmlaiiassing
ihai Gou uocs noi cxisi, loi ihcic uisacais wiih HimaII ossiliIiiy
ol nuing vaIucs in an inicIIigilIc hcavcn. Thcic can no Iongci lc
any goou n ..o.., sincc ihcic is no inniic anu cilcci conscious-
ncss io ihinI ii. Ii is nowhcic wiiiicn ihai ihc goou cxisis, ihai onc
musi lc honcsi oi musi noi Iic, sincc wc aic now uon ihc Ianc
whcic ihcic aic onIy mcn. DosiocvsIy oncc wioic Il Gou uiu noi
cxisi, cvciyihing wouIu lc cimiiicu; anu ihai, loi cxisicniiaIism,
is ihc siaiiing oini. Evciyihing is inuccu cimiiicu il Gou uocs noi
cxisi, anu man is in conscqucncc loiIoin, loi hc cannoi nu any-
ihing io uccnu uon ciihci wiihin oi ouisiuc himscIl. Hc uiscovcis
loiihwiih, ihai hc is wiihoui cxcusc. Ioi il inuccu cxisicncc ic-
ccucs csscncc, onc wiII ncvci lc alIc io cxIain oncs aciion ly icl-
cicncc io a givcn anu sccic human naiuic; in oihci woius, ihcic
is no uciciminismman is licc, man is liccuom. Noi, on ihc oihci
hanu, il Gou uocs noi cxisi, aic wc ioviucu wiih any vaIucs oi com-
E:.er.nI. nrn Le CIn. o 1..n.ornI Anr [ 11 |
manus ihai couIu Icgiiimizc oui lchavioi. Thus wc havc nciihci lc-
hinu us, noi lcloic us in a Iuminous icaIm ol vaIucs, any mcans
ol jusiicaiion oi cxcusc. Wc aic Icli aIonc, wiihoui cxcusc. Thai is
whai I mcan whcn I say ihai man is conucmncu io lc licc. Con-
ucmncu, lccausc hc uiu noi cicaic himscIl, yci is ncvciihcIcss ai
Iilciiy, anu liom ihc momcni ihai hc is ihiown inio ihis woiIu hc is
icsonsilIc loi cvciyihing hc uocs. Thc cxisicniiaIisi uocs noi lc-
Iicvc in ihc owci ol assion. Hc wiII ncvci icgaiu a gianu assion
as a ucsiiuciivc ioiicni uon which a man is swci inio cciiain ac-
iions as ly laic, anu which, ihcicloic, is an cxcusc loi ihcm. Hc
ihinIs ihai man is icsonsilIc loi his assion. Nciihci wiII an cxis-
icniiaIisi ihinI ihai a man can nu hcI ihiough somc sign lcing
vouchsalcu uon caiih loi his oiicniaiion: loi hc ihinIs ihai ihc
man himscIl iniciicis ihc sign as hc chooscs. Hc ihinIs ihai cvciy
man, wiihoui any suoii oi hcI whaicvci, is conucmncu ai cvciy
insiani io invcni man. As Pongc has wiiiicn in a vciy nc aiiicIc,
Man is ihc luiuic ol man. . . . Il [ihis| mcans ihai, whaicvci man
may now acai io lc, ihcic is a luiuic io lc lashioncu, a viigin
luiuic ihai awaiis himihcn ii is a iiuc saying. Bui in ihc icscni
onc is loisaIcn.
3
On ihc lunuamcniaI issuc ol whcihci oi noi Gou uocs cxisi,
whcihci ihcic is an oljcciivc lasis loi cihics in ihc naiuic ol ihings
on ihis issuc wc havc cihas aIicauy hau cnough io say. Raihci ihan
lioach ihis qucsiion again, ii mighi lc moic inicicsiing io consiuci
cciiain oihci asccis ol ihc cxisicniiaIisi ciiiiquc ol ihc cihics ol iaiio-
naI man. Ioi ihcic is a scnsc in which onc mighi aImosi say ihai loi
ihc cxisicniiaIisi, cvcn il Gou oi an oljcciivc moiaI oiuci uiu cxisi,
siiII, il a human lcing wcic io aci on such InowIcugc, ihc icsuIi wouIu
lc a human cisonaIiiy ihai wouIu lc, in cxisicniiaIisi cycs, lai liom
aumiialIc anu lai liom auihcniic.
z. TLe uoen nr.Le. !e.eer .n.ornI., nrn o.er
In ihc assagc quoicu alovc Saiiic hinicu ai an inicicsiing oini.
Having shown how a human lcing Iongs loi a icaI moiaI oiuci which
hc can uccnu uon, whcihci ii lc wiihin oi wiihoui himscIl, how
[ 1: | v.+i o.i x.
hc wishcs loi somc sign io lc vouchsalcu uon caiih loi his oiicn-
iaiion, Saiiic ihcn gocs on io icmaiI ihai cvcn il ihcic wcic such a
sign, ii wouIu lc man himscIl who wouIu lc olIigcu io iniciici ihc
sign as hc chooscs.
Ai Icasi aii ol whai Saiiic mcans ly ihis is ihai cvcn il ihcic wcic
an oljcciivc moiaI oiuci, ii wouIu siiII lc u io ihc inuiviuuaI human
lcing io choosc ii, io iaIc ii uon himscIl, io commii himscIl io ii. In-
uccu, wiihoui such an aci ol choicc oi ol wiII, olcuicncc io moiaI Iaw
wouIu lc no moic mciiioiious ihan olcuicncc io ihc Iaw ol giaviiy.
In loih cascs hc mighi Inow whai ihc Iaw is, lui his olscivancc ol
ii wouIu noi lc a maiici ol choicc, anu hcncc cciiainIy noi a maiici
ol mciii. Bui il human woiih anu mciii aiisc, noi liom Inowing whai
wc nccu io uo, lui liom choosing io uo ii, ihcn whai counis moiaIIy
anu cihicaIIy is noi so much iaiionaI inicIIigcncc as icsonsiliIiiy anu
liccuom, in Saiiics scnsc.
As a ciiiicism ol an AiisioicIian iyc ol cihics, ihis invoIvcs a iaihci
sciious ovcisimIicaiion. As wc havc insisicu in oui caiIici chaicis,
ihc AiisioicIian goaI loi man is noi so much io havc InowIcugc as io
choosc in accoiuancc wiih such InowIcugcnoi inicIIigcncc, lui in-
icIIigcni aciion. Thc moiaI viiiucs invoIvcu in choicc aic ai Icasi as
imoiiani as ihc inicIIcciuaI viiiucs, il noi moic so. Thc cihics ol ihc
iaiionaI man is an cihics ol ihc man who chooscs liccIy, ihough hc
has ihc icsonsiliIiiy ol choosing inicIIigcniIy. Hcncc ihc cihicaI osi-
iion ihai wc havc lccn uclcnuing sccms io havc much in common wiih
cciiain cxisicniiaIisi ihcmcs.
AsimiIai misunucisianuing olicn Icaus cxisicniiaIisi ihinIcis io uis-
iinguish ihcii cihics liom whai ihcy iaIc io lc ihc cihics ol iaiionaI
man. No soonci uocs onc cmhasizc ihc imoiiancc ol icason anu
inicIIigcncc in human Iilc anu ihc cxisicncc ol somc soii ol oljcciivc
oiuci oi vaIucs ihan onc is IiIcIy io lc accuscu ol saciicing whai Kici-
Icgaaiu wouIu caII suljcciiviiy loi oljcciiviiy.
Thc oljcciivc icnucncy, which iooscs io maIc cvciyonc an ol-
scivci, anu in iis maximumio iiansloimhiminio so oljcciivc an ol-
scivci ihai hc lccomcs aImosi a ghosi, scaiccIy io lc uisiinguishcu
liomihc iicmcnuous siiii ol ihc hisioiicaI asiihis icnucncy nai-
uiaIIy icluscs io Inow oi Iisicn io anyihing cxcci whai sianus in
E:.er.nI. nrn Le CIn. o 1..n.ornI Anr [ 1 |
icIaiion io iiscIl. Il onc is so loiiunaic as io lc ol scivicc wiihin ihc
givcn icsuosiiion, ly coniiiluiing onc oi anoihci iicm ol inloi-
maiion conccining a iiilc cihas hiihciio unInown, which is io
lc ioviucu wiih a ag anu givcn a Iacc in ihc aiagiah aiauc; il
onc is comcicni wiihin ihc givcn icsuosiiion io assign China a
Iacc uicicni liom ihc onc ii has hiihciio occuicu in ihc sysicm-
aiic ioccssion,in ihai casc onc is mauc wcIcomc. Bui cvciyihing
cIsc is uiviniiy-schooI iaiiIc. Ioi ii is icgaiucu as a sciiIcu ihing,
ihai ihc oljcciivc icnucncy in uiicciion ol inicIIcciuaI conicmIa-
iion, is, in ihc ncwci Iinguisiic usagc, ihc cihicaI answci io ihc
qucsiion ol whai I cihicaIIy havc io uo. . . . Thc qucsiion I wouIu
asI is ihis: VLn orIu.or .ouIn .re..n!I, o.e .eI uor EL., . Le
!eo.r n u!e .e.e ro Le L.Le nI or.or.r n Lunr !e.r
4
. . .
Thc onIy icaIiiy io which an cxisiing inuiviuuaI may havc a icIa-
iion ihai is moic ihan cogniiivc, is his own icaIiiy, ihc laci ihai hc
cxisis; ihis icaIiiy consiiiuics his alsoIuic inicicsi. Alsiiaci ihoughi
icquiics him io lccomc uisinicicsicu in oiuci io acquiic InowI-
cugc; ihc cihicaI ucmanu is ihai hc lccomc inniicIy inicicsicu in
cxisiing.
Thc onIy icaIiiy ihai cxisis loi an cxisiing inuiviuuaI is his own
cihicaI icaIiiy. To cvciy oihci icaIiiy hc sianus in a cogniiivc icIa-
iion.
5
. . .
To asscii ihc suicmacy ol ihoughi is Gnosiicism; io maIc ihc
cihicaI icaIiiy ol ihc suljcci ihc onIy icaIiiy mighi sccm io lc acos-
mism. Thc ciicumsiancc ihai ii wiII sccm so io a lusy ihinIci who
cxIains cvciyihing, a nimlIc minu ihai quicIIy suivcys ihc cniiic
univcisc, mcicIy iovcs ihai such a ihinIci has a vciy humlIc no-
iion ol whai ihc cihicaI mcans io ihc suljcci. Il Eihics wcic io iaIc
away ihc cniiic woiIu liom such a ihinIci, Iciiing him Icc his own
scIl, hc wouIu iolalIy icgaiu such a iiic as noi woiih Iccing,
anu wouIu Ici ii go wiih ihc icsianu so ii lccomcs acosmism. Bui
why uocs hc ihinI so sIighiingIy ol his own scIl . Il ii wcic oui mcan-
ing ihai hc shouIu givc u ihc whoIc woiIu in oiuci io conicni him-
scIl wiih anoihci cisons cihicaI icaIiiy, hc wouIu lc jusiicu in ic-
gaiuing ihc cxchangc as a ucau Ioss. Bui his own cihicaI icaIiiy, on
ihc oihci hanu, oughi io mcan moic io himihan hcavcn anu caiih
anu aII ihai ihcicin is, moic ihan ihc six ihousanu ycais ol human
[ 1q | v.+i o.i x.
hisioiy, moic ihan loih asiioIogy anu ihc vciciinaiy scicnccs oi
whaicvci ii is ihai ihc agc ucmanus, aII ol which is acsihciicaIIy anu
inicIIcciuaIIy a hugc vuIgaiiiy.
6
Consiuci loi a minuic ihcsc sccimcns ol KiciIcgaaiuian cIo-
qucncc anu saiiic: is ihcic any iauicaI incomaiiliIiiy lciwccn whai
KiciIcgaaiu is hcic icaching anu AiisioiIcs cihicaI icaching, as wc
havc iniciicicu ii. In oui vciy isi chaici wc wcic quiic as con-
ccincu as KiciIcgaaiu wiih ucicciaiing anu cvcn oIing lun ai con-
icmoiaiy acaucmic InowIcugc, which aIways sccms io uo so IiiiIc loi
ihc Inowci himscIl. Wc sci oui sighis uon a highci Iinu ol InowIcugc
ihai couIu lc IiIcncu io Sociaics Know ihyscIl : a InowIcugc ihai
couIu show us ihc way, a saving InowIcugc loi ihc human suljcci
himscIl.
j. Bu .L, ro n .n.ornI o.er
Thcic sccms io lc no incomaiiliIiiy lciwccn InowIcugc ol ihis
soii anu whai KiciIcgaaiu caIIs an inniic inicicsi in cxisiing, an
alsoIuic inicicsi in oncs own cihicaI icaIiiy. Wc wouIu go cvcn lui-
ihci anu say ihai ihc vciy man who, io loiiow Saiiics woius, is inicni
io nu vaIucs in an inicIIigilIc hcavcn, who is ucicimincu io nu
somcihing io uccnu uon, ciihci wiihin oi ouisiuc himscIl, whosc
conccin is io nu vaIucs oi commanus ihai couIu Icgiiimizc oui lc-
havioisuch a onc, wc suggcsi, is cilcciIy caalIc ol lcing awaic
ihai ihc lccoming a suljcci is ihc highcsi iasI conlioniing a human
lcing.
Pcihas KiciIcgaaiu himscIl wouIu noi whoIIy uisagicc. Rcmcm-
lci ihai in a assagc quoicu caiIici, scaIing ol Sociaics anu Sociaiic
InowIcugc, hc saiu: This iyc ol InowIcugc lcais a icIaiion io ihc
cxisiing suljcci who is inniicIy inicicsicu in cxisiing.
7
Suosc now ihai wc sianu ihis siaicmcni on cnu, anu asscii ihai
orI, ihiough InowIcugc ol an oljcciivc moiaI oiuci ol vaIucs can an
cxisiing suljcci iociIy luIII ihc iasI ol lccoming a suljcci oi
go aloui saiislying his inniic inicicsi in cxisiing. Wiih ihis KiciIc-
gaaiu wouIu mosi cciiainIy uisagicc, anu so wouIu any cxisicniiaIisi.
E:.er.nI. nrn Le CIn. o 1..n.ornI Anr [ 1 |
Hcic is ihc icaI issuc lciwccn cxisicniiaIism anu AiisioicIian cihics.
Thc issuc is noi, as cxisicniiaIisis olicn icicnu, lciwccn uisinicicsicu,
imcisonaI oljcciiviiy on ihc onc hanu anu a commiiicu suljcciiviiy
on ihc oihci. Noi is ii an issuc lciwccn Inowing anu uoing, oi lciwccn
a mcic uciachcu unucisianuing anu an aciuaI choosing. Thc issuc is
whcihci onc can cvci choosc iighiIy wiihoui InowIcugcwhcihci
ihcic can cvci lc a iociIy human commiimcni io whai is noi jus-
iicu in ihc Iighi ol InowIcugc anu unucisianuing. Ioi as wc lounu
AiisioiIc insisiing in ihc isi looI ol ihc EL., a uisiinciivcIy anu iiuIy
human Iilc can onIy lc an inicIIigcni Iilc.
Bui ihis mcans ihai ihc AiisioicIian iyc ol ihc iaiionaI man is nonc
oihci ihan whai somc cxisicniiaIisis wouIu ucicciaiivcIy caII ihc scii-
ous man. As onc icccni wiiici on Saiiic has ui ii, whai Saiiic caIIs
ihc siiii ol sciiousncss
consisis in icicnuing ihai moiaI vaIucs uo noi uccnu on a human
choicc lui ihai ihcy aic uiciaicu ly a naiuiaI Iaw, ly hazaiu, oi ly
uivinc commanus. Somcihing wouIu lc moiaIIy goou oi lau as ii
wcic whiic oi lIacI. Thc man who iaIcs iclugc in ihc siiii ol scii-
ousncss iiics io hiuc liom himscIl ihai ii is human liccuom which
ucciucs on moiaI vaIucs. Hc iiics io ignoic ihai il man is noi ihc
cicaioi ol lcing, hc is ai Icasi ihc invcnioi ol moiaI vaIucs. Thc man
who iaIcs iclugc in ihc siiii ol sciiousncss iiics io cvauc moiaI
icsonsiliIiiy.
8
Evcn lciici is KiciIcgaaius own accouni ol ihc sciious man:
Thc sciious man coniinucs: Il hc wcic alIc io oliain cciiainiy
wiih icscci io such a goou, so as io Inow ihai ii is icaIIy ihcic,
hc wouIu vcniuic cvciyihing loi iis saIc. Thc sciious man scaIs
IiIc a wag; ii is cIcai cnough ihai hc wishcs io maIc looIs ol us,
IiIc ihc iaw icciuii who iaIcs a iun in icaiaiion loi juming inio
ihc waici, anu aciuaIIy iaIcs ihc iun,lui givcs ihc Ica a go-ly.
Whcn ihc cciiainiy is ihcic hc wiII vcniuic aII. Bui whai ihcn uocs
ii mcan io vcniuic. A vcniuic is ihc iccisc coiicIaiivc ol an uncci-
iainiy; whcn ihc cciiainiy is ihcic ihc vcniuic lccomcs imossilIc.
Il oui sciious man acquiics ihc ucniic cciiainiy ihai hc sccIs, hc
wiII lc unalIc io vcniuic aII; loi cvcn il hc givcs u cvciyihing, hc
[ 16 | v.+i o.i x.
wiII unuci such ciicumsianccs vcniuic noihinganu il hc uocs noi
gci cciiainiy, oui sciious man says in aII caincsi ihai hc icluscs io
iisI anyihing, sincc ihai wouIu lc mauncss. In ihis way ihc vcniuic
ol oui sciious man lccomcs mcicIy a laIsc aIaim. Il whai I hoc io
gain ly vcniuiing is iiscIl cciiain, I uo noi iisI oi vcniuic, lui maIc
an cxchangc. Thus in giving an aIc loi a cai, I iun no iisI il I
hoIu ihc cai in my hanu whiIc maIing ihc cxchangc.
9
In ihc Iighi ol such assagcs, wc can oci a iaihci laIu loimuIaiion
ol ihc coniiasi lciwccn an AiisioicIian cihics ol iaiionaI man anu an
cxisicniiaIisi cihics ol iiiaiionaI man:
AiisioiIc: io lc human (i.c., io lccomc suljcciivc) is io aci anu
io choosc, lui aIways in ihc Iighi ol InowIcugc anu unucisianuing.
Thc cxisicniiaIisis: io lccomc suljcciivc (i.c., io lc iiuIy human)
is io aci anu io choosc, lui in ihc alscncc ol InowIcugc anu unuci-
sianuing.
On ihc Iaiici vicw ihc giavamcn ol cihics laIIs noi on ihc inicIIi-
gcncc, lui on whai in ihc oIuci iciminoIogy wouIu havc lccn caIIcu
ihc wiII. Sincc cxisicniiaIisis assumc ihai Gou is ucau, ihc auihcniic
cxcicisc ol wiII musi lc in ihc vciy lacc ol ihis laci, in ihc conscious-
ncss ihai ihcic is no Gou,
*
no oljcciivc oiuci ol vaIucs, no giounu oi
lasis ol cihics in ihc oIuci scnsc ai aII. Inuccu, io maIc choiccs anu
uccisions as il ihcic wcic a Gou anu as il oncs choiccs couIu ihcicloic
lc inicIIigcni anu iaiionaIihis couIu onIy lc cviucncc ol lau laiih,
lccausc ihcic is no Gou anu accoiuingIy ihcic can lc no such ihing
as a iaiionaI man oi an cxamincu Iilc.
Whai may lc saiu io aII ihis. Pcihas ihc Icss saiu ihc lciici. Yci wc
uo wani io say ai Icasi onc ihing moic. Wc ioosc io iccaII a oini
*Ai ihis oini ii shouIu lc onIy ioo olvious ihai oui caiIici auoiion ol ihc
sIogan Gou is ucau, as lcing ihc laugc ol cxisicniiaIism, wouIu acai quiic
unjusiicu in ihc casc ol KiciIcgaaiu. Ioi KiciIcgaaiu is noi jusi a icIigious, lui
a Chiisiian, cxisicniiaIisi. NcvciihcIcss, ihc sIogan may lc sccn io lc aioii-
aic cvcn wiih icscci io KiciIcgaaiu, as soon as onc iccaIIs ihai in ihc sIogan ihc
ucaih ol Gou is iniciicicu as lcing cquivaIcni io ihc ucniaI ol any soii ol oljcc-
iivc moiaI oiuci in naiuic. Anu KiciIcgaaiu wouIu havc lccn ihc isi io scconu
ihc ucniaI ol any such oiuci, howcvci much hc mighi havc uisIiIcu IalcIing ii
ihc ucaih ol Gou.
E:.er.nI. nrn Le CIn. o 1..n.ornI Anr [ 1 |
mauc in oui caiIici icluiaiion ol icIaiivism, in oiuci io show ihai ci-
has ihc cxisicniiaIisis laII inio a IiIc inconsisicncy.
To lccomc a suljcci in KiciIcgaaius scnsc, oi io lc licc in Sai-
iics scnsc, musi onc noi lacc u io ihc icaIiiics ol ihc human siiuaiion;
musi onc noi ui asiuc aII icmiaiion io lau laiih anu icsoIuicIy ac-
InowIcugc ihc laci ihai Gou is ucau. Yci ihis musi suicIy invoIvc a cci-
iain unucisianuing, a InowIcugc ol whai ihc scoic is. Thc InowIcugc
anu unucisianuing invoIvcu wiII lc a moiaIIy icIcvani InowIcugc, a
InowIcugc ihai inuicaics whai wc shouIu uo anu whai oui icsonsiliIi-
iics aic in ihc Iighi ol ihc lacis. Such InowIcugc wiII uiscIosc io us whai
oui iiuc human vaIucs aic, cvcn il ihcic is no moiaI oiuci in naiuic.
In shoii, musi noi ihc vciy uiaIcciic ol ihcii own osiiion caich ihc
cxisicniiaIisis u inio ihc Iogic ol Know ihyscIl anu ol ihc cxamincu
Iilc, anu uIiimaicIy inio ihc cihics ol iaiionaI man.
. CorIu.or: or no.r .Ln oe rnu.nII,
SiiII, ii is noi ly any such uiaIcciicaI aigumcnis ihai ihc cxisicn-
iiaIisis aic going io lc answcicu ccciivcIy. Suosing ihai ihc hiu-
ucn Iogic ol ihcii osiiion uocs commii ihcm io a soii ol invciicu anu
covcii ihcoiy ol human naiuic, ihai wiII scaiccIy succ io icinsiaic
ai onc siioIc ihc cniiic iiauiiionaI cihics ol iaiionaI man. Thc iioulIc
is ihai ihc vciy noiion ol human naiuic, anu ol naiuic gcnciaIIy, has
aaicniIy iuincu soui loi mosi moucin cihicaI ihinIcis, noi jusi loi
ihc cxisicniiaIisis, lui loi ihc uiiIiiaiians, loi ihc icIaiivisis, loi ihosc
lcwiichcu ly ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy, loi jusi aloui cvciyonc, in laci.
Ioi ihis icason, no onc ihinIs any moic ol iuining io naiuic anu ol
iiying io uiscovci in naiuic such ways ol Iilc as aic ucmanucu ly oui
naiuic as mcn.
Bui whai il ihc goou man is simIy ihc man who has scnsc cnough io
lc naiuiaI, who has succccucu in achicving a InowIcugc ol himscIl, as
Sociaics wouIu ui ii, anu who is wiIIing jusi io lc himscIl . Such a man
wouIu noi lc aicicu wiih ihc cuiicni uiscasc ol lccIing ihai hc musi
aIways lc siiiIing a osc oi aciing a aii. Hc wouIu noi lc haunicu ly
any conviciion ol his own noihingncss, luiiousIy uiiving himscIl io lc
loicvci cicaiing himscIl ancw, oi going lcyonu himscIl oi auihcnii-
[ 1S | v.+i o.i x.
caiing himscIl in ihc mannci ol somc lancicu Nicizschcan U!e.erL.
Noi musi ii lc suoscu ihai ihc onIy aIicinaiivc io ihis Iinu ol ucs-
ciaic liccuom, siinging liom ihc ciion ol oncs own noihingncss,
is ihc Iilc ol comIaccncy, Icihaigy, anu conloimiiy. This wouIu lc io
iuin ihc injunciion io lc youiscIl inio a civciicu counscI io loigci
youiscIl anu io cscac liom youiscIl ly gciiing Iosi in ihc ciowu oi
ly sccIing ihc ioicciivc coIoiaiion ol mcic conloimiiy. Raihci ihan
anyihing ol ihis soii, ihc naiuiaI Iilc loi a human lcing can lc nonc
oihci ihan ihc cxamincu Iilc, ihc Iilc in which onc comcs io Inow onc-
scIl as a human lcing anu, in anu ihiough such InowIcugc, comcs io
lc oncscIl.
AII ihc samc, such woius as ihcsc wiII uouliIcss sccm onIy laing
io ihc so-caIIcu cuucaicu man ol iouay. How can aII ihis iaII ol ihc cx-
amincu Iilc uccI iiscIl oui in acaIs io naiuic anu io ihc naiuiaI. hc
wiII say. By whai ossilIc siicich ol ihc imaginaiion can onc icicnu
ihai ihc Iilc ol a Sociaics is any moic naiuiaI ihan ihai ol a Nighiin-
gaIc, anu whai ossilIc mcaning can lc givcn io ihc iccommcnuaiion
ihai wc iuin io naiuic io nu oui whai ihc goou Iilc anu ihc naiuiaI
Iilc loi us is.
Oncc again, ioicsis ol ihis soii siing liom ihai mosi ingiaincu ol
moucin icjuuiccs, ihai ol iucniilying naiuic wiih ihc scicniic uni-
vcisc, anu ihc invcsiigaiion ol naiuic wiih ihc ioccuuics ol moucin
scicncc. To iclui such a icjuuicc, onc can onIy iciiciaic ihai whiIc
in ihcii caaciiy as scicniisis mcn can aiiain a InowIcugc ol naiuic
ihai is IiiciaIIy IimiiIcss in iis own uimcnsion, yci in icscci io oihci
uimcnsions such a scicniic InowIcugc ol naiuic is loih naiiowIy uc-
ncu anu iigoiousIy icsiiicicu, noi mcicIy in laci, lui in iinciIc. Is ii
noi olvious ihai mcn mcicIy as human lcings can, ly cxcicising ihcii
inicIIigcncc, achicvc a Iinu ol commonscnsc unucisianuing ol ihcii
own naiuic anu ol ihc naiuic ol ihc woiIu ihcy Iivc in which is uici-
cni liom scicniic InowIcugc, anu loi which scicniic InowIcugc is
no sulsiiiuic.
Icis iaIc an iIIusiiaiion. Somc cighi ycais ago ihcic acaicu in a
ouIai coIIcgc icxilooI sciics a shoii aci ly a conicmoiaiy sy-
choIogisi cniiiIcu TLe Nnu.nI Anr.
10
Whcn ihc icauci iuins lacI ihc
covci anu IooIs io scc jusi who oi whai ihc naiuiaI man is, liom ihc
sianuoini ol scicniic sychoIogy, onc uiscovcis ihai ihc auihoi is
E:.er.nI. nrn Le CIn. o 1..n.ornI Anr [ 1g |
haiu ui io ii io nu any cxamIcs ol so sccmingIy iaic a cicaiuic. Bui
naIIy alici somc hcmming anu hawing anu wiih no IiiiIc aoIogy loi
ihc laci ihai ihc cxamIcs aic lai liom cilcci, ihc auihoi suggcsis
ihai ihc lcsi cxamIcs ol naiuiaI mcn aic so-caIIcu lciaI mcnihc
wiIu loy ol Avcyion, oi ihc Nuicmluig loy, oi ihc woIl-chiIuicn ol
Inuia.
Now io ihc ooi moiaI hiIosohci who is iiying io hoIu u ihc
naiuiaI Iilc ol man as lcing ihc moucI ol ihc goou Iilc, such a scicniic
vcision ol ihc naiuiaI may wcII comc as a iuuc shocI. Bui on luiihci
consiuciaiion wc can scc ihai ihc sychoIogisi-auihoi is simIy cxcIuu-
ing liomhis concci ol mans naiuic aII ihosc iiaiis anu quaIiiics which
human lcings comc io havc as a icsuIi ol sociaI oi cuIiuiaI inucnccs.
SimiIaiIy hc is cxcIuuing anyihing ihai human lcings may havc comc
io lc as a icsuIi ol ihc cxcicisc ol ihcii inicIIigcncc anu in viiiuc ol
ihcii own Ians anu uioscs anu ucsigns. Such ihings aic ihoughi io
icicscni aiiiciaI
11
acciciions io ihc naiivc anu naiuiaI cnuowmcnis
ol mcn, anu hcncc musi lc alsiiacicu liom oi ihoughi away, il onc is
cvci io comc io unucisianu ihc naiuiaI in man as such.
UnuoulicuIy such a way ol concciving whai is naiuiaI io man is
noi onIy mcaningluI, lui aIiogcihci aioiiaic io ihc scciaI scicn-
iic conccins ol ihc auihoi. Anu yci liom anoihci oini ol vicw is ii
noi cquaIIy olvious ihai ihc mouc ol cxisicncc ol ihc woIl-chiIuicn ol
Inuia is noi whai wc wouIu oiuinaiiIy caII ihc naiuiaI way ol Iilc loi
a human lcing, any moic ihan wc wouIu consiuci iuiocy oi aiaIysis
oi insaniiy io lc ihc naiuiaI conuiiion ol man. On ihc coniiaiy, man
lcing a iaiionaI oi inicIIigcni animaI ly naiuic, ii may lc icsumcu
ihai ihc naiuiaI Iilc loi a human lcing wiII lc somc soii ol iaiionaI
oi inicIIigcni Iilc, jusi as man lcing ly naiuic a oIiiicaI animaI,
12
ii
may lc icsumcu ihai ihc naiuiaI Iilc loi him wiII lc Iilc in somc soii
ol oIiiicaI anu cuIiuiaI miIicu. Anu jusi as wc wouIu cciiainIy iccog-
nizc ihai ihc way ol Iilc ol ihc wiIu loy ol Avcyion was unmisiaIalIy
an unnaiuiaI anu cvcn lcsiiaI cxisicncc loi a human lcing, so aIso,
ly cxicnsion anu un. unrn., wc wouIu suicIy say ihai ihc Iilc ol
a NighiingaIc oi a Shalicsluiy oi a Sii WaIici EIIioii was a looIish, oi
miscialIc, oi wasicu human cxisicncc. Moicovci, ihc sianuaiu ol oui
juugmcni in ihcsc Iaiici cascs is noi unIiIc oui sianuaiu in ihc loimci:
ii is a icgaiu loi ihc oicniiaIiiics ol mans naiuic as man ihai Icaus
[ 16o | v.+i o.i x.
us io say ol a NighiingaIc no Icss ihan ol a lciaI man ihai hc somchow
laIIs shoii ol his naiuiaI human caaciiics, ihai hc laiIs io lc luIIy anu
iiuIy human.
Sccn in ihis Iighi, uoing whai comcs naiuiaIIy musi nccus iaIc on
a vciy uicicni mcaning. Raihci ihan an Annic wiih hci gun lcing ihc
olvious iuioi loi us in such maiicis, ii mighi lciici lc a PIaio oi an
AiisioiIc. Anu iaihci ihan ihai chaiacicis IiIc UncIc ]cu anu Gianua
BiII shouIu scivc as cxcmIais in ihc lusincss ol uoing whai comcs
naiuiaIIy, why noi IooI io a Sociaics.
Notes
1. i iis+ oi i+uit.i xoviirci
1. K.e.Ienn.n CorIun.r Ur.er. Po.., iians. ly Daviu I. Swcnson anu
WaIici Iowiic, Piinccion, N.].: Piinccion Univcisiiy Picss, 1gqq, . :6S.
:. C. P. Snow, TLe Sen.L, Ncw YoiI: ChaiIcs Sciilncis Sons, 1gS, . :So
S:.
. TLe D.nIoue o PIno, iians. ly Bcnjamin ]owcii, Oxloiu: Oxloiu Univcisiiy
Picss, iu cu., 1Sg:, VoI. II, AoIo,, :g DE, S A.
q. Scc alovc, . .
. GaliicI MaiccI, TLe PL.IooL, o E:.ere, NcwYoiI: PhiIosohicaI Iiliaiy,
1gqg, . 1.
6. AIuous HuxIcy, B.n.e Ne. Vo.In, Ncw YoiI: Haici anu Bioihcis, 1gq6,
Ioicwoiu, . xvxvi.
. Ruih Bcncuici, Pne.r o CuIu.e, Ncw YoiI: Mcnioi BooIs, 1gS, . :o6.
S. 1!.n., . .
g. 1!.n., . :1.
1o. 1!.n., . :.
11. Bcniio MussoIini, D.uu.rn, . q. Quoicu liom HcImui Kuhn, F.ee-
no Fo.oer nrn Fee!e.en, ChacI HiII, N.C.: Univcisiiy ol Noiih CaioIina
Picss, 1gq, . 11S.
z. +ui ix.xiir iiii: v.tx +o sotv.+is .r .vis+o+ii
1. AiisioiIc, TLe N.onLenr EL., Iocl Iiliaiy iiansIaiion, BooI I, Ch. 1,
1ogqa 1, 61o.
:. 1!.n., BooI I, Ch. :, 1ogqa 1g:1, :::.
. 1!.n., BooI I, Ch. , 1oga 1:q.
q. 1!.n., 1ogl :q1ogSa q, sIighiIy aIicicu liom Iocl Iiliaiy vcision.
. K.e.Ienn.n CorIun.r Ur.er. Po.., iians. ly Daviu I. Swcnson anu
WaIici Iowiic, Piinccion, N.].: Piinccion Univcisiiy Picss, 1gqq, . :S1.
6. Scc alovc, . o.
. N.onLenr EL., BooI X, Ch. , 11a 1S::.
S. 1!.n., 11l :611Sa 1.
g. 1!.n., 11Sa g1o. Cl. ihc whoIc ol Ch. S anu cscciaIIy 11Sl :q.
1o. G. Iowcs DicIinson, TLe C.eeI V.e. o 1.e, 1:ih cu., NcwYoiI: DoulIcuay,
Pagc anu Co., 1g1g, . 1q:.
11. Scc alovc, . 6.
1:. Mauiicc MciIcau-Poniy, PLeroeroIo.e ne In e.e.or, Ioicwoiu, iians. ly
AIicc KoIIci (mimco., no uaic, no ulIishci), . :, , q.
[ 16: | Noe o. Pne jog
. vuv o+ vic.vr xov.is .r i+uits
.s sixviv . .v+ oi iivic.
1. Scc alovc, . q.
:. ]ohn Diyucn, A!nIo nrn AL.oLeI. TLe Poe.nI Vo.I o JoLr D.,ner, Bos-
ion: Houghion Miin Co., 1gog, . 1111:.
. C. P. Snow, TLe Ane., Gaiucn Ciiy, N.Y.: Anchoi BooIs, 1gg, . qqq.
q. C. V. Wcugwoou, TLe K.r Pene, Ncw YoiI: MacmiIIan Co., 1g, . o.
. 1!.n., . :.
6. 1!.n., . 616:.
. This is ihc lasic schcmc uscu ly Si. Thomas Aquinas. Ioi a liicl lui cx-
ccIIcni moucin accouni ol ihis way ol cIassilying ihc assions, cl. ]ohn WiIu,
1r.onu.or o FenI.. PL.IooL,, Ncw YoiI: Haici anu Bioihcis, 1gqS, Ch. ,
cscciaIIy . 11o1:.
S. Cl. P. H. NowcII-Smiih, EL., Ionuon: PcIican BooIs, 1gq, . 11::1.
g. Ioi a mosi iIIuminaiing iicaimcni ol ihis, cl. WiIu, 1r.onu.or o FenI..
PL.IooL,, . 16qq.
1o. ]anc Ausicn, Pe.un.or, Ncw YoiI: Oxloiu Univcisiiy Picss, 1go, Ch. 1,
. 1.
11. Eiich Iiomm, Anr o. H.eI, Ionuon: RouiIcugc anu Kcgan PauI, 1gqg,
. 6S1.
q. vuv xov.is .r i+uits .vi o+ sixviv . .v+ oi iivic
1. AiisioiIc, N.onLenr EL., BooI VI, Ch. , 11qol ::. Thc iiansIaiion
hcic uscu is ihai ol ]. A. K. Thomson, TLe EL. o A..oIe, Ionuon: Gcoigc AIIcn
anu Unwin, 1g, . 16. Thc liacIcicu woius aic my inicioIaiion.
:. C. .!.n., BooI II, ch. 6.
. Scc alovc, Ch. :, scciion , . qqqg.
q. Hcniy Auams, TLe Enun.or o Her., Ann, Bosion: Houghion Miin Co.,
1g1S, . :6q6.
. Scc N.onLenr EL., BooI X, Ch. g, 11gl 1.
6. N.onLenr EL. (Thomson iiansIaiion), BooI II, Ch. q, 11oa :l :g.
. i.iiivi .r iu.vviiss: .vi +uiv oiv ov visvosiviii+v.
1. TLe D.nIoue o PIno, iians. ly Bcnjamin ]owcii, Oxloiu: Oxloiu Univcisiiy
Picss, iu cu., 1Sg:, VoI. II, AoIo,, . 1::6 (: AD).
:. C. V. Wcugwoou, TLe K.r Vn., Ncw YoiI: MacmiIIan Co., 1gg, . g
So.
. PIaio, AoIo,, . 1og (1 D).
q. Quoicu liom ]osch Woou Kiuich, SnueI JoLror, Ncw YoiI: Hcniy HoIi
anu Co., 1gqq, . :.
. In whai loIIows wc shaII no uouli acai io lc Iaying lasi anu Ioosc loih
wiih PIaio anu wiih PIaios icuiaiion. Ii is iiuc ihai in ihc uiaIoguc P.ono.n
PIaio icicscnis Sociaics as auvocaiing a ihcsis io ihc ccci ihai viiiuc is simIy
Noe o. Pne 11z1j [ 16 |
a maiici ol InowIcugc anu vicc ol ignoiancc. Howcvci, ihai ihis is PIaios own
consiucicu vicw, oi ihai PIaio wouIu himscIl havc acccicu aII ol ihc imIica-
iions anu conscqucnccs ihai wc soughi io uiaw oui ol such a vicwnciihci ol
ihcsc conicniions is waiianicu ly ihc somcwhai conucnscu uiscussion in ihc P.o-
no.n. NcvciihcIcss, nccuing io havc a convcnicni IalcI io aiiach io ihc soii
ol cihicaI osiiion loi which Sociaics acais io lc ai Icasi a icmoiaiy auvo-
caic, wc havc IalcIcu loih ihc vicw iiscIl, iogcihci wiih ihc imIicaiions ihai wc
havc icnucu io nu in ii, PIaionic. Il such a ioccuuic ucmanus an aoIogy,
wc wiIIingIy oci iiio PIaio.
6. v.r iitx .r +ui iovti oi tivtixs+.tis
.s t.isis oi i.iiivi
1. Bciiianu RusscII, TLe ArnI,. o A.rn, Ionuon anu Ncw YoiI: MacmiIIan
Co., 1g:1, . 616.
:. Quoicu in PauI EImci Moic, TLe Se.nI A.onL o FeI..or, Piinccion,
N.].: Piinccion Univcisiiy Picss, 1gq, . :.
. ]ciomc HaII, Cere.nI P..r.Ie o C...rnI 1n., InuianaoIis: Bolls-MciiiII
Co., 1gq, . S6S.
q. 1!.n., . g1g:.
. AiisioiIc, N.onLenr EL. (Iocl Iiliaiy iiansIaiion), BooI I, Ch. g,
11ooa qg.
6. 1!.n., BooI I, Ch. 1o, 11ool :11o1a S.
. TLe BooI o Coor P.n,e., PsaIm 1S.
. vi+ vu.+ ii cor is ri.r.
1. Iiicuiich Nicizschc, De. V.IIe .u. AnL, . This is moic a aiahiasc ihan
a iiansIaiion.
:. ]ohn Siuaii MiII, U.I.n..nr., NcwYoiI: IilciaI Aiis Picss, :nu cu., 1g,
. qqq.
. G. E. Mooic, P..r..n EL.n, Camliiugc: Camliiugc Univcisiiy Picss, 1si
cu., 1go, Ch. III, cscciaIIy . 1o1.
q. Whcihci ii was ihc cxisicncc ol ihcsc noiions ihai oiiginaIIy accounicu loi
ihc sicau ol uiiIiiaiianism, oi whcihci ii was uiiIiiaiianism which causcu such
noiions io lc so icvaIcni, wc wouIu noi vcniuic io say.
. Scc alovc, Ch. 1.
6. Scc alovc, . 11.
. AIuous HuxIcy, B.n.e Ne.Vo.In, NcwYoiI anu Ionuon: Haici anu Bioih-
cis, 1gq6, . :66q.
S. MiII, U.I.n..nr., . 1q.
g. Mooic, P..r..n EL.n, n., cscciaIIy Ch. I.
1o. Cl. alovc, Ch. :, . :S.
11. Il onc wishcu io lc cuaniic, onc mighi insisi ihai loi AiisioiIc goou
uocs noi lcIong cxcIusivcIy io any onc caicgoiy anu hcncc is noi suscciilIc ol
[ 16q | Noe o. Pne 1jB1jg
ucniiion in ihc usuaI scnsc. Howcvci, ihcic is IiiiIc oini in icssing ihis con-
siuciaiion hcic.
1:. On ihc laIIacy ol aiicmiing io ass liom siaicmcnis as io whai is oi is
noi ihc casc io siaicmcnis as io whai oughi oi oughi noi io lc ihc casc, ihc Iou
In.u is, ol couisc, Humcs T.en.e, BooI III, Paii I, scciion 1. Thc icIcvani
assagc is quoicu cniiic in P. H. NowcII-Smiih, EL., Ionuon: Pcnguin BooIs,
1gq, . 6.
1. Cl. ihc wcII-Inown aiiicIc ly W. K. IianIcna, cniiiIcu Thc NaiuiaIisiic
IaIIacy, A.rn, VoI. XIVIII, N. S., No. 1g:, . q6.
S. ixis+i+i.iisx .r +ui ti.ixs oi ivv.+io.i x.
1. WiIIiam Baiicii, 1..n.ornI Anr, Gaiucn Ciiy, N.Y.: DoulIcuay Anchoi
BooIs, 1gS, . :1::.
:. 1!.n., . qq6.
. ]can-PauI Saiiic, ExisicniiaIism Is a Humanism, in E:.er.nI. .o Do-
o,e.I, o Sn..e, cu. ly WaIici Kaulman, Ncw YoiI: Mciiuian BooIs, 1gS, .
:gqg.
q. K.e.Ienn.n CorIun.r Ur.er. Po.., iians. ly Daviu I. Swcnson anu
WaIici Iowiic, Piinccion, N.].: Piinccion Univcisiiy Picss, 1gqq, . 11S1g.
. 1!.n., . :So.
6. 1!.n., . o.
. 1!.n., . :S1.
S. Rolcii Chamigny, Sne or Sn..e Vn,, BIoomingion: Inuiana Univcisiiy
Picss, 1gg, . .
g. K.e.Ienn.n CorIun.r Ur.er. Po.., . So.
1o. CIaicncc Icula, TLe Nnu.nI Anr, Gaiucn Ciiy, N.Y.: DoulIcuay anu Co.,
1gq.
11. To saiisly ihc icquiicmcnis ol cuaniiy ii shouIu cihas lc noicu ihai
such an insisicncc uon uisiinguishing ihc naiuiaI liom ihc aiiiciaI is chaiac-
iciisiicaIIy AiisioicIian. Cl. AiisioiIc, TLe PL,., BooI II, Ch. 1, 1g:l S:. Ai
ihc samc iimc, AiisioiIc wouIu noi aIy ihis uisiinciion io ihc shcic ol human
moiaI aciion in quiic ihc way ihai Piolcssoi Icula sccms io lc suggcsiing ii lc
uonc.
1:. Cl. AiisioiIc, TLe PoI.., BooI I, Ch. S, 1:a .
Analytical Table of Contents
1. i iis+ oi i+uit.i xoviirci
1. Whai is cihics. 1
:. Why noi consiuci cihics an aii ol Iiving. z
. Bui is Iiving somcihing ihai onc can Icain how io uo. j
q. Thc giovcs ol acaucmc: ihc uivoicc lciwccn Icaining anu Iiving
. Is ii noi a aiauox ihai Icaining sccms ncvci io lc Icaining how io Iivc. 0
6. Is ihcic no cscaing ihis aiauox. B
. A cuiicniIy acccialIc anu uangciousIy unciiiicaI way oui: a InowIcugc ol
lchavioi g
S. Musi wc alanuon ihc hoc ihai cihics can lc an aii oi a scicncc. 1z
g. BacI io McihuscIah anu uown wiih icIaiivism 1j
1o. Thc IogicaI uicuIiics ol cIaiming a laciuaI InowIcugc in maiicis ol
cihics 1j
11. Thc icluiaiion ol icIaiivism 1
z. +ui ix.xiir iiii: v.tx +o sotv.+is .r .vis+o+ii
1. Rcoiicniaiion anu ncw ucaiiuic zj
:. Docs noi man havc a naiuiaI cnu. z
. Whai, ihcn, is mans naiuiaI cnu. jo
q. Iiisi oljcciion: ihis is noihing lui a Ioi ol Iaiiiuucs j1
. Scconu oljcciion: whai has inicIIigcncc goi io uo wiih lcing a goou man. jj
6. Thc goou Iilc as cquivaIcni io ihc hay Iilc z
. A ihiiu oljcciion: ihc cviucncc liom moucin scicncc laiIs io conim ihis
vicw ol man anu ol mans naiuiaI cnu
. vuv o+ vic.vr xov.is .r i+uits
.s sixviv . .v+ oi iivic.
1. Viiiuc as sIiII oi Inow-how jo
:. Human lccIings, acciions, anu cmoiions as ihai wiih icscci io which ihc
human viiiucs aic cxciciscu j1
. Bui whai aic lccIings, acciions, cmoiions, incIinaiions. j0
q. A ossilIc cIassicaiion ol ucsiics anu cmoiions accoiuing io ihcii
icscciivc ihcimosiaiic lunciions j
. Thc Iimiiaiions ol ihcsc ihcimosiaiic coniioIs ol oui aciions anu icaciions,
anu ihc ioIc ol ihc viiiucs in maIing u loi ihcsc Iimiiaiions jB
6. A ossilIc iIIusiiaiion ol how ihcsc viiiucs somciimcs woiI: AiisioiIcs
uociiinc ol ihc mcan 0o
[ 166 | ArnI,.nI Tn!Ie o Corer
. A siiII moic sccic iIIusiiaiion; ihc viiiuc ol scIl-icscci anu a jusi scnsc ol
uigniiy anu cisonaI icsonsiliIiiy 01
q. vuv xov.is .r i+uits .vi o+ sixviv . .v+ oi iivic
1. Is cihics icaIIy an aii. 0B
:. Thc uncciiainiy ol cihics as comaialIc io ihc uncciiainiy in any aii: aii
ucaIs wiih ihc aiiicuIai anu inuiviuuaI 0g
. Bui cihics is noi an aii, ai Icasi noi IiIc oihci aiis o
q. Bcing a goou man is uicicni liom lcing goou ai somcihing: uoing is moic
ihan Inowing 1
. Bcing a goou man is uicicni liom lcing goou ai somcihing: choosing is
moic ihan uoing z
6. Thc AiisioicIian uisiinciion ol moiaI viiiucs liom inicIIcciuaI viiiucs j
. Thc goou man is no looI: no moiaI viiiuc wiihoui inicIIcciuaI viiiuc
S. Bui isni ihis iighi whcic wc camc in iwo chaicis ago. j
g. Doulis anu moic uoulis: can moiaIs cvci lc suoscu io icsi uIiimaicIy
uon InowIcugc. 0
1o. In uclcnsc ol iaiionaIiiy: mans cnu oi goaI is a iaiionaIIy uclcnsilIc onc g
11. In uclcnsc ol iaiionaIiiy: ihc iaiionaIIy uclcnsilIc cnu oi goaI ol man is io
lc iaiionaI Bo
1:. How ihai which is moiaIIy wiong can lc saiu io lc a misiaIc oi an ciioi B1
1. Whai is ii io Inow oi noi io Inow ihc iiuih aloui oncscIl . Bz
1q. MoiaI ciioi anu inicIIcciuaI ciioiihc samc anu yci noi ihc samc Bj
. i.iiivi .r iu.vviiss: .vi +uiv oiv ov visvosiviii+v.
1. Human laiIuic, iis naiuic anu causcs Bj
:. Is ignoiancc an cxcusc. B0
a. Ignoiancc ol laci B
l. Ignoiancc ol Iaw Bg
. Which is iioi, ignoiancc as ihc causc ol moiaI laiIuic, oi moiaI wcaIncss as
ihc causc ol ignoiancc. g
q. PIaios uzzIci: viiiuc is noihing lui InowIcugc, anu vicc noihing lui
ignoiancc g
. Is ihcic no gciiing aiounu PIaios aigumcni. gg
6. A ossilIc answci io PIaio 1o1
. ImIicaiions wiih icscci io human icsonsiliIiiy 1oz
S. Human icsonsiliIiiy as invoIving human liccuom 1oj
a. VaIuc juugmcnis as licc juugmcnis 1o
l. Iicc juugmcnis anu licc choiccs 1o0
ArnI,.nI Tn!Ie o Corer [ 16 |
6. v.r iitx .r +ui iovti oi tivtixs+.tis
.s +ui t.isis oi i.iiivi
1. Bui how can wc lc lIamcu whcn ii is noi wc who maIc ouiscIvcs whai wc
aic. 1og
:. Thc issuc ol scicniic uciciminisman cihicaI icu hciiing. 11o
. Thc loicc ol ciicumsianccs: uocs ii uciciminc us oi onIy chaIIcngc us. 11j
q. Thc moiaI iolIcm iiansoscu inio a IcgaI conicxi ly way ol iIIusiiaiion 11
. BacI liom Iaw io cihics again 11g
a. Do wc nu ouiscIvcs commiiicu io a mcic cihics ol goou inicniions alici
aII. 1zz
l. Bui ihc goou Iilc musi lc an inicIIigcni Iilc, noi jusi a wcII-mcaning
Iilc 1zj
6. A naI uouli as io oui liccuom anu icsonsiliIiiy in ihc lacc ol auvcisc
ciicumsianccs 1z
. SiiII onc moic uouli, ihis iimc conccining haincss: is ihc goou Iilc
ncccssaiiIy ihc hay Iilc. 1z0
. vi+ vu.+ ii cor is ri.r.
1. Iniiouuciion 1zg
:. UiiIiiaiianism 1jo
a. Thc inuicicncc ol uiiIiiaiianism io qucsiions icgaiuing an oljcciivc
lasis loi cihics 1jo
l. AIiiuism as an cihicaI icu hciiing 1jo
c. Thc insucicncics ol iiying io conccivc haincss aaii liom any
oljcciivc ciiiciion 1jj
. G. E. Mooic anu ihc iolIcm ol ihc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy 1jj
a. PhiIosohicaI sohisiicaiion anu uiiIiiaiianism 1jj
l. Thc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy: ihc aiicmi io iuin ihc mcicIy naiuiaI inio ihc
goou 1j0
c. Thc conccivaliIiiy ol ihc oosiic as ihc ciiiciion ol ihc naiuiaIisiic
laIIacy 1jB
u. Thc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy cniias iis own invcnioi 1jg
c. Whcic Mooic wcni wiong 11
l. Thc naiuiaIisiic laIIacy as a souicc ol sIciicism 1j
g. Thc oIu luglcai ol ihc scaiaiion ol laci anu vaIuc; Icis havc uonc wiih
ii 1
S. ixis+i+i.iisx .r +ui ti.ixs oi ivv.+io.i x.
1. ExisicniiaIism as icsuosing ihc ucaih ol Gou 1B
:. Thc suoscu aniiihcsis lciwccn iaiionaIiiy anu commiimcni 1j1
. Bui why noi a iaiionaI commiimcni. 1j
q. ConcIusion: on uoing whai comcs naiuiaIIy 1j
Index
alsoIuiism, 1g
acaucmic woiIu, q6, 6
acoin cxamIc, :S, q, 1og1o
aciions. See choosing; licc choicc
Auams, Hcniy, 6
auvcisiiy: as cxIanaiion ol laiIuic,
1og1o; anu licc choicc, 1116,
11g; anu haincss, 1:6:S
aIiiuism in uiiIiiaiianism, 1o
AiisioiIc (quoicu): aim ol lchavioi,
:; conicmIaiion, gqo; uivinc,
q1n; uoing, Sq; goou, o1; ha-
incssJauvcisiiy, 1::S
aiiJsIiII anaIogy, :6, o1, 6S1
asiionomy cxamIc, 1q
Ausicn, ]anc, 6:, S
Baiicii, WiIIiam, xvixvii, xxiii, 1qg
o
Bcncuici, Ruih, 1S1g, :o:1
Bcniham, ]cicmy, 1o
B.n.e Ne. Vo.In (HuxIcy), 1q
BuiIci, Bisho, 1S
BuiIci, ]amcs, ggq
calinci maIci cxamIc, 1:
caicnici cxamIc,
chaiacici: anu inicIIigcncc, q1,
; anu InowIcugc, q; anu moiaI
viiiuc, xv
ChaiIcs I, q6, S1
choosing: Inowing comaicu, 1,
, Sq; PIaios InowIcugc aigu-
mcni, g1o; liom iaciicaI wis-
uom, xivxv; in icIaiivism, :::q.
See nIo licc choicc
ciicumsianccs: as cxIanaiion ol laiI-
uic, 1og1o; IcgaI comaiisons,
111g; as moiaI chaIIcngc, 1116;
anu iaciicaI wisuom, xivxv
con-aiiiiuucs, S
ConiioIIciJSavagc (HuxIcy chaiac-
icis), 1q
couiagc, xiv, , q, S
DicIinson, Iowcs, q
uigniiy, 616,
uivinc Iilc, gqo, q1n
uoing .. Inowing, 1
uoing .. ihinIing, 6g
uiiving cxamIcs, :, SS
Diyucn, ]ohn, 1
EIIioii, Sii WaIici (Ausicns chaiac-
ici), 6:, S1, S
cmoiions: anu inicIIigcncc, 16,
g61; anu moiaI viiiucs, xiv;
scIl-icscci cxamIc, 616; in
scIl-icsonsiliIiiy aigumcnis, SS;
signicancc, g; vaiiciy, 6

ciiois in lchavioi: in aiis .. cihics,

6S; liom cmoiionaI conlusion,
16; as cxciicncc, ; moiaI ..
inicIIcciuaI, S1Sq; anu uiiIiiaiian-
ism, 1
cihicaI InowIcugc, siuuy aioachcs:
aiiJsIiII anaIogy, :6, o1, 6S
1; human cxciicncc, :1,
qqg; Ianguagc anaIysis, xxivxxv,
1:; quanuaiics summaiizcu, 6
g, 1:1, ::6, qqq; icIaiivism,
1:q; scicniic, g1:, qq;
uiiIiiaiianism, 1o6. See nIo cxis-
icniiaIism anu cihics; naiuiaIisiic
laIIacy aigumcni; scIl-InowIcugc
[ 1o | 1rne:
eunn.or.n, x, xiii. See nIo goouJ
goouncss
cxamincu Iilc. See scIl-InowIcugc
cxisicniiaIism anu cihics: licc choicc,
11:; Gous ioIc, 1qS1, 16
; suljcciiviiyJoljcciiviiy aigu-
mcni, 1:
lacis: as icIaiivism aigumcni, 11,
:6; as vaIucs, xii, 1qqq
laiIuic, causcs, SS6. See nIo scIl-
icsonsiliIiiy aigumcnis
IaIsia, gg6
IauIInci, WiIIiam, 1qgo
lccIings. See cmoiions
lciaI man, 1g6o
licc choicc: anu ciicumsianccs, 116
1g, 1:q:6; cxisicniiaIism, 11q;
anu scicniic uciciminism, 11o1;
as scIl-icsonsiliIiiy, 1o1S
Iiomm, Eiich, 66q
lunciions: naiuiaI, xixii, o1; sci-
cniic ciscciivc, 1o1:, 11o1:
Gou: ucau aigumcni, 1:go; anu
cihics ol iaiionaIiiy, 1qSqg; anu
cxisicniiaIism, 1qS1, 16
goouJgoouncss: ucnalIc naiuic, xii;
anu haincss, q:q; Inowing ..
uoing, 1; as naiuiaI cnu, :
o, q:q, g; naiuiaIisiic laIIacy
aigumcni, 1qo, 1q:q; oicn-
iiaI .. aciuaI, 1qqq; icasons
ioIc, xiiixiv, o1, q1, SoS1
gunJihug cxamIc, 11
haliis as moiaI viiiucs, xv, ,
1:q
haincss: anu auvcisiiy, 1:6:S;
liom conicmIaiion, gqo; as
goou, q:q; anu ioiaIiiaiian
siaics, 1:, 1; in uiiIiiaiianism,
1o:, 1
hcaIih anaIogy, q:
HoIe, U.S. .., 11g:o
honcsiy, xiv, , q
honoiJicuiaiion, S
HooIci, Richaiu, xi
human ouiishing: ucncu, xiiixiv;
ioIc ol inuiviuuaI, xvxvi
human naiuic: icason as csscncc,
o, gS1; as souicc ol cihi-
caI InowIcugc, xii, xvxvi, :o,
qqg
huniing acciucni cxamIc, SS
HuxIcy, AIuous, 1:, 1q
iucaI .. icaI, 11
ignoiancc-lascu cxcuscs: IcgaI ..
moiaI conicxi, S6g6; PIaios
viiiuc as InowIcugc ihcoiy com-
aicu, g1o
ignoianccJlIiss laigain, :
imuIscs. See cmoiions
inuiviuuaI cihics .. sociaI cihics,
xxvi
inuiviuuaIiiy anu scIl-InowIcugc,
xvxvi
inicIIigcncc: anu chaiacici, q1,
; as uiscovciy iooI, xiii, xivxv,
g; anu cmoiions, 16, g61,
6; anu moiaI viiiucs, , 1:q,
1:. See nIo icason; scIl-InowIcugc
inicniion aigumcni, 1:::q
1..n.ornI Anr (Baiicii), xvixvii, xxiii
]ohnson, SamucI, gg6, 11
KiciIcgaaiu, S., S, 1:q, 16,
16n
Inowing .. uoing, 1
InowIcugc: anu chaiacici, q; anu
moiaI viiiucs, , S1Sq; PIaios
viiiuc ihcoiy, g1o. See nIo cihi-
caI InowIcugc, siuuy aioachcs;
scicncc; scIl-InowIcugc
1rne: [ 11 |
Ianguagc anaIysis as cihicaI siuuy,
xxivxxv, 1:
Icaining cihics, aigumcnis, :g,
o1, 6S6g
IcgaI comaiisons: ciicumsianccs as
cxIanaiion, 11:; ignoiancc as
cxcusc, S6g6
Iiving inicIIigcniIy, ucncu, xiiixiv,
6, 6. See nIo goouJgoouncss;
moiaI viiiuc; scIl-InowIcugc
MaiccI, GaliicI, 1o11
maiIci anaIogy, 66q
TLe Ane. (Snow), q
mcan, uociiinc ol, 6o61
enIo,L.n, 6:,
MciIcau-Poniy, M., qS
mcia-cihics, xxivxxv, 1:
MiII, ]ohn Siuaii, 1o, 11:, 1
mixcu acis, 11g:1
Mooic, G. E. See naiuiaIisiic laIIacy
aigumcni
moiaI viiiuc: as cmoiionaI coniioI,
xiv, g61; anu cmoiionaI ciiois,
16, S1Sq; halii ol, xv,
, 1:q; anu haincss, q; anu
iaciicaI wisuom, xivxv; scIl-
icscci cxamIc, 616; suljcc-
iiviiyJoljcciiviiy aigumcni, 1:.
See nIo goouJgoouncss
MussoIini, Bcniio, xvi, :o
naiuiaIisiic laIIacy aigumcni: cii-
iiqucu, xii, 1gq; ucsciilcu,
16g; moucin uscs ol, 1q
qq
naiuiaI Iaw, ucncu, xi
TLe Nnu.nI Anr (Icula), 1Sg
Nicizschc, 1:g, 1qS
NighiingaIc, (Snows chaiacici),
q, S1
noimaiivc cihics, aigumcni loi, xxv
xxvi
oljcciiviiy anu icIaiivism, 11
oljcciiviiyJsuljcciiviiy aigumcni,
1:
O Le 1n. o EIe.n.nI PoI.,
(HooIci), xi
Oimonuc, EaiI ol, ggq
oughi .. is, 11
assions. See cmoiions
Pne.r o CuIu.e (Bcncuici), 1S1g,
:o:1
cilcciion. See scIl-cilcciion
L.ore., xiv
PIaio, q, g1o, 11:1, 16:6n.
owci, q
iaciicaI wisuom anu viiiucs, xivxv
io-aiiiiuucs, S
P.ono.n (PIaio), ggS, 16:6n.
icason: as csscncc ol human naiuic,
xiiixiv, o, Sq1, gS1; ui-
osc, o, Sq1, g6o. See nIo
inicIIigcncc; scIl-InowIcugc
icuuciionism, aigumcnis againsi, xii
icIaiivism, cihicaI: lounuaiions ol,
11, :6; inconsisicncy ol, xvi,
1:q; scicniic uciciminism com-
aicu, 111
icIigion in cihics, x, xxvixxvii. See
nIo Gou
icuiaiionJhonoi, S
RusscII, Bciiianu, 1111:
Saiiic, ]can-PauI, 1:gn, 1o:, 1q
SavagcJConiioIIci (HuxIcy chaiac-
icis), 1q
scicncc: anu human lunciions, xixii,
g1:; iiicIcvancc io cihics, g1o,
161, qqq, 6go; as InowI-
cugc, q; moiivaiions io siuuy,
6; anu naiuiaI man, 1S6o;
anu icIaiivism, 1q1, :6; anu
vaIucJlaci scaiaiion, 1qq6
[ 1: | 1rne:
scicniic uciciminism, 11o1
TLe Sen.L (Snow), 6, qq6
scIl-ucicciaiion, 66
scIl-InowIcugc: anu cmoiionaI mis-
iaIcs, 16, S1Sq; anu cxisicn-
iiaIism, 1qS; anu haincss,
q:q; as human uiosc, o1,
, Sq1; ignoianccJlIiss laigain
comaicu, 1; as inuiviuuaI
cihics, xvxvi; anu mcn ol aciion
cxamIcs, 6g; anu iaciicaI wis-
uom, xivxv; scicnccs coniiiluiion,
g1:; Sociaicss qucsi, g, S. See
nIo inicIIigcncc; icason
scIl-cilcciion: ucncu, xxi; anu
haincss, q:q; as naiuiaI cnu,
xiii, :o; ioIc ol inuiviuuaI, xv
scIl-icscci, 616,
scIl-icsonsiliIiiy aigumcnis: choicc
as InowIcugc, g1oo; ciicum-
sianccs, 1og1o, 1116, 1:q
:6; liccuom ol choicc, 1o1S;
ignoiancc-lascu cxcuscs, S6g6;
scicniic uciciminism, 11o1
sciious man, 16
Shalicsluiy, EaiI ol, 1
shiwiccI cxamIcs, 111S, 11g:
sIiIIJaii anaIogy, :6, o1, 6S1
sIavciy cxamIc, 16
Snow, C. P., 6, qq6, q
sociaI cihics, xxvi
Sociaics: Oimonuc comaiison, g:
g; scIl-InowIcugc qucsi, g,
S
siimuIus-icsonsc cxIanaiions, 11o
1
suljcciiviiyJoljcciiviiy aigumcni,
1:
suigcon cxamIc, o
icmci, , 1o:
icmciancc, xiv,
ihinIing .. uoing, 6g
ihugJgun cxamIc, 11
ioIciancc anu icIaiivism, 1S:1
ioiaIiiaiian siaics, 1:, 1
iuiniIc cxamIc, SS
Unucigiounu man, 111:, 1q
univcisaIizaliIiiy, xvxvi
U.S. .. HoIe, 11g:o
uiiIiiaiianism, 1o6
vaIuc juugmcnis: anu cmoiions, g
61; laciuaI juugmcnis comaicu,
11; as licc choiccs, 1oqS; anu
scicniic uciciminism, 111
vaIucsJlacis, inscaialiIiiy, 1qqq
vaniiy, 6:6
Vcaich, Hcniy BalcocI: lilIiogiahy,
xixxxii; liogiahicaI highIighis,
ixx; hiIosohicaI ovcivicw, x
xviii
viiiuc as InowIcugc (PIaios ihcoiy):
ignoiancc aigumcni comaicu,
g1o; scicniic uciciminism
comaicu, 11:1. See nIo moiaI
viiiuc
wcaIih, q
Wcugwoou, C. V., q
V.II.n B.o.r (shi), 11g:
Thc iyclacc uscu loi ihis looI is ITC Ncw BasIciviIIc, which was cicaicu
loi ihc InicinaiionaI Tyclacc Coioiaiion anu is lascu on ihc iycs ol
ihc EngIish iyc lounuci anu iinici ]ohn BasIciviIIc (1o6).
BasIciviIIc is ihc quinicsscniiaI iiansiiionaI lacc: ii iciains ihc liacIcicu
anu olIiquc sciils ol oIu-siyIc laccs such as CasIon anu Gaiamonu, lui in
iis incicascu Iowcicasc hcighi, Iighici coIoi, anu cnhanccu coniiasi
lciwccn ihicI anu ihin siioIcs, ii icsagcs moucin laccs.
Thc uisIay iyc is sci in Diuoi.
This looI is iinicu on aci ihai is aciu-licc anu mccis ihc icquiicmcnis
ol ihc Amciican NaiionaI Sianuaiu loi Pcimancncc ol Paci loi Piinicu
Iiliaiy MaiciiaIs, Zg.qS-1gg:.
BooI ucsign ly Rich HcnucI, ChacI HiII, Noiih CaioIina
Tyogiahy ly Tscng Inloimaiion Sysicms, Inc.
Piinicu ly WoizaIIa PulIishing Comany, Sicvcns Poini, Wisconsin,
anu lounu ly DcIIci BooIlinuing, Gianu Raius, Michigan