1.

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
Directional drilling (or slant drilling) is the practice for drilling non-vertical wells. It can be broken down into three main groups: Oilfield Directional Drilling, Utility Installation Directional Drilling (or H.D.D. or Horizontal Directional Drilling) Directional boring, and SIS (surface In Seam), which horizontally intersects a vertical well target to extract coal bed methane. Wells are drilled directionally for several purposes:

Increasing the exposed section length through the reservoir by drilling through the reservoir at an angle Drilling into the reservoir where vertical access is difficult or not possible. For instance an oilfield under a town, under a lake, or underneath a difficult to drill formation

Allowing more wellheads to be grouped together on one surface location can allow fewer rig moves, less surface area disturbance, and make it easier and cheaper to complete and produce the wells. For instance, on an oil platform or jacket offshore, 40 or more wells can be grouped together. The wells will fan out from the platform into the reservoir(s) below. This concept is being applied to land wells, allowing multiple subsurface locations to be reached from one pad, reducing costs.

Drilling along the underside of a reservoir-constraining fault allows multiple productive sands to be completed at the highest stratigraphic points. Drilling a "relief well" to relieve the pressure of a well producing without restraint (a "blow out"). In this scenario, another well could be drilled starting at a safe distance away from the blow out, but intersecting the troubled wellbore. Then, heavy fluid (kill fluid) is pumped into the relief wellbore to suppress the high pressure in the original wellbore causing the blowout. 1

HISTORY Many prerequisites enabled this suite of technologies to become productive. Probably, the first requirement was the realization that oil wells, or water wells, are not necessarily vertical. This realization was quite slow, and did not really grasp the attention of the oil industry until the late 1920s when there were several lawsuits alleging that wells drilled from a rig on one property had crossed the boundary and were penetrating a reservoir on an adjacent property. Initially, proxy evidence such as production changes in other wells was accepted, but such cases fueled the development of small diameter tools capable of surveying wells during drilling. Measuring the inclination of a wellbore (its deviation from the vertical) is comparatively simple, requiring only a pendulum. Measuring the azimuth(direction with respect to the geographic grid in which the wellbore is running from the vertical), however, was more difficult. In certain circumstances, magnetic fields could be used, but could be influenced by metalwork used inside wellbores, as well as the metalwork used in drilling equipment. The next advance was in the modification of small gyroscopic compasses by the Sperry Corporation, which was making similar compasses for aeronautical navigation. Sperry did this under contract to Sun Oil (which was involved in a lawsuit as described above), and a spin-off company "Sperry Sun" was formed, which brand continues to this day, absorbed into Halliburton. Three components are measured at any given point in a wellbore in order to determine its position: the depth of the point along the course of the borehole (measured depth), the inclination at the point, and the magnetic azimuth at the point. These three components combined are referred to as a "survey". A series of consecutive surveys are needed to track the progress and location of a wellbore. Many of the earliest innovations such as photographic single shot technology and crow's feet baffle plates for landing survey tools were developed by Robert Richardson, an independent directional driller who first drilled in the 1940s and was still working in 2012.

Prior experience with rotary drilling had established several principles for the configuration of drilling equipment down hole ("Bottom Hole Assembly" or "BHA") that would be prone to "drilling crooked hole" (i.e., initial accidental deviations from the vertical would be increased). Counter-experience had also given early directional drillers ("DD's") principles of BHA design and drilling practice that would help bring a crooked hole nearer the vertical. In 1934, H. John Eastman of Long Beach, California, became a pioneer in directional drilling when he and George Failing of Enid, Oklahoma, saved theConroe, Texas, oil field. Failing had recently patented a portable drilling truck. He had started his company in 1931 when he mated a drilling rig to a truck and a power take-off assembly. The innovation allowed rapid drilling of a series of slanted wells. This capacity to quickly drill multiple relief wells and relieve the enormous gas pressure was critical to extinguishing the Conroe fire. (E&P, "Making a hole was hard work," Kris Wells, American Oil & Gas Historical Society Contributing Editor, 1 Nov. 2006 and "Technology and the Conroe Crater"). In a May, 1934, Popular Science Monthly article, it was stated that "Only a handful of men in the world have the strange power to make a bit, rotating a mile below ground at the end of a steel drill pipe, snake its way in a curve or around a dog-leg angle, to reach a desired objective." Eastman Whipstock, Inc., would become the world's largest directional company in 1973.

Combined, these survey tools and BHA designs made directional drilling possible, but it was perceived as arcane. Most directional drillers are given a well path to follow that is predetermined by engineers and geologists before the drilling commences. When the directional driller starts the drilling process, periodic surveys are taken with a downhole instrument to provide survey data (inclination and azimuth) of the well bore. These pictures are typically taken at intervals between 30500 feet, with 90 feet common during active changes of angle or direction, and distances of 200300 feet being typical while "drilling ahead" (not making active changes to angle and direction). During critical angle and direction changes, especially while using a downhole motor, an MWD (Measurement 3

while drilling) tool will be added to the drill string to provide continuously updated measurements that may be used for (near) real-time adjustments. These data indicate if the well is following the planned path and whether the orientation of the drilling assembly is causing the well to deviate as planned. Corrections are regularly made by techniques as simple as adjusting rotation speed or the drill string weight (weight on bottom) and stiffness, as well as more complicated and time consuming methods, such as introducing a downhole motor. Such pictures, or surveys, are plotted and maintained as an engineering and legal record describing the path of the well bore. The survey pictures taken while drilling are typically confirmed by a later survey in full of the borehole, typically using a "multi-shot camera" device. The multi-shot camera advances the film at time intervals so that by dropping the camera instrument in a sealed tubular housing inside the drilling string (down to just above the drilling bit) and then withdrawing the drill string at time intervals, the well may be fully surveyed at regular depth intervals (approximately every 90 feet being common, the typical length of 2 or 3 joints of drill pipe, known as a stand, since most drilling rigs "stand back" the pipe withdrawn from the hole at such increments, known as "stands"). Drilling to targets far laterally from the surface location requires careful planning and design. The current record holders manage wells over 10 km (6.2 mi) away from the surface location at a true vertical depth (TVD) of only 1,6002,600 m (5,2008,500 ft).

Directional Drilling technology Directional drilling is a type of drilling for oil and gas where its path is deviated from vertical to a certain angle in order to meet the target(s). Directional drilling is the science of deviating a well bore along a planned path to a target located at a given lateral distance and direction from vertical. If the well is deviated for more than 80 deg then it is known as Horizontal well. Directional drilling finds its application in the following situations (mainly in the situations where vertical well is not feasible):a. Inaccessible locations such as presence of a city, monuments, river, drinking water ponds, forest, lake, mountains, any structure that should not be destroyed. b. Troublesome geological formations such as presence of salt domes. c. If there are multiple reservoir to hit. d. Shoreline drilling e. Fault controlling f. Relief well g. Side tracking h. Multi-lateral wells Shoreline Drilling: In the case where a reservoir lies offshore but considerably close to the land then it is economical to exploit the reservoir by drilling directional wells from a land rig on the coast.

Fig. Shoreline drilling Inaccessible Locations: 5

Directional wells are often drilled because the surface location directly above the reservoir is inaccessible, either because of natural or man-made obstacles i.e., A target zone lying vertically beneath a surface location that is impractical to be used as a rig site. Residential locations, Mountains, river beds, Harbors, fall under this category.

Fig. Inaccessible location Multiple Wells: Directional drilling is the most common application of offshore platforms, where multiple wells can be drilled through various slots installed in the same platform. In conventional development, wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been constructed and installed. This can mean a delay of several years before production begins. Such delay scan be considerably reduced by predrilling. Some of the wells through a subsea template while the platform is being constructed.

Fig. Multiple wells Side tracking: 6

Directional drilling can be used to deviate the well bore around and away from an obstruction in the original well bore. This is done to bypass an obstruction (fish) in the original wellbore, to explore the extent of a producing zone in a certain sector of a field, or to sidetrack a dry hole to a more promising target. Wells are also sidetracked to access more reservoirs by drilling a horizontal hole section from the existing well bore.

Original Well Path

Corre ck Original cted Well Path Original Well Well Path Path

Sidetra

Fig. side tracking Multilateral Wells: A number of lateral wells can be drilled with the help of a single platform or single well by using the principle of directional drilling.

Fig. multilateral wells Troublesome Geological Formations:

Drilling through geological faults or troublesome formations like salt dome etc., can be avoided by directional drilling method. Practically the well planning is made in such a way that these problematic structures or formations are avoided from the drilling path.

Fig. Some troublesome geological formations. Relief Wells: Directional techniques are used to drill relief wells in order to kill blowouts. Relief wells are deviated to pass as close as possible to the uncontrolled well. In other case it can be treated as replacement of well that was unable to produce due to pressure clashes.

Fig. showing relief well

1. Parameters of a Directional Well: The following parameters define a directional well: Inclination: It is the angle between the vertical and a tangent to the well path at any point. Azimuth: Azimuth is information giving about the direction of the well. It is the angle of the well bore direction as projected to a horizontal plane and relative to due North. By industry convention, 0 degree azimuth coincides with North, 90 degree azimuth with East, 180 degree azimuth with South, and 270 degree azimuth with West. True Vertical depth: It is the true vertical depth from the surface to the target. Kick off point: It is the point at which the well is deflected from the vertical or It is the point at which the inclination of the well is initiated. It is generally easier to kick off a well in shallow formations than in deep formations. Horizontal displacement: It is the horizontal distance of the target zone from the platform reference point. It is also called Horizontal Drift. Buildup rate and drop off rate: 9

They are the rates at which the well deviates from the vertical (usually measured in degrees per 100 ft drilled).The build-up rate is chosen on the basis of drilling experience in the location and the tools available, but rates between 1 degree and 3 degree per 100ft are most common.Build up rates in excess of 3 degrees per 100ft are termed dog legs. Hence build up rate is often termed the dogleg severity. Dog-leg: It is defined as the angular change between two points on the well path, and can result from changes in inclination, direction or both. The dog-leg over a specified depth interval (e.g. 100 ft) is termed dog-leg severity. Tangent or drift angle: Its the inclination of the long straight section of the well after the build-up section of the well. This section of the well is termed the tangent section because it forms a tangent to the arc formed by the build-up section of the well.The tangent angle will generally be between 10 and 60 degrees since its difficult to control the trajectory of the well at angles below 10 degrees.

2. Types of Directional Patterns: The advent of steerable systems has resulted in wells that are planned and drilled with complex paths involving 3-dimensional turns. This is particularly true in the case of redrills, where old wells are sidetracked and drilled to new targets. These complex well paths are harder to drill and the old adage that the simplest method is usually the best holds true. Therefore, most directional wells are still planned using traditional patterns which have been in use for many years. Build and Hold (L-Profile):

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Fig. showing L profile Features: Shallow kick-off point (KOP), Build-up section (which may have more than one build up rate) and tangent section. Applications: a. To access multiple targets in different vertical planes. b. If drift is more this is the ideal profile

S-Type well:

Fig. showing S-type well It is more complex and is deflected at a shallow depth until the maximum required inclination, the well path is then locked in to required distance and the inclination is gradually reduced to almost zero so that the well is returned back to vertical.This type is 11

mainly used in multi zone production in same vertical plane and for relief wells which requires very close supervision. Deep kickoff and build (J-Profile):

Fig. showing J-type well This is similar to L-type, except that the well is deflected at a much deeper position in order to avoid or drill beneath an obstacle like a salt dome. It is used in horizontal drilling or side tracking and is the most difficult trajectory to drill since the deviation has to be initiated in deeper, well compacted formations.

3. Deflection Tools:

Bent sub: It is a small collar with a tool joint and is used in conjunction with a Downhole motor and the direction in which the bent sub is faced determines the angle of deviation. The drillstring containing the bent sub is run to the hole bottom where deflection is required and a survey instrument is run inside the BHA. The survey instrument contains a camera which takes a photograph of the orientation. The 12

photograph is analyzed at the surface and the present orientation is determined. This is then compared to the planned orientation and the drill string may be rotated to the left or right to position the BHA in the required direction. Whip stock technique: Whip stock is a concave type of wedge about 3 meters long and inclined at an angle up to 3 deg maximum. It has a hollow neck through which drill pipe and subs can move and there is a shear pin in this neck. A shear pin sub is made up above the bit and shear pin is inserted in to the hole to hold the sub and the bit in position. This assembly is then run to bottom and concave face of whip stock is oriented. Weight is applied on it so that it is embedded in to the formation. Additional weight is applied which shears the pin and tress the bit for drilling down the whipstock face. An interval of 5 to 6 meters is drilled at low weight & less RPM and then retrieved the whip-stock. Later on this smaller hole is enlarged to full gauge by using a hole opener.

Fig. showing whip stock technique Jet Deflection Technique: This technique is best suited for soft formations. The hydraulic power of the drilling fluid is used to wash away a pocket of formation and initiate deflection. A specially modified bit is used which has one large nozzle and two blinds. The bit is run on an assembly which includes an orienting sub and full gauge stabilizer 13

near the bit. Once on bottom, the large nozzle is oriented in the required direction. The jet deflection technique is limited to soft formation and cannot be used on smaller rigs where enough pump capacity is not available.

Fig. showing jet deflection technique. Downhole Motor and Bent-sub Technique: The most common deflection technique in current use involves running a positive displacement motor to drive the bit without rotating the drill string" The deflection is provided by the bent sub which forces the bit and motor to drill in a specific direction" The amount of deflection is a function of the offset provided by the bent sub, the stiffness of the down hole motor and the hardness of the formation, For difficult deflection a bent housing can be installed within the motor itself. The bent housing introduces the deflection much closer to the bit and provides a larger turn. The main advantage of this technique is to achieve a full gauge hole with smooth curvature having less risk of severe dogleg.

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A common method of deflecting wellbores at shallow depth/soft formation: Bent sub is placed directly above motor. Bent sub is 10 to 30 inclination from axis. Bent sub acts as pivot. Degree of curvature depends on bent sub angle and OD motor, bent sub and Drill Collar size in relation to hole diameter. Also depends on length of motor.

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Fig. showing bent sub.

Rotary Steerable Down Hole Mud Motor with MWD Technique: This is the latest and highly efficient method used to kick off directional wells. Since this system is a 'steerable system', the motor can be used either in the 'rotary mode' or in the 'steerable mode', The greatest advantage of this system is that it does not require a BHA change even after the kick-off operation is accomplished. Further drilling can be continued simply by changing the 'mode',

ADVANCE DRILLING TECHONICES The next major advance was in the 1970s, when downhole drilling motors (aka mud motors, driven by the hydraulic power of drilling mud circulated down the drill string) became common. These allowed the bit to be rotated on the bottom of the hole, while 16

most of the drill pipe was held stationary. A piece of bent pipe (a "bent sub") between the stationary drill pipe and the top of the motor allowed the direction of the wellbore to be changed without needing to pull all the drill pipe out and place another whipstock. Coupled with the development of Measurement While Drilling tools (using mud pulse telemetry or EM telemetry, which allows tools down hole to send directional data back to the surface without disturbing drilling operations), directional drilling became easier. Certain profiles could not be drilled without the drill string rotating at all times. Drilling directionally with a motor requires occasionally "sliding" the drill pipe, which means stopping the pipe rotation and pushing the pipe in the hole as the motor cuts a curved section of hole. "Sliding" can be difficult in some formations, and it is almost always slower and therefore more expensive than drilling while rotating, so the ability to control wellbore direction while rotating is desirable. Several companies have developed tools which allow directional control while rotating. These tools are referred to as Rotary Steerable systems, or RSS. RSS technology has allowed access to and/or directional control in previously inaccessible or uncontrollable formations. Robert Zilles pioneered many of the RSS drilling procedures for Baker Hughes Inteq and is considered the Grandfather of RSS technology. In 2010 he became the first BHI directional driller to drill a well in each of the last 7 decades.

Wired Drill Pipe Several oilfield service companies are currently developing wired drill pipe systems. These systems use electrical wires built into every component of the drillstring, which carry electrical signals directly to the surface. These systems promise data transmission rates orders of magnitude greater than anything possible with mud pulse or electromagnetic telemetry, both from the downhole tool to the surface, and from the surface to the downhole tool. The IntelliServ [3] wired pipe network, offering data rates upwards of 1 megabit per second, became commercial in 2006. Representatives from BP America, StatoilHydro, Baker Hughes INTEQ, and Schlumberger presented three success stories using this system, both onshore and offshore, at the March, 2008 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference in Orlando, Florida. 17

RETRIEVABLE TOOLS MWD tools may be semi-permanently mounted in a drill collar (only removable at servicing facilities), or they may be self-contained and wireline retrievable. Retrievable tools, sometimes known as Slim Tools, can be retrieved and replaced using wireline through the drill string. This generally allows the tool to be replaced much faster in case of failure, and it allows the tool to be recovered if the drillstring becomes stuck. Retrievable tools must be much smaller, usually about 2 inches or less in diameter, though their length may be 20 feet or more. The small size is necessary for the tool to fit through the drillstring, however, it also limits the tool's capabilities. For example, slim tools are not capable of sending data at the same rates as collar mounted tools, and they are also more limited in their ability to communicate with and supply electrical power to other LWD tools. Collar-mounted tools, also known as Fat Tools, cannot generally be removed from their drill collar at the wellsite. If the tool fails, the entire drillstring must be pulled out of the hole to replace it. However, without the need to fit through the drillstring, the tool can be larger and more capable. The ability to retrieve the tool via wireline is often useful. For example, if the drillstring becomes stuck in the hole, then retrieving the tool via wireline will save a substantial amount of money compared to leaving it in the hole with the stuck portion of the drillstring. However, there are some limitations on the process.

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2. Measurement While Drilling

MWD stands for Measurement While Drilling in the oil & gas industry. The simplest way to describe MWD is to relate it to the measurements a pilot takes. A pilot needs to know the direction they are flying (North, South, East, or West), the angle they are flying at (up, down, or horizontal), and what type of skies they will be flying through (rough, choppy, cloudy, rainy, etc.). Like a pilot a directional driller needs to know these items about the ground formations that they are drilling through. MWD provides this information. Previous to MWD measurements were taken at various parts of the drilling process, but MWD has allowed these measurements to be sent to the surface continuously while the hole is being drilled. This allows for faster drilling, more accurate drilling, and safer drilling. Beyond the basic concept MWD is a system developed to perform drilling related measurements downhole that are transmit to the surface while drilling a well. MWD tools are installed as part of the bottom hole assembly (BHA) near the drill bit. The tools are either contained inside a thick walled, drill collar (drill collars are typically used to add weight for drilling) or they are built directly into the collars at a factory prior to arriving on the drilling location. MWD systems can take several measurements such as Gamma Ray, compass direction (shown as azimuth), tool face (the direction that your bit is pointing), borehole pressure, temperature, vibration, shock, torque, etc. The MWD also provides the means of communication for operating rotary steering tools (RSTs). The measured results are stored in MWD tools and some of the results can be transmitted digitally to surface using mud pulser telemetry through the mud or other advanced technology such as electromagnetic(EM) frequency communications or wired drill pipe.

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The Measurement While Drilling (MWD) Tool came in to application in early 1970s. Before the introduction of MWD, all survey data were obtained by stopping the drilling process for wireline logging. For wireline logging, we had to stop the drilling process, put the drill pipe on slip, break out Kelly, lower the wireline tool, retrieve the tool, read the survey and plan the further action. This used to increase the non productive time (NPT). The MWD tool transmitted the survey reading to surface through the mud stream in the drill pipe. The drilling process was stopped for few minutes and survey readings were obtained in pump off condition. This saved times to greater extent compared to wireline logging. The transmission of survey data though mud stream was one of the means. Other means of transmission were electromagnetic and acaustic which were developed in later stages. Thus MWD was considered a better option for survey data transmission compared to wireline procedure. Initially the system delivered three basic information: Inclination, Azimuth and Toolface. These three parameters helped the directional driller to position the well correctly to the desired target. Later, MWD was equipped with Gamma Ray sensor to detect the natural radioactivity and characterize shale presence, gauge to measure annular pressure which are useful in slim hole to determine ECD, Strain gauge to measure WOB and torque on bit. MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This may include:

Rotational speed of the drillstring Smoothness of that rotation 20

Type and severity of any vibration downhole Downhole temperature Torque and Weight on Bit, measured near the drill bit Mud flow volume Types of information transmitted

Directional information MWD tools are generally capable of taking directional surveys in real time. The tool uses accelerometers and magnetometers to measure the inclination and azimuth of the wellbore at that location, and they then transmit that information to the surface. With a series of surveys; measurements of inclination, azimuth, and tool face, at appropriate intervals (anywhere from every 30 ft (i.e. 10m) to every 500 ft), the location of the wellbore can be calculated. By itself, this information allows operators to prove that their well does not cross into areas that they are not authorized to drill. However, due to the cost of MWD systems, they are not generally used on wells intended to be vertical. Instead, the wells are surveyed after drilling through the use of Multishot Surveying Tools lowered into the drillstring on slickline or wireline. The primary use of real-time surveys is in Directional Drilling. For the Directional Driller to steer the well towards a target zone, he must know where the well is going, and what the effects of his steering efforts are. MWD tools also generally provide toolface measurements to aid in directional drilling using downhole mud motors with bent subs or bent housings. For more information on the use of toolface measurements, see Directional Drilling.

Drilling mechanics information MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This may include: 21

Rotational speed of the drillstring Smoothness of that rotation Type and severity of any vibration downhole Downhole temperature Torque and Weight on Bit, measured near the drill bit Mud flow volume Use of these information can allow the operator to drill the well more efficiently, and to ensure that the MWD tool and any other downhole tools, such as Mud Motors, Rotary Steerable Systems, and LWDtools, are operated within their technical specifications to prevent tool failure. This information also is valuable to Geologists responsible for the well information about the formation which is being drilled.

Formation properties Many MWD tools, either on their own, or in conjunction with separate Logging While Drilling tools, can take measurements of formation properties. At the surface, these measurements are assembled into a log, similar to one obtained by wireline logging. LWD Logging While Drilling tools are able to measure a suite of geological characteristics including- density, porosity, resistivity, acoustic-caliper, inclination at the drill bit (NBI), magnetic resonance and formation pressure. The MWD tool allows these measurements to be taken and evaluated while the well is being drilled. This makes it possible to perform Geosteering, or Directional Drilling based on measured formation properties, rather than simply drilling into a preset target. Most MWD tools contain an internal Gamma Ray sensor to measure natural Gamma Ray values. This is because these sensors are compact, inexpensive, reliable, and can take measurements through unmodified drill collars. Other measurements often require separate Logging While Drilling tools, which communicate with the MWD tools down hole through internal wires.

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Measurement while drilling can be cost-effective in exploration wells, particularly in areas of the Gulf of Mexico where wells are drilled in areas of salt diapers. The resistivity log will detect penetration into salt, and early detection prevents salt damage to betonies drilling mud.

COMPONENTS OF MWD SYSTEM

Telemetry Channel Transmission System Power Source MWD Sensors Surface Systems TELEMETRY CHANNEL Telemetry Channels are the channels or medium via which the downhole data is transmitted to the surface. Following are the transmission channels used for data transmission: Hard Wire Method Electromagnetic Method Acaustic Method Mud Pulse Telemetry The major components of a mud pulse telemetry system are shown in figure below:

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Mud Pulse Telemetry Components

The downhole components are all housed in a nonmagnetic drill collar (NMDC).

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The major components are: (a) a power source to operate the tool : it operates the tool when we plan to take a survey (b) sensors to measure the required information; (c) a transmitter to send the data to surface in the form of a code; (d) a microprocessor or control system to coordinate the various functions of the tool : it powers up the sensors, stores the information that has been measured and then activates the transmitter to send the data in the form of a coded message.

The surface equipment consists of: (a) a standpipe pressure transducer to detect variations in pressure and convert these to electrical signals; (b) an electronic filtering device to reduce or eliminate any interference from rig pumps or downhole motors that may also cause pressure variations; (c) a surface computer to interpret the results; (d) a rig-floor display to communicate the results to the driller, or plotting devices to produce continuous logs

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
MUD PULSE TELEMETRY Most of the MWD systems commercially available are based on some form of mud pulse telemetry. 25

This is the most common method of data transmission used by MWD (Measurement While Drilling) tools. Down hole a valve is operated to restrict the flow of the drilling mud (slurry) according to the digital information to be transmitted. This creates pressure fluctuations representing the information. The pressure fluctuations propagate within the drilling fluid towards the surface where they are received from pressure sensors. On the surface, the received pressure signals are processed by computers to reconstruct the information. The technology is available in three varieties - positive pulse, negative pulse, and continuous wave.

Here in transmission system I shall concentrate on the transmission via drilling fluid, i.e., the mud pulse telemetry. The Mud Pulse Telemetry can be further categorized into : Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry (Maximum use in industry) Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry Continuous Wave Telemetry Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry : Positive mud pulse telemetry (MPT) uses a hydraulic poppet valve to momentarily restrict the flow of mud through an orifice in the tool to generate an increase in pressure in the form of a positive pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the surface and is detected at the standpipe. To transmit data to surface, this valve is operated several times, creating a series of pulses that are detected by the transducer, and decoded by the surface computer. The surface computer initially recognizes a set of reference pulses, which are followed by the data pulses. The message is decoded by detecting the presence or absence of a pulse within a particular time-frame. This binary code can then be translated into a decimal result. A chart recorder is used to monitor the sequence of pulses. 26

Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry

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Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry

Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry

Negative MPT uses a controlled valve to vent mud momentarily from the interior of the tool into the annulus. This process generates a decrease in pressure in the form of a negative pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the surface and is detected at the standpipe. The rapid opening and closing of this valve therefore creates a drop in standpipe that can be detected by the pressure transducer.

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Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry

Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry 29

Continuous Wave Telemetry

Continuous wave telemetry uses a rotary valve or mud siren with a slotted rotor and stator which restricts the mud flow in such a way as to generate a modulating positive pressure wave which travels to the surface and is detected at the standpipe. One of the discs is stationary while the other is driven by a motor. The constant speed of the motor creates a regular and continuous variation in pressure that is essentially a standing wave. This wave is used as a carrier to transmit the data to surface. When information is to be transmitted the speed of the motor is reduced so that the phase of the carrier wave is altered (i.e., reversed). The carrier wave is therefore modulated to represent the data required. The surface equipment detects these phase shifts in the pressure signal and translates this into a binary code .This is a more sophisticated telemetry system and offers a higher data rate than the previous two mud pulse methods.

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Continuous Wave Telemetry

Continuous Wave Telemetry 31

POWER SOURCES The MWD Tool works in two situations

(a)When the circulation is ON (b) When there is no circulation, i.e. while tripping when the pump is in OFF condition Also, once lowered, the MWD tool is not retrieved back to surface unless there is some kind of problem with tool. Thus to continuously provide power to the tool, we require a power source.

The power source can be: (a) Batteries (b) Turbine Alternators

Batteries: (Lithium Battery, usually 24 V)

They are compact and reliable since they contain no moving parts .They have a finite operational life and are temperature-dependent batteries. Since it has no relation with drilling fluid motion, this enables the tool to operate while tripping and also enables operation independent of mud flow hydraulics. They have been successfully used for applications in which only directional data are required. As they provide a limited power output, they are not preferred with multisensor tool.

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Turbine Alternators: With the trend of using multisensor tools for downhole survey, turbines are becoming more widely used to provide power to the MWD tool. The flow of mud through the tool is harnessed by the turbine blades, which rotate a shaft connected to an alternator, hence generating electricity.

Fig 21.9 Turbine Alternators

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The electrical power generated must be controlled by a voltage regulator. Although this system provides more power and longer operating life than a battery pack, power failures can occur if the turbine is damaged. To prevent this damage a screen can be installed upstream of the turbine to filter out any debris in the mud.

Mud Screen

The screen may be positioned at the top of the drill string for ease of access if it requires to be emptied or removed to allow passage of wireline tools.

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MWD SENSORS An MWD tool is equipped with the combination of following sensors depending upon the requirement: 1)Directional Sensor 2)Gamma ray Sensor 3)Temperature Sensor 4)Downhole WOB/ Torque Sensor 5)Turbine RPM Sensor

Directional Sensor : The directional sensors currently being used in MWD tools uses triaxial magnetometers and accelerometers.

Accelerometers and Magnetometers in Directional Sensor

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These sensors measure the required angles of inclination, azimuth and toolface. Since the magnetometers measure azimuth relative to Magnetic North, the correct magnetic declination must be applied to the results. The C axis is aligned with the axis of the tool, and the B axis defines the reference for measuring toolface angle. The angular offset between the B axis and the scribe line of the bent sub must be measured before running in the hole. Both magnetometers and accelerometers give voltage outputs that have to be corrected by applying calibration coefficients. The corrected voltages can then be used to calculate the required directional angles. Some kind of signal(like when drill string rotation stops or when the pumps are shut off) are sent from surface to the MWD control system. The control system after receiving such signals power up the sensors . A transducer or motion sensor within the downhole tool recognizes this signal and initiates the survey. During the time when the sensors are actually taking the measurements the drill string must remain stationary for accurate results to be obtained. This period is generally less than 2 min., after which normal drilling can resume. The driller resumes the normal drilling process once the MWD rig display unit displays the updated survey. The measurements of inclination azimuth and toolface are sent in a predetermined order. It generally takes 2-4 min. for transmission of a complete directional survey.

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Accuracy of the survey : 0.25 for inclination, 2.0 for Azimuth and 3.0 for Toolface, which may vary from one tool manufacturer to other.

Gamma Ray Sensor : All of the earth's rock formations exhibit varying degrees of radioactivity. The gamma ray log is a measurement of the natural radioactivity of the formations. Gamma rays are emitted by radioactive elements such as isotopes of potassium, thorium and uranium. These elements are found more commonly in shales than in other rocks. Thus by measuring the gamma-ray emission from a sequence of rocks it is therefore possible to identify shale zones. To be most effective in detecting changes of lithology, the gamma ray sensor should be positioned as close to the bit as possible, so that only a few feet of a new formation are drilled before the tool responds. For practical reasons, the distance between the bit and the gamma-ray sensor is about 6 ft.

Two basic types of detectors are used by MWD companies to measure gamma rays: (a) Geiger-Muller tube (b) Scintillation counter

37

Geiger-Muller tube : It consists of a cylinder that contains an inert gas at a fairly low pressure. A high-voltage electrode ( 1000 V) runs through the centre of the chamber. As gamma-rays enter the chamber they cause ionization of the gas, creating a flow of fast-moving electrons towards the central electrode as shown in figure below.

Geiger-Muller Tube

The current of electrons can therefore be used to measure the amount of gamma-rays emitted from the formation.

38

Scintillation counter : It uses a crystal a crystal of thallium-doped sodium iodide. The natural gamma-rays emitted by the formation passes through the sodium iodide crystal. The radiation excites the crystal, which produces a flash of light or scintillations when the gamma ray interacts with the crystal. The light emitted by the crystal strikes the photocathode and releases electrons. The electrons travel through a series of anodes, causing the emission of more electrons. This generates a voltage pulse which is proportional to the original flash of light. The amount of radiation entering the sensor can therefore be measured by counting the number of pulses over a given time period.

Scintillation Counter

39

NOTE: The Geiger-Muller tube is not as accurate as the scintillation counter, since it can only detect a much smaller percentage of the total rays emitted. It does have the advantage, however, of being more rugged and reliable and being cheaper than the scintillation counter. In addition to providing lithologic discrimination, the gamma ray sensor provides: Formation bed boundary and thickness determination. Well to well structural correlation of beds. Depth control and casing seat selection. Estimation of shale fraction in reservoir rocks. A primary log for sediment logical studies. Monitoring of injected radioactive materials.

Temperature Sensor The temperature sensor is usually mounted on the outside wall of the drill collar, and therefore monitors the annulus mud temperature. The sensing element may be a strip of metal (e.g. platinum) whose electrical resistance changes with temperature. The sensor can be calibrated to measure temperatures ranging from 50 to 350F. Downhole WOB/Torque Sensor These measurements are made by a system of sensitive strain gauges mounted on a special sub placed close to the bit. The strain gauges will detect axial forces for WOB and torsional forces for torque. By placing pairs of gauges on opposite sides of the sub, any stresses due to bending can be eliminated. 40

Turbine RPM Sensor When drilling with a downhole turbine, the actual speed at which the bit is turning is not known at surface. The only effective way of monitoring the rpm is to use a turbine tachometer linked to an MWD system to provide real time data The downhole sensor consists of a 2-in. diameter probe that is placed very close to the top of the rotating turbine shaft. On top of the shaft are mounted two magnets 180 apart. As the shaft rotates, an electric coil within the probe picks up voltage pulses due to the magnets (shown in figure below).

Turbine RPM Sensor 41

By counting the number of pulses over a certain interval, the turbine speed in rpm can be calculated. This information is encoded as a series of mud pulses that are transmitted at intervals to surface to let the driller know how the rpm is changing. Mud Pulse MWD PrecisionPulse The PrecisionPulse transmits data using positive pulse telemetry. The downhole tool assembly consists of the orientation module and Gamma Ray from the EMpulse tool, a driver and the AES pulser. The tool string fits into a muleshoe sub and drill collar. The basic PrecisionPluse drill collar line consists of two non-magnetic tubular sections, inside of which the PrecisionPulse tool is located. The MWD drill collar line is designed to house the PrecisionPulse tool safely and securely as an integral part of the bottom hole assembly. Weatherford has the following muleshoe and drill collar diameter sizes available: Tool 9-1/2" 8" 6-3/4 6-1/2 4-3/4 3-1/2 Flex 3-3/8 3-1/16 CarrierDiameter Connection API 7-5/8 Reg BxP API 6-5/8 Reg BxP API 4-1/2 IF BxP API 4-1/2 XH BxP API 3-1/2 IF BxP Acme 2-7/8 stub BxP Acme 2-7/8 stub BxP Acme 2-11/16-4 stub BxP

42

The Muleshoe and drill

collar are

manufactured to

meet

the

API Spec 7

certification. Connections follow normal standard oilfield practice, depending upon collar diameter however special connections can be manufactured to meet a specific need.

43

SURFACE SYSTEMS

Standpipe Pressure Transducer Rig Floor Display Unit Radio Modem Standpipe Pressure Transducer: The standpipe manifold has a number of pressure taps where gauges may be installed. The transducer can be installed at a convenient point by removing one of these gauges. Inside the transducer is a sensitive diaphragm that detects variation in pressure and converts these hydraulic pulses to electrical voltage pulses. The voltage output is relayed to the rest of the surface equipment by means of an electric cable.

Rig Floor Display Unit:

Rig Floor Display Unit is a display panel installed at the rig floor where the directional survey result (azimuth, tool face, inclination) are displayed for the convenience of directional driller. The rig floor display unit is powered via rig power. It generally requires either 120V or 240V power supply. The display on Rig Floor Display unit looks as shown below :

44

Rig Floor Display Unit Installed at Rig Floor Radio Modem: The radio modem is used to communicate with the rig floor RT via the workstation (Laptop). All information and data sent between the two components is encrypted for security purposes.

45

ALL COMPONENTS OF MWD

1. (UPS) Uninturupted Powe 1. Drill Pipe Screen Supply 2. Barrel Wrench 3. Pressure Transducer 4. Rig Floor Display Unit 5. Pick-Up Plate 6. Digital Multimeter 7. Remote Terminal Case 8. Spanner Wrench 9. Small Dart Float, Flapper Float 10. Vibration Switch 2. Muleshoe Crawn Wrench 3. Ring Bar 4. Orienting Bar 5. Short Sinker Bar 6. J - Wrench 7. Over shot Bell 8. Over Shot 9. Long Sinker Bar Large 10. Spang Jars

1.Orifice 2.MuleShoe(Landing Sleeve) 3. Mule Shoe (Crown) 4. Poppet 5. Stinger 6. Piston Shaft 7. Stinger Barrel 8. Lower Piston Cap 9. Upper Piston cap 10. Stinger Spring

46

MWD Components

47

MWD Tool Sequence 48

MWD Tool Sequence 49

3. ELECTRO MAGNETIC MWD

Introduction High depth drilling, increased activity offshore and rapidly escalating costs have focused attention on all potential methods of drilling safer and cheaper. Real time data delivery from the bottom of the borehole (at the drill bit) to the surface offers the greatest potential for achieving these needs. Oil company management and engineers place a lot of emphasis on well control and directional information (McDonald, 1978). It is therefore, important to understand how the data can be transferred from bottom to surface. A number of systems have been used namely hardwired telemetry, Acoustic telemetry, mud pulse telemetry, and electromagnetic telemetry. Although mud pulse telemetry is a well developed and commercially available, it has some limitations such as the high demand for drilling fluid rendering it useless in underbalanced drilling which is common in air and foam drilling. EM-MWD also offers higher data rates for good resistant earth cases, and hence more varieties of quantities can be measured simultaneously (Xia and Chen, 1993). Electromagnetic telemetry transmits data through low-frequency electromagnetic waves which propagate through the subsurface formations from the drill string and are received by surface antennas. The successful implementation of electromagnetic telemetry requires understanding of the formation types and associated resistivities. And also knowing the behavior of the signals as it moves through the formation. The signal propagation has been studied by several authors (Jose and Flavio, 2002; Poh, David and Andrew, 2005; Xia and Chen, 1993). In this paper, the signal propagation through the drill string and formation of an electromagnetic telemetry is studied based on the Electromagnetic field theory(Bhag and Huseyin, 1998) and analysed using Matlabcodes (James, 2001).

50

Working principle of EM-MWD The signal source emits the signal which propagates through the formation to the receiving antenna from which the surface equipments are connected as shown in figure1 above. The surface equipment decodes the data and puts in a form which is easily understandable by the driller. The driller can also send commands to the downhole assembly through the surface equipment.

51

Description of the configuration and formulation of solution The geometry of the problem is illustrated in Fig.2. To specify the position of the source in the configuration, we employ the coordinates (r, , ) as a spherical coordinate system with origin O (Ivo, 1996; John et al..2007; Wu et al..2009). The source is a vertical infinitesimal electric dipole antenna J=Idz(z) immersed in a dielectric medium of infinite extent and excited by an impulsive current. The electric dipole antenna, located at the origin O and oriented vertically in the z-direction, is short in length, dz, carrying a current I.

showing the coordinate system for an electric dipole

Maxwells equations lead to the following formulations: + =

52

Where: E=Electric field intensity (v/m); H=electric field intensity (v/m); J=electric field intensity (v/m2); B=Magnetic flux density (wb/m2); =conductivity (/m); = permittivity F/m); and = permeability (H/m) Considering the infinitesimal electric dipole antenna J=Idz(z), as illustrated in figure 2 above, the electric and magnetic field components obtained from equation (1) or (2) are given by = 2 [ 4 ( [ 1 ) ( ( 1 ) ) ] ]

In the process of electromagnetic wave propagation, the signal will be lost gradually with increasing frequency and reducing formation resistivity, indicating that a high frequency cannot be used. However, data transfer rate increases with both increasing frequency and resistivity. . In this study frequencies above 20Hz may lead to a higher attenuation where as those below 5Hz will limit the data rate transfer. The above conclusion has a strong influence during the design of an EM-MWD tool as one must strike a balance between frequency and the data rate transfer as they greatly affect the performance of the tool.

53

Two-way communication with the MWD tool A fundamental advantage of the Weatherford EMpulse telemetry system is the downlink ability which allows operators to communicate instructions to the downhole instrumentation while drilling proceeds. Both uplink and downlink transmissions communicate on the same channel. The downhole instrumentation can be interrogated or reprogrammed at any time by direct communications protocol, which is completely independent of the rig or drilling activity

54

Description of the EMpulse System The EMpulse downhole tool assembly consists of three basic parts: (1) the EMpulse tool (sensors, transceiver, electronics, and battery section), (2) the EMpulse Tool Carrier which houses the tool and forms an integral part of the drillstring and (3) the Emitting Sub which is an electrical insulator designed to interrupt drillstring conductivity

EMpulse tool carrier / emitter sub The basic EMpulse DC line consists of two non-magnetic tubular sections, inside of which the EMpulse tool is located. The EM-MWD DC line is designed to house the EMpulse tool safely & securely as an integral part of the bottom hole assembly and is made in two sections: 1. The upper section called the Emitting Sub (about 3.5m long) Enables the creation of the EM transmission. 2. The lower section, called the Tool Carrier (about 6.0m EMpulse tool (containing the electronics, sensors, transmitter and powerpack) .

long) supports the

55

Weatherford has the following Tool Carrier diameter sizes available: Tool Connection 9-1/2" 8" (Standard) 8 (Flex) 6-3/4 (standard) 6-3/4 (Flex) 6-1/4 4-3/4 3-1/2 (Flex) 3-3/8 3-1/16 API 7-5/8 Reg B API 6-5/8 Reg BxB API 6-5/8 Reg BxB API 4-1/2 IF BxB API 4-1/2 IF BxB API 4 IF BxB API 3-1/2 IF BxB Acme 2-7/8 stub Acme 2-7/8 stub Acme 2-11/16-4 stub Carrier Diameter

The complete tool carrier (Emitting Sub & Tool Carrier) is manufactured to meet the API Spec 7 certification. Connections follow normal standard oilfield practise, depending upon collar diameter however special connections can be manufactured to meet a specific needs.

56

Outside Diameter System Emitting Sub Tool Carrier & Muleshoe Inside Diameter Emitting Sub Tool Carrier & Muleshoe Length Emitting Sub Tool Carrier X-Over Muleshoe Total length MWD Assembly Weight in Air MWD Assembly Connections Inc h Inch m mm m Inch mm Inc h Inch m mm m ft mete r f t meter f t meter f t meter ft mete r kg lb s 3"1/16 77.8 3"1/16 77.8 3"1/16 77.8 2"5/32 54.6 25/32 54.6 7.3 ft 2.19 19.1 ft 5.74 2 ft 0.6 28.4 ft 8.53 160 332 3"3/8 85.7 3"3/8 85.7 3"3/8 85.7 2"5/32 54.6 25/32 54.6 7.3 ft 2.19 19.1 ft 5.74 2 ft 0.6 28.4 ft 8.53 230 493 3"1/2 Flex 88.9 3"1/2 88.9 3"1/2 88.9 2"5/32 54.6 25/32 54.6 7.3 ft 2.19 19.1 ft 5.74 2 ft 0.6 28.4 ft 8.53 240 525 4"3/4 120.6 4"3/4 120.6 4"3/4 120.6 2"1/4 57.1 3"11/64 83 10.2 ft 3.10 19.7 ft 6.00 option option 3.2 ft 0.95 33.1 ft 10.5 560 1230 AP I 3"1/2 IF BxB 400 1500 8800 1200 4"17/32 113.5 2"1/4 57.1 6"1/4 158.7 6"1/4 158.7 6"1/4 158.7 2"1/4 57.1 3"11/64 83 10.5 ft 3.19 19.7 ft 6.00 1.2 ft 0.35 3.2 ft 0.95 34.2 ft 10.49 1290 2830 AP I 4" IF Bx 400 B 1500 22900 3100 6"3/32 154.8 2"1/4 57.1 6"3/4 171.1 6"3/4 171.1 6"3/4 171.1 2"13/16 71.4 3"15/16 100 10.7 ft 3.28 19.7 ft 6.00 1.2 ft 0.35 3.2 ft 0.95 34.8 ft 10.58 1400 3065 AP I 4"1/2 IF BxB 800 3000 28200 3840 6"19/32 167.5 2"13/16 71.4 6"3/4 Flex 171.1 6"3/4 171.1 6"3/4 171.1 2"13/16 71.4 3"15/16 100 10.7 ft 3.28 19.7 ft 6.00 1.2 ft 0.35 3.2 ft 0.95 34.8 ft 10.58 1400 3065 AP I 4"1/2 IF BxB 800 3000 28200 3840 6"19/32 167.5 2"13/16 71.4 8 " 203.2 73/4 196.9 8 " 203.2 2"13/16 71.4 3"15/16 100 11.3 ft 3.46 19.7 ft 6.00 1.2 ft 0.35 3.2 ft 0.95 35.4 ft 10.76 2130 tn 4690 AP I 6"5/8 Reg Bx B 800 3000 44000 6000 7"25/32 197.6 2"13/16 71.4 9"1/2 241.3 9"1/2 241.3 9"1/2 241.3 3 " 76. 4"13/3 2 2 1 1 12.3 ft 2 3.75 19.7 ft 6.00 1.2 ft 0.35 3.2 ft 0.95 36.4 ft 11.05 3180 7000 A PI 7"5/8 Reg B 1200 x 4500 B 73000 9900 9"11/3 2 237. 3 3 " 76. 2

Max Recommended Flow Rate Standard Collar ID Standard Collar up torque Make ID gpm L/mn

2"11/16-4 2"7/8 stub 2"7/8 stub ACM ACM stub E E ACME 160 600 3540 480 3"1/16 77.8 25/32 54.6 160 600 5500 750 3"3/8 85.7 25/32 54.6 160 600 5500 750 3"1/16 77.8 25/32 54.6

ft.lbs m.da Equivalent stiffness N Inch OD Sub + DC mm OD Inch ID mm OD

Dog Leg (standard line) Sliding Rotating

116 /100ft 66 /100ft 116 /100ft 25 /100ft 20 /100ft 18 /100ft 66 /100ft 15 /100ft 14 38 /100ft 27 /100ft 38 /100ft 16 /100ft 14 /100ft 13 /100ft 27 /100ft 10 /100ft /100ft 7.5 /100ft

EMpulse tool carrier - mechanical characteristic

All system tubular are made of non-magnetic alloy.

57

58

4. Design of MWD BHA

MWD tools are generally capable of taking directional surveys in real time. The tool uses accelerometers and magnetometers to measure the inclination and azimuth of the wellbore at that location, and they then transmit that information to the surface. With a series of surveys; measurements of inclination, azimuth, and tool face, at appropriate intervals (anywhere from every 30 ft (i.e. 10m) to every 500 ft), the location of the wellbore can be calculated.

Rotational speed of the drillstring Smoothness of that rotation Type and severity of any vibration downhole Downhole temperature Torque and Weight on Bit, measured near the drill bit Mud flow volume

Directional drilling with (MEASURING WHILE DRILLING) is a challenging event in drilling. While drilling a well there are many factors effecting MWD BHA GELOGICAL formation lost circulation materials GEO CHEMICAL Temperatures Pressure Salinity Heavy oil (high viscosity) MECHANICAL Vibration while drilling Heavy mud weight 59

 Under balanced drilling As to these geological, geo-chemical, & mechanical factors the MWD BHA was fail in some wells. These factors are not individual according to wells. They were combined with each other. Ex : Temperature. Pressure high temperature , lost circulation materials unconventional drilling fluid heavy mud, lost circulation materials high viscosity ,high temperature high temperature & high pressure According to this conditions they classify wells into different environment They are NORMAL PRESSURE & TEMPRATURE WELLS HT/HP WELLS HEAVY OIL RESERVOIR HEAVY MUD & HIGH LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS conditions UNDER BALANCED WELL

As per the classified environments and conditions in the wells the factors affect the MWD BHA electronic components, batteries, memory ect. To encounter these environments and conditions the MWD BHA was designed borehole compensated.

60

There are five types of MWD BHA TOOLS

Pulse MWD BHA The drift measurement tool (DMT), Azimuth measurement system (AMS) Standalone azimuth measurement system (SAM) Reduce survey time and expense while enabling operators to continually monitor the wellbore remotely Hostile Environment Logging MWD BHA System The HEL system is the industrys most robust hostile-environment positive mud-pulse telemetry system, with 356F (180C) temperature and 30,000 PSI (207 MPa) pressure ratings.

Hyper Pulse MWD BHA System The Hyper Pulse positive mud-pulse telemetry system provides directional surveying, formation gamma ray and temperature measurements in all routine drilling environments and in heavy-mud and high lost-circulation-material (LCM) conditions. Empulse Electromagnetic MWD BHA System The EMpulse electromagnetic (EM) telemetry system performs in mud-pulse environments and in borehole environments where mud-pulse systems cannot perform. The EMpulse system helps pinpoint well placement in underbalanced wells, including those drilled with unconventional drilling fluids, such as foam, mist, air or aerated mud. Twin Wells Active-Magnetic Ranging BHA System The Twin Wells system ensures accurate placement steam-assisted gravity-drainage (SAGD) well pairs in heavy-oil environments 61

5.TOOL STRING BHA CONFIGURATIONS

P recisionPulseMWDBHA S ystem
The design of the Precision Pulse MWD BHA system is based on the proven reliability of the EMpulse electromagnetic MWD system but includes modifications specifically for directional drilling with gamma ray services.

F eatures, Advantages and Benefits Rated to 15,000 psi operating pressure. Rated to 300F (150C) operating temperature. Gamma ray probe with scintillation counter for accurate AAPI measurements and recorded data in non-volatile memory. Pressure-modulated telemetry (PMT) system uses mud flow and battery power to generate a positive mud pulse. A 1 3/4-in. sonde-based tool fits in collars between 3 1/16 in. and 9 in. Retrievable in certain BHA configurations. Battery operated

62

63

HELMWD BHASystem
The hostile-environment logging (HEL) MWD BHA system is specifically designed for todays high-pressure/high-temperature hostile drilling environments. Designed to operate at temperatures up to 356F (180C) and to withstand downhole pressures up to 30,000 psi (207 MPa), the HEL MWD BHA system meets or exceeds all existing MWD system specifications. Applications The HEL MWD BHA system is qualified using the most stringent testing regime in the industry. Tests include flow-loop erosion, lost circulation, high-pressure tests at elevated temperatures, and aggressive vibration qualification including innovative random-onrandom standards during multiple temperature cycles. F eatures, Advantages and Benefits Rated up to 30,000 psi (207 MPa) operating pressure, depending on tool size. Reliable operation at temperatures up to 356F (180C). High flow rates for all size tools: 4 3/4 in. (400 gal/min), 6 3/4 in., 8 in. (800 gal/min), 8 1/4 in. and 9 1/2 in. (1800 gal/min). System handles lost circulation material (LCM) up to 80 lb/bbl. Pressure Modulated Telemetry (PMT) system uses mudflow and battery power to generate a positive mud pulse. Environmental Severity Measurement (ESM) sensor monitors tool shock and drilling vibration. Dual Battery Module (DBM) assembly provides long-duration, redundant power for extended downhole operation. High-Temperature Azimuthal Gamma Ray (HAGR) tool for accurate API gamma ray measurements. Bore/Annular Pressure (BAP) sensor uses quartz transducers to provide highly accurate bore and annular pressure measurements. Integrated Directional Sonde (IDS) provides 64 directional and toolface measurements.

65

HAGR The HAGR sensor is an integral part of the hostile environment Logging (HEL) MWD system using Geiger Muller tubes to obtain real-time azimuthal gamma ray measurements while drilling. The azimuthal data can be transmitted in quadrant or octant format for geosteering applications. The HAGR sensor provides real-time azimuthal gamma ray measurements while rotating or sliding at temperatures up to 356F (180C) [392F (200C) survival] and pressures up to 30,000 psi (207 MPa). This extreme operating requirement requires the use of Geiger Muller tubes rather than scintillation detectors. Five banks of two tubes each are implemented in the 4 3/4-in. sensor, while eight banks are implemented in the 6 3/4- and 8-in. sensors. The number, size and symmetric distribution of tubes were chosen to provide the greatest combination of statistical precision and azimuthal sensitivity. All tools are calibrated to API standards using a combination of measurements made at the University of Houston API gamma ray facility, measurements made in secondary standards and computer modeling. Correction algorithms, developed for mud weight, bore- hole size and potassium concetration, are in agreement with lab measurements. Field data obtained with the HAGR sensor show good correlation with wireline data from the same well. BAP The BAP sensor is an integral part of the hostile- environ- ment logging (HEL) MWD system using highly accurate quartz transducers to monitor downhole well conditions for early indication of drilling problems. The BAP sensor measures bore and annular pressure and downhole temperature while drilling, wiping or tripping out of hole. BAP sensor information may be presented in pressure units or equivalent circulating density to optimize hole cleaning, control surge and swab, and minimize lost circu- lation. This information may be plotted vs. depth or time

66

for flexibility in analyzing drilling and non-drilling events. The BAP sensor may also be run in underbalanced applications or in holes with no mud returns using the EMpulse electromagnetic MWD system

ESM The ESM sensor is an integral part of the hostile- environment logging (HEL) system using a single lateral accelerometer to monitor bottomhole assembly shock and vibration while drilling. An ESM sensor is installed in every HEL system to improve tool reliability. Real-time vibration data is triggered after exceeding pre-set thresholds. Information provided by the ESM sensor alerts the driller that changes in drilling conditions are needed to reduce or eliminate harmful downhole vibration. Also vibration data from the sensor is used to adjust maintenance schedules based on cumulative shock and vibration exposure.

67

Float sub

Top Sub

Power section ( Rotor + Stator)

Adjusting ring

Bearing section

Stab sleeve

Bit box

Bit

68

69

Open hole 26"

Casing 20" Open hole 17 1/2"

Casing 13 3/8" Open hole 12 1/4"

Casing 9 5/8" Open hole 8 1/2" Casing 7" Open hole 6"

70

Most common sizes of tools used for directional jobs Threads 6 5/8 reg Pin 6 5/8 reg Box X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X 4 1/2 IF Box 6 5/8 reg Pin X 4 IF Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 " IF Pin X Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 " IF Pin X Box

Open hole /Bit 12 1/4" Motor 8" Slick or with Stabilizer sleeve 12" or 12 1/8" Float sub 8" String stabilizer from 11 3/4 to 12 1/4" with 8" body Mule shoe/Monel/Finn sub (amagnetiques) 8" OD Steel Drill Collars 7 3/4 or 8" Drilling Jar 8" Steel Drill Collars 7 3/4 or 8" Crossover ( for change of thread)7 3/4 or 8" OD Heavyy weight drill pipe 5" OD Or Heavy weight drill pipe 4 1/2" OD Drill pipe 5" OD Or Drill pipe 4 1/2" OD

Open hole /Bit 8 1/2" Motor 6 3/4" Slick or with Stabilizer sleeve 8 3/8" or 8 1/4"

Float sub 6 3/4 or 6 1/2" OD String stabilizer from 7 3/4" to 8 1/2" with 6 1/2" or 6 3/4" body Mule shoe/Monel/Finn sub (non magnetic)6 3/4" OD Steel Drill Collars 6 1/4 ,6 1/2" or 6 3/4" OD Drilling Jar 6 1/4, 6 1/2" or 6 3/4" OD Steel Drill Collars 6 1/4 ,6 1/2" or 6 3/4" OD Crossover ( for change of thread)6 1/4 to 6 3/4" OD Heavyy weight drill pipe 5" OD Or Heavy weight drill pipe 4 1/2" OD Drill pipe 5" OD Or Drill pipe 4 1/2" OD

4 1/2" IF Reg Pin 4 1/2" IF Reg Box X 4 1/2" IF Box 4 1/2" IF Reg Box X 4 " IF Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 " IF Pin X Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X 4" IF Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 " IF Pin X Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box Or 4 " IF Pin X Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X 4" IF Box 4" IF Pin X 4 1/2" IF Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 " IF Pin X Box 4 1/2" IF Pin X Box 4 " IF Pin X Box

Note that a String Stabilizer get Pin x Box threads and a NB Stabilizer get Box X Box threads

71

Open Hole/Bit 6" or 6 1/8" Motor 4 3/4" or 5" OD slick or with stabilizer sleeve 5 7/8" Float Sub 4 3/4" OD String stabilizer 5 3/4" to 6" OD ( 4 3/4" body) Mule shoe/Monel/Finn sub (non magnetic)4 3/4" OD Steel Drill Collars 4 1/4" OD Drilling Jar 4 3/4" OD Steel Drill Collars 4 1/4" OD Heavy weight drill pipe 3 1/2" OD Drill pipe 3 1/2" OD

3 1/2 Reg Pin 3 1/2 Reg Box X 3 1/2 IF Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box 3 1/2" IF Pin X Box

Note: They are examples of more commun assemblies , sizes and threads tools used but of course it can be different bit sizes or MWD tool type etc Ex of standard Near Bit Stabilizers Near Bit 12 1/4" Blades OD / 8" body OD Near Bit 8 1/2" Blades OD / 6 3/4" body OD Or Near Bit 6" Blade OD / 4 3/4" body OD 6 5/8" Reg Pin X Box 4 1/2" Reg Box X 4 1/2" IF Box 4 1/2" Reg Box X 4 " IF Box 3 1/2" Reg Box X 3 1/2" IF Box

TOP

BOTTOM ( allways Regular Th.)

Fishing Neck

Blades (Spiral or Straight)

Bottom Neck

72

Other configurations of the HEL BHA string:

HEL MFR(with HGAM) BHA Top end of HEL tool Pulser Driver Battery Battery B A P Insert I D S Flow Diverter IDS M a l e Interconnect F e m a l e Interconnect Battery Battery MFR HGAM

73

TRIPLE COMBO BHA This is the typical configuration although it is subject to some modification depending upon the environment requirements Top of tool string BHA: HEL BAP TNP AZD MFR HGAM

74

TRIPLE COMBO BHA with RSS This is the typical configuration although it is subject to some Modification depending upon the borehole enerloment requirements Top of tool string: H E L BAP T N P AZD M F R HGAM IDS RSS

75

6.Rotary-Steerable System
A rotary steerable system is a new form of drilling technology used in directional drilling. It employs the use of specialized downhole equipment to replace conventional directional tools such as mud motors. They are generally programmed by the MWD engineer or directional driller who transmits commands using surface equipment (typically using either pressure fluctuations in the mud column or variations in the drill string rotation) which the tool understands and gradually steers into the desired direction. In other words, a tool designed to drill directionally with continuous rotation from the surface, eliminating the need to slide a steerable motor. The advantages of this technology are many for both main groups of users: geoscientists & drillers. Continuous rotation of the drill string allows for improved transportation of drilled cuttings to the surface resulting in better hydraulic performance, better weight transfer for the same reason allows a more complex bore to be drilled, and reduced well bore tortuosity due to utilizing a more steady steering model. The well geometry therefore is less aggressive and the wellbore (wall of the well) is smoother than those drilled with motor. This last benefit concerns to geoscientists because the measurements taken of the properties of the formation can be obtained with a higher quality

Operating Principles: A rotating shaft is positioned within anon-rotating housing by means of bearings and actuators. With information from directional sensors, an on-board computer calculates a toolface and the transmission shaft is automatically deflected in the required direction by means of the systems actuators. The curvature developed by Well-Guide defines the borehole curvature. Automatic closed-loop control in both inclination and azimuth provides an accurate borehole profile with minimal surface intervention.

76

R otary-Steerable Service 43/4 -in System The Revolution service was the first slim hole rotary-steerable system (RSS) to use point-the-bit drilling technology for improved borehole quality and bit life. The Revolution systems short, compact design reduces the complexity of rotary-steerable drilling technology, while placing critical LWD measurements close to the bit. The Revolution systems point-the-bit technology uses a pivot stabilizer to orient the drill bit axis with the axis of the desired well path, optimizing the directional drilling process and maximizing drilling efficiency. Relative rotation between the center shaft, which carries torque to the bit, and a non-rotating outer housing drives a hydraulic pump. This pump generates enough motive force to deflect the drillstring as programmed in the wells steering plan.

Near-bit gamma measure point

11.0 ft (3.4 m)

Near-bit inclination measure point Interface to MWD and electronics

9.0 ft (2.7 m)

6.1 ft (1.9 m)

Applications
Extended-reach 6- to 6 3/4-in. wellbores

Non-rotating RSS hous RSS mechanics

Features, Advantages and Benefits

Point-the-bit design for improved hole quality and bit life. Simple functionality ensures high reliability. Deviation rates set from surface for improved directional control. Build rates of up to 10/100 ft depending on formation type. Compact design. Fully integrated with PrecisionLWD system.

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R otary-Steerable Service 1 -in System 8 /4 The Revolution service now offers a new 8 1/4-in. rotary-steerable system (RSS) with point-the-bit drilling technology for improved borehole quality and bit life. The Revolution systems short, compact design reduces the complexity of rotary steerable drilling technology while placing critical LWD measurements close to the bit. The Revolution systems point-the-bit technology uses a pivot stabilizer to orient the drill bit axis with the axis of the desired well path, optimizing the directional drilling process and maximizing drilling efficiency. Relative rotation between the center shaft, which carries torque to the bit, and a non-rotating outer housing drives a hydraulic pump. This pump generates enough motive force to deflect the drill stem as programmed in the wells steering plan.

Near-bit gamma measure point

16.0 ft (4.9 m)

Near-bit inclination measure point Interface to MWD and electronics

14.2 ft (4.3 m)

11.1 ft (3.4 m)

Applications Features, Advantages and Benefits

Point-the-bit design for improved hole
quality and bit life. Simple functionality ensures high reliability. Deviation rates set from surface for improved directional control.

Extended-reach 12 1/4-in. wellbores

Non-rotating RSS housing RSS mechanics 6.2 ft (1.9 m)

Build rates of up to 7.5/100 ft depending on

formation type. Compact system. Fully integrated with Precision LWDBHA system. Measure point on inclination is 14 ft from bit.

4.0 ft (1.2 m) Near-bit stabilizer

Bit

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CASE STUDY

MWD IN NORMAL CONDITIONS & EXTREME CONDITIONS MWD IN NORMAL CONDITIONS The bore hole condition where the pressure temperature are stable are known as normal Where the temperature exist between 100 150 conditions. Lost circulation materials is low MWD IN EXTREME CONDITIONS The borehole conditions where the pressure and temperature are unstable are known as Where the temperature is exit between150 206 . extreme conditions. High lost circulation materials. This condition in the well bore is known as hostile environment or HTHP well. the volume of an HPHT gas kick remains virtually unchanged as it rises in the annulus from 14,000 to 10,000 ft (4265 to 3050 m). From 10,000 to 2,000 ft (610 m) its volume triples. But from 2,000 ft to the surface, there is a 100-fold expansion

Where the pressure exist between 10000-15000 psi

Where the pressure exist between 15000- 30000 psi.

HPHT Classifications Standard service is considered as pressures up to 10,000psi and temperatures to 250F Thereafter a three tier approach to HPHT classifications exists Tier 1: HPHT: Pressure 10K to 15K, Temperature up to 350F Tier 2: Extreme HPHT: Pressure over 15K to 20K, Temp >350F to 400F Tier 3: Ultra HPHT: Pressure over 20K, Temperature over 400F 79

PRESSURE Kpsi high 10-15 bar 689-1034 kg/ 7-10.5

TEMPERATURE

150-180

200-350

extreme

15-20

1034-1379

10.5-14

180-204

350-400

ultra

20-30

1379-2068

14-21

204-260

400-500

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Measurement While Drilling (MWD) is a system developed to perform drilling related measurements downhole and transmit information to the surface while drilling a well. MWD tools are conveyed downhole as part of bottom hole assembly (BHA). The tools are either contained inside a drill collar (sonde type) or are built into the collars themselves. Logging While Drilling (LWD) is a technique of conveying well logging tools into the well borehole downhole as part of the BHA. Wireline usually refers to a cabling technology used by operators to lower equipment or measurement devices into the well for the purposes of reservoir evaluation and well intervention. LWD tools work with its Measurement While Drilling (MWD) system to transmit partial or complete measurement results to the surface providing real time data. These tools operate in conventional wells but in HPHT environments, the tools fail or breakdown during the course of the drilling operations these breakdowns cause lost time and cost operators money. Operators need tools that are reliable and robust for longer time frames in a variety of wells at these temperatures and pressures to enable improved reservoir characterisations resulting in smarter completions.

The Challenges Reliable tool components that can withstand HPHT at for longer periods of time in long, hot horizontal lateral wells Tools that provide reliable and robust data from HPHT deepwater wells such as; shale gas, images of the formation, provide elemental spectroscopy, pressure and temperature data, identify fluids and fluid flow and provide data for tubing and casing inspection

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Case -1

MWD IN NORMAL CONDITIONS DTYS, F 61cgb Rig, E fddg Rig, Workover Operation XXXXX Rig name: E GGG BHEL drilling rig at madapata west field drilling a Directional well of TD 3200mtrs Well name:-XXXXXX Field:- ZXCV Location:- vvvvvv Kick off was at 250mtrs. L Profile drilling. Type of well : EXPLORATARY TYPE B Current onsite drilling depth : 2605m Type of BOP:- 13 " annular and double RAM Mud used: - CLCLS (Chrome lignite Chrome ligno-sulphate). Two triplex pumps were used for mud pumping

H/SIZE 23 17 12 8

Interval(m) 0-150 0-1400 0-3206 0-3236.3

Csg. Size 18 5/8 13 3/8 12 7

Csg. Plan J-55, 87.5 ppf, BTC N-80, 68 ppf, BTC N-80. 47 ppf, BTC L-80, 29 ppf, BTC

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Geological in put data for the well :

Depth m 1200 2200 3200 Pore pressure 818.9psi 3034 psi 6114.8 psi Mud weight 4 8.1 11.2

depth 1200 2200 3200

temperature 36 80 110 83

In this case the bore hole parameters are rating low . Maximum angle is 21.03 Azimuth of 332.75 So for the directional drilling at 250 m kick off point .

Horizontal direction of 982m

According to the pressure and temperature : This mwd works within the pressure of 15000 psi and temperature of 150 The mwd used is pulse mwd (normal mwd) This tool consist of 1.)The drift measurement tool (DMT), 2.)azimuth measurement system (AMS) 3.) standalone azimuth measurement system (SAM) 4.)gamaray tool Reduce survey time and expense while enabling operators to continually monitor the wellbore remotely

CASE -2 MWD IN HOSTAIL ENVIRONMENT F-6100 Rig name:- dfdgh Well name:- GNWW (AIG 15) 84

 Field:- zzzzzz Location: -:- rrrrrr . Dist. bbbbbbb Kick off was at 250mtrs. S Profile drilling. Type of well : Development well Current onsite drilling depth : 3025m Type of BOP:- 18 " annular and double RAM Mud used: - CLCLS (Chrome lignite Chrome ligno-sulphate) . Two triplex pumps were used for mud pumping H/SIZE 17 12 8 Interval(m) 0-200 0-1800 0-3178 Csg. Size 13 3/8 9 5/8 7 Csg. Plan J-55, 68 ppf, BTC N-80, BTC L-80, 27 ppf, BTC 43.5 ppf,

Geological in put data for the well :

DEPTH in m 1500 Temperature in c0 85

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2600 3100 4000 4400

123 140 174 189

Depth Sea bed -1770 1770 - 2720 2720- 3380 3380-4400

Pore pressure 3564psi 8434 psi 12640psi 15500 psi

Mud weight 8.6 8.6-11.8 11.8-14.62 14.62-16.64

In this case the bore hole parameters are rating . Maximum angle is 17.03 Azimuth of 187.51 So for the directional drilling at 250 m kick off point .

Horizontal direction of 982m According to the pressure and temperature: The temperature is 189 The max pressure is 15000 psi So the well is hthp well. The tool used to drill the directional well is HEL MWD. HEL MWD tool can withstand up to temperature of 200 and pressure of 30000 psi. HEL MWD tool consist of Pressure Modulated Telemetry (PMT) system uses mudflow and battery power to generate a positive mud pulse. Environmental Severity Measurement (ESM) sensor monitors tool shock and drilling vibration. 86

Dual Battery Module (DBM) assembly provides long-duration, redundant power for extended downhole operation. High-Temperature Azimuthal Gamma Ray (HAGR) tool for accurate API gamma ray measurements. Bore/Annular Pressure (BAP) sensor uses quartz transducers to provide highly accurate bore and annular pressure measurements.

Integrated Directional Sonde (IDS) provides

Higher pressures Most real-life HP field situations are not also HT situations, and vice versa. Most operational settings can be classified as HP applications or HT applications, rather than both. As wells and water depths get increasingly deeper, there is a greater need for higher-pressure capabilities of while-drilling measurement systems. Using higher strength materials, the MWD/LWD system offers a hydrostatic pressure rating of 30,000 psi. In late 2005, this system was used in a 34,189-ft (10,427-m) offshore well, the deepest one drilled to date in the Gulf of Mexico, according to the US Minerals Management Service. The record-setting depth broke the previous 32,727-ft (9,981-m) record set by a different operator, but with the same while-drilling measurement system. The MWD/LWD system transmitted real-time and recorded triple-combo log data during drilling operations under extremely hostile downhole conditions, with temperatures reaching 280F (138C) and pressures exceeding 30,000 psi (206.8 MPa). These record setters provide proof that these while-drilling systems significantly expand industry pressure capabilities and thus open development opportunities in the Gulf of Mexico and beyond.

Higher temperatures The MWD/LWD system was run in 2007 on two deep HT directional wells in one of the most challenging drilling environments in offshore India. Previous well experience had

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proven that these wells would be difficult to drill, log, case and test in a field where high temperatures had been by far the biggest challenge. While drilling these wells, the temperature rose continually. After drilling, temperatures continued to rise in the absence of circulation. Despite the high temperatures, the system successfully provided directional inclination and azimuth, gamma ray, resistivity, borehole pressure and temperature for both wells. One of the wells encountered lost circulation problems. After it was brought back under control and normal circulation resumed, the MWD/LWD system was still functioning normally, recording a maximum temperature of 349F (176C). Upon pulling out of hole, the LWD tool memory was downloaded and the temperature and pressure data retrieved for the well control operations period. These data allowed the operator to profile and better understand the downhole events occurring during lost circulation. The data are now being used to develop a detailed knowledge base for future wells in the area. Higher angles these while-drilling systems have aided extended-reach performance, permitting operators to tap into previously unreachable resources, from development drilling in deep-well and deepwater frontier environments, to redevelopment in brownfields. For example, the MWD/LWD system was used for an ambitious, high-angle, short-radius re-entry drilling program in the Middle East to revive a mature field. The purpose of these short-radius recompletions was to restore oil production in wells that had watered out because of water breakthrough from the fields ongoing water flood operations implemented years ago . In this mature Middle East field, short-radius horizontal wells were planned in vertical reentries with the objective of exploiting hydrocarbons not recovered by existing wellbore configurations and bypassed by ongoing secondary recovery operations. Horizontal wells can be used to both reduce water coning rates and drain thin zones at economic production volumes. Short-radius wells help avoid potential problem formations and ensure the target formation is reached and well placement is maintained. Moreover, short-radius wells enter the formation target much closer to the vertical well bore, with some formations allowing the kickoff and lateral to take place within the pay zone

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The operator wanted to drill build sections that approached those of extreme short-radius wells. In the past, available RSS and MWD technologies permitted such aggressive build sections, but LWD capabilities had been the limiting factor in achieving them. Advances made in the companys LWD technology have specifications defined to perform aggressive drilling operations such as extreme short-radius profiles. Key to this projects success was to use MWD/LWD data to the full extent to direct the build-well profiles specified by the operator. Using the MWDLWD system achieved total directional well curvature, or maximum dogleg severity, ranging from about 49/100 ft (30.5 m) to over 61/100 ft, for the nine short-radius wells drilled in this field over a 6-month period in 2006. The lateral extensions drilled out of the short-radius build curves ranged from just over 1,000 ft (305 m) to almost 3,000 ft (915 m). Sidetracking plugged wells and re-completing the short-radius horizontal sections enabled the development and production of reservoir portions that were either untapped, upswept, or both. Additional reserves were produced, ultimate recoveries were increased and productive life was extended in this field.

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Conclusion

Today, operators are drilling in deep-well and deepwater frontier environments that place demands on MWD/LWD systems that did not exist when they were designed initially. Operators are also reviving brownfields with aggressive drilling practices that were unavailable until recently. The MWD/LWD system is designed specifically to meet the requirements needed for directional, extended-reach and extreme-short radius performance in addition to deeper and hotter drilling operations. Providing services from the routine to the extreme, these systems represent a significant step-change in directional and formation evaluation capabilities, serving as technological enablers in the development of complex reservoirs, hostile environments and ultra-deep reservoirs in the India and worldwide.

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