YDIO

/\PHY

C-C-F-MONCKTON-M-I

RADIO-

TELEGRAPHY
BY

C.

C.

F.

MONCKTON,

M.I.E.E.

LONDON

ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE &

10

CO. LTD.
W.C.

ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE

1908

BRADBURY, AGNKW, & CO. LD. PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.

,

PREFACE
IT
is

hoped that
of

this

book

may

serve a useful purpose in

enabling readers to become acquainted with the principles

and

practice
is

radio-telegraphy.

Some knowledge
it

of

electricity

essential,

and, though

is

impossible

to

thoroughly

understand
electric

handling of
first

phenomena without much apparatus, an attempt is made in the

the

chapter to state as simply as possible the fundamental

facts relating to electricity

and magnetism

for until these

are grasped

it is

hopeless to try to appreciate the mechanism

of radiant waves.

In the next two chapters electric vibra-

tions are first explained,

menon

of

and then the fundamental phenoradio-telegraphy, the radiation of energy from a

the existence of these

vibrating electric circuit.

Hertz,

who proved experimentally

radiant waves, worked for science and not for telegraphy.

It

remained

for a host of inventors to adapt the newlyto practical use.

discovered

phenomena

The waves, with

which Hertz himself experimented, were too small, and in

Chapter IV. the properties of the modified longer waves,
used in practice, are enumerated.
tion of the

In Chapter V. a descripelectric vibrations is

power plant

for

making the

given

Chapters VI. and VII. deal in detail with the wave

transmitter, and Chapters VIII. and IX. describe the wave

vi

PREFACE.
Measurements, requiring the use
follow in Chapter
of

receiver.

mathematical
following

formulae,

X.

In the

three

chapters are described typical stations, using respectively

the single vibrating transmitter of
circuits of

Lodge,

the coupled

Braun, and the hydrogen arc

of Poulsen.

The

self-imposed

vow

of

secrecy on the part of

the Marconi

Company

alone prevents
stations.

a description

of

one

of

their

mammoth

In Chapter XIV. portable stations are

last

briefly touched on, and the

latest technical

chapter deals with the

In the Appendix

development radio-telephony. will be found the Morse alphabet, a

list

of electrical units used,

and a resume

of the articles of the

of

International Eadio-telegraph
service regulations.

Convention

1906,

with

Large sums

of

money have been spent experimentally

in

bringing radio-telegraph apparatus

to its present state of

efficiency, so to-day the cost of erecting a station is often

largely increased by
it is

sums

for patent rights.

Unfortunately

known how far many of the patents of the different companies are valid, and how far each company infringes
not

on the rights
increase in the
sidering that

of other
is

companies.

It is this

question of

patent rights that

no doubt preventing a more rapid

radio-telegraph stations, but, confirst practical

number of

it is

only twelve years since the

applications, the progress has been enormous.

short time back

it

seemed possible that future pro-

gress might be prevented by a radio-telegraphic war.

The
in

Marconi Company had practically obtained a monopoly

PREFACE.

vii

England; they had erected numerous stations along the coasts and on the Atlantic liners, at the same time refusing
to

intercommunicate with stations

fitted

with apparatus not

supplied by them.

On

the other hand, a powerful com-

peting company had sprung up in Germany, the combination of four interests (Slaby, Arco, Siemens, and Braun),

and

it

is

likely that either

company might have

as to

so filled

space with a medley of discordant waves

effectually

prevent
panies

the

other working.

Happily,
to

though the com-

were unable to come

of
all

an understanding, the

Governments

the principal countries in the world

have made a satisfactory agreement, the terms of which come into operation on the 1st July, 1908. By the terms of
the Convention intercommunication
is

compulsory between

a ship and a coast station, except for those especially to be

exempted.
possible
is

Interference
prohibited,
distress.

with

other stations
is

as

far

as

and

priority

to be given to calls

from ships in
witli

Most

of the principal countries,

the exception of Great Britain and Italy, have also

agreed to compulsory intercommunication

between ship

and ship

stations.

Service regulations have been

drawn up which

fix

under

ordinary conditions the wave-lengths to be employed.

telegraphist on a ship station must hold a his technical proficiency issued by the

The

certificate as to

Government
to

to

whose

authority the ship

fixed,

is

subject.

The charges
will

be levied unof

and an international bureau

have the duty

relative
to

publishing information of every kind

rudio-

viii

PEEFACE.

telegraphy, besides circulating proposals for modification

of the

Convention and regulations.

of

The conference
it

1906 not only regulated the service

fixed the

name

of the

new method

of

intercommunica-

which previously had been called "Wireless Tele" " " graphy in England and Spark Telegraphy in Germany.
tion,
It

had been proposed

to call

it

"

Hertz Telegraphy

"
(after

the discoverer), but it has now been definitely named " Radio- telegraphy ;" and the message received is to be
called a "

Radio-telegram," a word which before long will

probably be shortened to "Radiogram."

The

British Admiralty were the

first to

make

practical

use of Hertz's discovery, and the high state of perfection of

the apparatus used
is

largely due to the initiative of the

present controller of the Admiralty, Rear Admiral Sir H. B.

Fortunately for the future security of our empire, In the latest improvements are kept a profound secret.
Jackson.

1905 the system was sufficiently perfect for a ship

signals from a station 180 miles

to receive

away on one mast, and

feet distant,

at

the

same time, from a mast 200

messages could

be sent to another station

fifty

miles away.

The great

importance

of this

new means

of

communication in naval

warfare was amply demonstrated in the war between Japan

and Russia.

The business man, whilst travelling between England and America, is now able to keep in touch with his affairs,
and there are few important passenger steamers that are
not fitted with
its

radio-telegraph station.

PREFACE.

ix

At an early date Lloyds saw the importance of this new means of communication for ships in distress, and they have

now numerous

stations in operation.

A new

field

has been opened for radio-telegraphy in loca-

ting a given direction during a fog,

and

this

method

is

being

developed with considerable success by Marconi and others. So far radio-telegraphy has been chiefly utilised between
ship and ship, or ship and shore.
rival.

In these fields

it

has no

For land

service

it

has the serious competition of

the telegraph and telephone, whilst from shore to shore the

submarine cable has not yet been ousted.

For military operations radio-telegraphy

largely used.
their last war,

will certainly be

The Japanese employed

it

successfully in

and the besieged garrison in Port Arthur kept up constant communication with China by its means. Great portability of apparatus and aerial have been attained.

For land working it is also employed in the Arctic regions, where snow makes the upkeep of land-lines almost impossible, and it might sometimes be used with advantage in
the tropics along the coast, where rank vegetation

makes

the upkeep of

telegraph

or

telephone lines costly and

troublesome.

For

shore-to-shore

stations

radio-telegraphy has
in that

the

advantage over the submarine cable

is

no repair ship At

required,

and the

initial cost is

comparatively small.
is

present, however, the speed of working

considerably less

than with the cable, and there

interference

is

slightly

more

liability to

from

atmospheric

disturbances.

Increased

PREFACE.
is

speed of working
telegraphy.

one

of the principal

problems

of radio-

With the tape about

fifteen

words can be

recorded

a minute, whilst about

thirty

words in
;

Morse

signals can be received through the telephone

in cable-

working, on the other hand, as many as one hundred words a minute can be received on the tape and read by a skilled
operator.

Atmospheric disturbances were a great source of trouble in the early days before syntonic working was introduced.

Using a close coupling in the

receiver, the author

has

noticed almost a continuous record of signals due to this

cause.
loose

At the same station with good syntony and a

coupling signals can

now

be always

read except

during a severe storm.

It is

probable these disturbances

can only be

completely eliminated by using continuous

waves or an extremely weak coupling. At present the choice of system to be used

a large

is

governed by

number
and

of factors,

such as

initial expenditure, cost

of upkeep, skill of operators, liability to interfere with other

stations,

liability to interference

from other stations.

In the author's opinion, no one system can be called the

best
;

the system to be used should depend on the special

circumstances.

is

One problem outstanding is radio-telephony. being made at a very rapid rate.

Progress

The problem

of

the immediate future

is

commercial

inter-communication between Great Britain and America.

In his lecture, recently given before the Royal Institution,

PREFACE.
Marconi gave the date
from 1,200
of

xi

his first transatlantic

signal

received as December, 1901.

increased

feet

to

The wave-length has been 2,600 feet, and again to

12,000
till

since the completion of his latest arrangements

up February of this year 119,945 words of press and commercial messages were transmitted across the
Atlantic.
will

Before

many months

it

is

hoped that Poulsen

by
10
of radiated

have made the attempt

of transatlantic signalling
li.p.

means

of the radio- telephone with the

is

energy, which he considers all that For supplying information and

required.
of

illustrations

their

apparatus,
turers,

my

thanks are due

to

the

leading manufac-

Messrs. The Amalgamated Radio-Telegraph

fiir

Com-

pany, Messrs. Die Gesellschaft

Drahtlose Telegraphic,

Messrs. The Lodge-Muirhead Wireless and General Tele-

graphy Syndicate, Messrs. Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Messrs. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument

Company and Mr. H. W.

Klrctri<-nl
K>i<iin<
>

Sullivan.

The

proprietors of

riii;i

have also kindly lent a number

J.

of

illustrations,

and Mr.

H. Carson, manager

of the

Anglo-American Telegraph Company, has supplied

the telegraphic abbreviations used by his company.

me

with

More

especially are

my

thanks due to

my

friend,

Mr.

Arnold G. Hansard, M.I.E.E., for numerous suggestions and criticisms.

C. C. F.

M.

LONDON,
M.u-,-1,

L>:W.

I'.MIS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE

....
CHAPTER
I.

PAGE
.

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.
Conductors Electricity of charged bodies
of force

and insulators,

dielectrics

The

electric field

few properties Electric intensity Lines

Condensers

Tubes

of force

Potential

Capacity

Electric displacement induction Polarisation

Electric currents

Magnetism

Magnetic displacement, or Electro-statics and Electro-magnetics

electric

Production of

currents

Resistance

and penetration
current

of currents in conductors

Uniform conduction

Electro-motive force

Electric inertia or self-induction

Mutual induction Energy

Units

Relation between electricity and magnetism

Dimensions

of electric quantities

/.

CHAPTER

II.

ELECTRIC VIBRATIONS.
Vibrations

Damping

vibrations

Interference.

Nodes, antinodes and harmonics Energy of Phase Mass and comSyntony

pliancy of vibrating striiii: Klcrtrir vibrations Oscillation constant Stationary waves Secondary electric vibrations Velocity
.of

moving charges along wires Methods of producing seconMethod of examining electric vibrations in dary vibrations
. .

wires

/>.

~'t

xiv

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

III.

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
History
length

Waves

Amplitude

Velocity of propagation of wave disturbances

frequency and waveThe vibrating receiver

Closed tubes of

Electro-magnetic waves
electric force

Hertz's experiments

Representation of electro-magnetic wave striking a Hertz resonator The magnetic field A method of depicting
the electric and magnetic fields

Representation of a train of

The medium through which electro-magnetic waves are propagated Comparative duration of vibrations Wave-length of light compared with that of Hertz, and the waves used in practical radio-telegraphy The two forms of electric oscilwaves
lator
p.

42

CHAPTER

IV.

MODIFIED HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

History The Marconi Aerial Earthing the aerial Theory of earthed Hertzian waves Pierce's experiments Dr. Erskine Murray's hypothesis Free Hertzian waves Earthed waves with surface
not perfectly conducting The radiated magnetic waves Obstructions, inequalities, and curvature of the earth Experiments on
the screening action of obstructions
tion of energy

due

to light

ducting particles

in

Trees as aerials DissipaDissipation of energy due to conthe air Energy received - Distance of
Difficulties

transmitting signals sunset

of

signalling at

dawn and
.

60

CHAPTER

V.

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

History

Rating of induction coils The TeleApparatus used for The induction coils between spark-knobs working Arcing Lodge valve Alternate current transformer The Lodge-Muirhead transformer and alternator High power apparatus ProThe Cooper- Hewitt tection of apparatus The musical arc

The induction

coil

f unken

induction coil

The interrupter

TA15IJ-:

OF CONTENTS.

xv

mercury interrupter as u radio-telegraph discharger Vreeland's modification of the mercury interrupter The high frequency alternator The spark or arc, in compressed air />. in
.
. .

CHAPTER
THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR
History

VI.

METUODS OF ARRANGEMENT.
Single aerial or antenna DisAerial loaded with capacity
circuit

Systems of transmitting

advantages of the single aerial

Coupled systems

The radiating

Damping

of vibrations in radiating circuit

Methods of coupling The principal wave

of a vibrating circuit Limitations of close coupling Coupled circuits compared with open circuits The auto -transformer

The Tesla transformer

The auto and Tesla transformer compared

Couplings for high power stations System of directed waves by means of horizontal wires Braun's system of directed waves

The

directive

system of Bellini and Tosi

/*.

94

CHAPTER
THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR
The
aerial

Vir.

PRACTICAL DETAILS.
Variation

Earthing the aerial

Protection from lightning

of effective spark length with capacity Characteristics of the oscillatory spark Potential difference required to produce a dis-

discharge Multiple spark-knobs Material of sparkknobs and density of dielectric Position of spark-gap ArcingCoupled circuits Transmitting key Auto-transmitter Arrangement of apparatus The Poulsen arc Marconi's transatlantic
ruptive
practice
/>.

119

CHAPTER
THE RECEIVER

VIII.

METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

History Method of receiving radio-telegraphic signals The receiving transformer Auto-transformer Importance of syntony Advantages of using a secondary circuit Shunted capacity to the
r

I)anijiini; in

the receiving circuits

Subsidiary circuits

xvi

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Belay and tapping circuits with coherer Syphon recorder and clockwork with coherer The overflow arrangement of Lodge
Beceiving circuits compared Changing from receiving to sending The Poulsen-Pedersen arrangement p. 145
.
.

CHAPTER
THE BECEIVER
History

IX.

THE DETECTING APPARATUS AND OTHER DETAILS.

of

The function
Theory
detectors

the

detector

Difference of

potential

detectors

of the coherer

Muirhead coherer
Current
detector

Branly's coherer Auto-coherers The audion of

The Lodge-

De

Forest

The magnetic

detector

The

electrolytic

The lead peroxide detector of Brown -Fessenden's The microphonic detector Thermo-electric detectors The carborundum detector The telephone receiver Potential
barretter
versus current detectors
circuit

Testing the detector

Regulation of local
relay
Practical
p. 163

Calling- up arrangement

Sullivan's

details

CHAPTER
Ammeter

X.

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Subsidiary apparatus
in

sending circuit

Ammeter

in

receiving circuit Method of rinding best coupling in sending circuits The currents in oscillatory circuits Use of ammeter in

subsidiary circuit

Measuring instruments used in the transmitter

The thermo-galvanometer The bolometer The high frequency dynamometer Wave measurement The theory of wave measurement Resonance curves Resonance curves of coupled circuits Damping The damping curve Damping of compound oscillations
circuits

Comparison between the damping

of

closed

and open
.

Ohmic
waves

resistance of wires

Number

of oscillations in a p. 186

train of

Number

of trains of

waves per second

CHAPTER

XI.

THE EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT ELMERS END SYSTEM

LODGE-MUIRHEAD
p. 215

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

xvii

CHAPTER
RADIO-TELEGRAPH STATION AT NATJEN

XII.

TELEFUXKEX SYSTEM

j>.

'2'2~>

CHAPTER

XIII.

THE RADIO-TELEGRAPH STATION AT LYKGBY

POULSEN SYSTEM

j>.

'2V2

CHAPTER XIV.
PORTABLE STATIONS. The Lodge-Muirhead system
system
Poulsen system

The Marconi system

Telefunken 240 )>.

CHAPTER XV.
RADIO-TELEPHOXY.
Ruhmer's discovery
Fessenden's system of radio -telephony Telefunken system of radio-telephony Other systems
.

The
/<.

'J4!

APPEXDIX

The Morse Alphabet

Electrical Units used in this

>.

_>.>

APPEXDIX B
APPENDIX C
IXDEX

Book

/-.

'J'*!*

International Control of Radio -Telegraphy

j>.

2(50

/-.

_'(;.">

R.T

KADIOTELEGRAPHY.
CHAPTER
I.

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.
Elect rint i/.
It
is

well

known
wax
is

phenomenon
rubbed

that

when
piece

a
of

piece

of

sealing

against

dry flannel both

of

these substances
light
after

acquire
these

state

by

which
repelled

they

attract

bodies,

bodies

being

immediately

contact.

The

sealing wax, flannel,

and

light

bodies are said to have

to.

become

charged with electricity or

have charges

of

electricity.

There

is

a force of attraction

between the

charged sealing wax and the flannel, but two pieces of charged sealing wax will repel one another, and so also will
two pieces of charged flannel.
positively

The

flannel

is

said to be

charged,

the

sealing

wax negatively charged.

Positively charged bodies always repel one another, negatively

charged bodies always repel one another, but between

positively

force of attraction.

and negatively charged bodies there is always a The actual charges of electricity are
manner, and when two
u

also attracted or repelled in like

R.T.

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
bodies
are

oppositely charged

brought sufficiently close

great

together the
ruptive
spark,

strain

may become so
of
electricity,

that

dis-

discharge
takes
place

in

the

form
in

of

between

the bodies, and

;

general

the bodies

are

no longer
are

electrified

but under certain

conditions they
site

recharged, but
state;
its

each

in

the oppo-

sense
is

to

its
it

previous

and, just as
final

when
of

weight

swung

overshoots

position

rest

and swings backwards and forwards, so the two charges may swing backwards and forwards, a spark taking place
at

each swing.

Under these special conditions

till

of oscillatory

discharge this disruptive spark had been

practical

1906 the only

;

by radio-telegraphy in fact the name spark telegraphy was proposed as more suitable than the old name wireless telegraphy.
of signalling

method

Conductors and Insulators, Dielectrics.

material

is

conductor

when

it

allows

its

charge to be quickly given up

to another body, or is quickly charged

when brought

into

contact with an electrified body.

An

insulator or dielectric,

on the other hand, gives up

its

charge slowly. In a wireless

is

telegraph station the conductor used

copper.

The

earth,

salt water, and growing vegetation play an important role as conductors between the sending and receiving stations.

The

insulators used are air, porcelain, glass, ebonite, mica,

paraffin wax, india-rubber,

and

silk.

When

the isolation
is

of electric charges is being dealt with the

term insulator

on the other hand, when storage of energy is being but it must be 'discussed, the correct word is dielectric
used
;
;

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.
remembered that a good insulator and rice remit.
. I

is

always a good

dielectric,

j'i'ir

rri>i'r!ie8 of

Charged Bodies.

conducting bodies are on the surface.

apparatus
it is

The charges on By means of special

is,

possible to

measure the charge, that

the

quantity of electricity on a body.

The density
that
is,

of the charge over the surface of a body,

the charge per unit of surface, varies inversely as

the radius of curvature.

The

surface density thus becomes

relatively very large at points,

causing a brush discharge

if

the bodies are highly charged.

If

an insulated conductor
brought near

A
to

(Fig. 1) be

a charged body
charge,
if

the total
1 ig.
l
.

any, on the con-

ductor remains as before, but

charged in

near the body B becomes an opposite sense that far away in the same sense as the body B. Along one line round the conductor
the portion of the conductor
;

there
this

is

no

electricity

the charge gradually increases from

line

in

both

directions,

but in opposite senses, as

shown diagrammatically by the size and thickness of the If the conductor A be now touched by + and signs.
another conductor
in
it

will be left with a

charge opposite

sign

to that

on B.

This

is

called electrification

by

induction.
;t

Machines

to generate electricity

by this

means

iv

called influence machines.

p.

-2

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

When
positive

electricity is excited

by any means the charges

of

and negative

electricity

produced are always equal.

The
other,

force exerted
if

by two small charged bodies on each

far apart, is proportional to the product of their

charges and inversely proportional to the square of the

distance between them. 1

Fig.

2.

Under

similar conditions, that

is, if

the bodies are very

small compared with the distance between them, two bodies

are said each to have unit charges
if,

when

unit distance

2 apart in air, they attract or repel one another with unit force.

The Electric
1

Field.

The

attractions

and
1

repulsions

Assuming the size of two charged bodies Q and Q to be very small compared with the distance r between them, then the force between them
'

E = 9-^. r
2

two small bodies A and B have each a charge of one unit of and are one unit of distance apart, there is one unit positive electricity
2

If

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.

caused by electrically charged bodies are due to strains in

the

medium

separating the bodies.

This

medium must
is

be
the

a dielectric, and the seat of these strains

electric field.
ric
Inti'itnity.

called

The

electric

intensity at

any point

Fig.

a.

in

an

electric field is the force that

would be exerted at that

1 point on a body charged with a positive unit of electricity.

force repelling the bodies from each other. If each had been charged with six units of electricity separated by two units of space A V* ft 9 units. the force of repulsion would have been
of

If

be the electric intensity at a distance r from

(1)

charged point

*=2
(*2)

An

electrified cylinder with

charge

Q per unit length

-*?.
(3)

An infinite electrified plane surface with charge Q per unit of area

F =

TT

Q.

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Lines of Force.

line of force is a curve

drawn

in the

electric field so that the direction of the curve is the

same

as

that of the electric intensity at that point.

Figs. 2

and 3
two

represent
equally

approximately the lines

of

force between

charged bodies when the bodies

are oppositely
Fig. 4

charged, and

when they

are similarly

charged.

represents the lines of force between the plates of a charged

condenser. 1

It is to

be noted that the direction of the lines

Fig.

4.

at the surface of a conductor is

always perpendicular to

it

also the strain is tensile along the lines

right angles to the lines.

in the

It is

and compressive at these tensions and pressures

medium

that cause the attractions and repulsions of

electrified bodies

and

electric charges, but, so long as every-

thing

is

at rest, the tensile

and compressive

strains balance

each other at any point.

Tubes of Force.
If

on any charged conductor a curve be

of electricity,

drawn enclosing one unit

and from every point

they reach another

of this curve lines of force are

1

drawn
9.

till

See p.

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.

conductor, the volume bounded by the two surfaces and the

lines of force is called a tube of force.

Lines and tubes of

force are only representations of the strains in a similar

way

to the pictorial representations of forces in ordinary statics

by

lines.

If

a plane be

drawn

at right angles to the direction

of the electric intensity at

any
is

point, then the

number

of

tubes

that

cut

unit

area

a measure of
of

the electric
idea

intensity.

The expression tube

force gives the

that the forces exist

throughout space.

In figures

it is

more

convenient to show only the lines.

lines together gives a
force.

The nearness

of the

measure

of the

number

of the tubes of

In the case of a stationary field of force these tubes

of

always end on the surface

positive

separate conductors

one

and the other negative.

I'ntentiuL

The tubes

of

force start

positively charged than the

body

at

from a body more which they finish. The

body more

positively charged

is

said to be at a higher

potential than the other.

Travelling in a straight line

from the body

the electric

at higher potential to that at lower potential,

intensity at
of

any point

in a given direction

measures the rate

tion at that point.

diminution of potential in that direclines

The

and tubes

of force are
;

always

perpendicular to surfaces of equal potential

and, travelling

along a surface of equal potential, the electric intensity at

right angles to the surface is always the same.
of a

The

potential
:

body at rest is also a measure of its power to do work it can be defined as follows If a small body charged with a unit of electricity be moved from one position to another
:

HADIO-TELEGBAPHY.
of other electrified bodies, the electric

under the influence

l

potential

at the second position exceeds that at the first

position by the

amount

of

work done on the body against

Potential
is

the influence of the other electrified bodies.

not work
is

it is

the potential multiplied by the charge that

If

a measure of the total work.

on the whole this small

body has been repelled by the other bodies, work has been
done, and the

amount

of

work done

is

measure

of the

increase of potential.

On
will

the other hand,

if

the small body

has been attracted

will be lowered.

it

have done work and the potential

Perhaps the simplest way

to

understand potential

is

by
at

considering the potential energy of a swinging pendulum.

At the end
rest,

of

each half swing the bob

of the

is

momentarily

and the whole

2

energy

is

potential or energy of

position.

Attraction due to the earth pulls the

;

bob of
is

the

pendulum down

a small portion of the energy

conis

verted by friction

into

heat, but the greater portion

converted into energy of motion in the pendulum, causing

the bob to pass the lowest position and swing to a position

not quite so high on the other side,

when once more

But owing

the
to

energy of the pendulum

is

only potential.

the transference to heat energy the bob will be rather closer

to the earth.
1

And

at the

end

of

each half swing the bob

In practice differences of potential are measured in units called

volts.
2

The energy

is

the mass multiplied by

its

height from

its

lowest

In this analogy distance from the earth position. electric potential and mass with electric charge.

compares with

KI.KOTRIC
will
rest,

PH KNnMKNA.

get

nearer,

till

eventually the pendulum comes to

of

when

the

whole

the

energy

will

have become

heat.

Another way

is to

consider the force at any point.

This

is

always numerically equal

potential, but the force

to the rate of variation of the

and variation

of

potential act in

opposite directions.

The

potential of a conductor

is

the potential of the field

at the surface of the conductor.

For

practical purposes the

potential of the earth can usually be taken as zero.

Capacity.
of electricity

The capacity
of a

of a

conductor
it

is

the quantity
of potential.

necessary to raise

one unit

The capacity

conductor far away from

its size

all

other con-

ductors depends solely on

and shape.

When

it

is

brought near to another oppositely charged body the

strains cauge a redistribution of the charge,

electric

making the

capacity greater.

two opposite charged conductors are brought very close together, the capacity of each conductor is increased enormously, and the combination is called a
(

'"i/densers.

When

The

electric intensity

in

any

direction

is

equal to the rute of

diminution of potential

in that direction

FAt
:i

'"'
"
rfT'
(I

distance r from a charged point

microfarads.

In practice capacities are generally measured in units called The capacity K of a sphere of radius /, if distant from
(

other bodies,

is

given

l>y

K=

a.

10

EADIO-TELEGR APH Y.
l

condenser.

The capacity

of a

condenser depends on the

insulating, or rather dielectric, material between the con-

ductors

accordingly insulating materials are said to have

different specific inductive capacities.

The

specific inductive
of

capacity of glass, for instance,

air.

is

about seven times that

Consider the case of two similar parallel plate conair,

densers, one with the plates separated by

glass,

the other by

then

if

they are charged so that the difference of

potential
is

the same in the

two cases, the glass condenser will have a charge

of

electricity

seven times
the
it

as

great

as

air

con-

denser, and

will

have
the

taken

seven
of

times

amount
it

energy to raise

to that potential.

The

difference

between

insulator and dielectric

may

now be
The
it

better understood.

Both the

air

and the glass

isolate

the charges of electricity of a condenser from each other.

air is

found to isolate the charges more completely, so

is

the better insulator.

On
it is

the other hand, with glass

possible to store a larger

between the charged bodies,

1

When two parallel plates each of considerable area are placed a short distance r apart with material of specific inductive capacity k between the plates

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.

11

amount

of electric energy,

showing that glass

is

the hetter

dielectric.

The most common form

A buttery
distance
of six

of

condenser

is

the Leyden

jar.

Leyden

jars, as used by

Marconi
in

in short

radio-telegraph

stations,

is

shown

Fig.

5.

These jars are made of specially prepared glass, coated The outside coatings rest insiile and outside with tin foil. on a sheet of tin foil at the bottom of the tray, which is
connected to the terminal at the top of the tray to the
(lood
contact
is

left.

made

to the

inside by the

cage-shaped

springs.

All the upper terminals are connected together so

that the electrical effect is the

six

times the size of the unit.

same as having one large jar The glass between the two
two
electric

coatings acts both as an insulator and dielectric.

Kb-rtri<-

Displacement.
is

When

charged bodies

act

on each other there

a polarization or displacement of

electricity

and over any given surface

the

from the positive body towards the negative body, this is measured by the excess of
of tubes leaving the surface over the

number
it.

number

entering
is

The displacement normal

to a closed circuit
is

a measure of the charge within the circuit, and

directly

proportional both to the electric intensity and the specific

inductive capacity of the
1

medium.

It'

Other forms of condenser are shown in Figs. l.'5">, !.".>. capacities /u Aj etc. be joined in parallel the resultant capacity

K=
1

A'i

kt

-\- k.A

etc.
recipi' "'al
(

If capacities k\ resultant capacity

1;*

etc.

be joined in series the

of

the

K ^A-

11 +
1

etc A- s

A-,

12

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Consider a closed surface shown in section by

A B
is

C,

Fig.
of

6,

with no electrified body inside

the

same number
no

tubes enter

and leave the surface and there

electric displacement.

On

the other hand,

if

there

is,

say, a

positively electrified

body within the surface

of tubes

(Fig. 7)

then
this

an excess number
excess
is

leave

the

surface,

and

a measure of the total displacement.

In the

figure only

one tube

is

shown

for simplicity.

Magnetism.

special

form

of

oxide of iron has

the power of attracting iron

filings; this oxide of iron is

said to be magnetic.

If

piece

of

steel

be stroked
it

w ith
r

this

magnetic oxide
acquires

permanently

the

same properties
ing
iron,

of attract-

and

is

called

a magnet.

It

will

be found

that a

magnet

will

attract

one end and repel the other

If

end

of

a second magnet.
it

the centre

will point in

a direction north
is

magnet be suspended in and south;

the end which points north

called the north pole, 1 the

other the
of

south

pole

of

the

magnet.

The north

pole

a magnet attracts south poles and repels north poles,

of
to

and generally the behaviour and on iron are very similar

1

magnets on each other

those of electric charged

As

the

naming

the north pole of the earth attracts the north pole of a is not systematic.

magnet

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.
bodies on other charged bodies.

13

A unit charge of magnetism,

magnetic lines of
force,

magnetic intensity, magnetic

field,

magnetic tubes

of

force,

and magnetic displacement

may

be denned in similar terms to their electric analogues.

MiHjnctic

Displacement,
is

or Induction.

Just

as

electric

displacement

proportional to the electric force and the

for

capacity of the

medium

supporting electric displacement,

is

so the magnetic induction

force,

proportional to the magnetic

of

and the permeability, or capacity

magnetic induction.

the

medium,

for supporting

But, whereas in the electric analogy

all dielectrics

have different capaci-

ties for

supporting electric displacein

ment,

the

case

of

magnetic

induction

most substances

have

nearly the same capacity for supporting magnetic induction.

Iron

is

the substance that

most greatly

differs

from others, and the permeability of

iron differs with every sample.

Polarisation.
is

Considering the forces of matter on matter it

only necessary to think of the existence of matter in space,

but the habit of thought with which one has to approach

the understanding of electric and magnetic
different;
it is

phenomena

is

necessary to remember that for every unit of

is

positive electricity produced there

1

a unit of negative
Nickel and cobalt,

Most substances have the same permeability.

however, are further exceptions, as also are the newly discovered alloys of copper manganese and aluminium.

1 I

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
;

electricity

and

for every unit

north magnetic pole there

is,

is

a unit south magnetic pole, that

polarised.

the matter has become

Considering the actions of material bodies on

each other we have only to think of the actual force of

gravitation between the bodies,

but in

the

electric

and

magnetic analogues there

is

always the polar action causing

not only attractions and repulsions but rotary forces tending

to cause electrified or

magnetic bodies

to set

themselves in

a particular direction.

The term
the

polarisation

is

also

sometimes used

to

mean

same

as displacement.

Electro- Statics

and Electro -Magnetics,

The foregoing

explanatory remarks have dealt with electric bodies, electric

fields,

and magnets

at rest.

In radio-telegraphy and most

other practical applications of electricity and magnetism

continuous changes are taking place in the electric and

magnetic
in

fields.

any electric same way a change of magnetic

;

During the time these changes take place field a magnetic field is produced and in the
field gives rise to

an

electric

field

under these circumstances the phenomena are called

electro-magnetic.
Electric Currents.

Suppose two bodies

to be gradually

To commence with, there are no charged by some means. tubes of force and no displacement. As the two bodies are
being charged there will be a growing
field of electric force

and

electric

displacement.

The
is

rate of variation of the

called

displacement with the time

current.

the

displacement
of

When

there

is

no alteration in the number

KLECTBIC rHKXn.MKXA.
tubes of force this current ceases, and tubes of force diminish there
direction.
is

15

when

the

number

of

a current in the opposite

Suppose the bodies

to be

charged from some source by

;

conductors to points near an air-gap

will be quickly

a portion of the charge

given up to adjacent parts of each contravelling over the conductor

is

ductor.

The charge
is

called

a conduction current.
current 1

At any point the

two parts
:

total

electric

made up

of

a displacement current

and a conduction current.

of

Consider a condenser, consisting

air,

two plates separated by

is

being charged at
field

its

centres

there

a practically uniform electric

produced between

the two plates, and the displacement from the positive plate
will

spread equally over the whole surface, and the total

displacement current leaving the surface will be uniform.

At the same time, a portion of the charge spreads from the

centre to the rim of the plate, leaving
at

some

of the charge

each point, so that travelling from the centre to the rim

in

the charge
less

motion

or conduction
it is

current

becomes

and

less, till at

the rim

nothing.

The following properties

noted
(1)
:

of electric currents are to be

current always Hows in a closed circuit. When A B C, in Fig. 8, is completed, chemical actions the circuit in the battery B cause a conduction current to flow along

The

the wire and a displacement current from the condenser

plate,

to A.
1

This action goes on until the condenser

art-

CA

Currents

iiHMsuted in units

culk'il

amperes.

10

EADIO-TELEGEAPIIY.
charged, that
is, till

is

the potential difference between the

condenser plates
battery.
If,

is

the same as that at the terminals of the

however, the whole circuit were conducting the

current would persist until the battery were exhausted.

'B

Fig.

8.

Fig.

9.

(2)

At any instant

of

time the algebraical

sum

of the
is

currents taken in

all directions at

any given point and

zero.

Along a single conductor

this

is

equivalent to saying the leaving

current
surface
(3)
is

entering

is

the same.

Every

element
with
a

of

current

associated

magnetic

field.
(4)

Fig. 10.

When

there

is

displace-

ment current
force is at right

only, the magnetic

angles to the displacement and to the

of force are travelling.

direction at

which the tubes

In

Fig.

9,

B
and

represents the direction of the electric field

A.

increasing in the direction

'to

is

at right angles

also represents the direction of the displacement

Kl.K'Tllir

1'IIKXOMKNA.

17

current.

The magnetic
B.
there
is

force

is

at right angles to both

and

(5)

When

a steady conduction current there

is

no displacement, and the magnetic force is at right angles to the direction of the current, and also to normals from
the conductor.

In Fig. 10, A

represents a short length

of a conductor carrying a conduction current and one line

Fig. 11.

of
is

magnetic force embracing

it.

In Fig. 11 the conductor

shown
(6)

in section with the magnetic field.

When
is

there

is

an alteration in a conduction current

t<>

there

always a displacement current practically normal

the surface of the conductor, thus the magnetic force at

any point

is

at right angles to both displacement

and con-

duction currents.
ri-ciliii-tion

of

l-'Ao-trir

Cnrri-nlx.

There are numerous

ways of producing electric currents; two of these methods are more especially utilised, one using chemical rr;u-ti<>ns,
R.T.
(

18

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
will here only
field

which we
of the

name, and the other the changing

magnetic

closed circuit,

through a conducting circuit. In any ABC, Fig. 12, an increase in the number of

magnetic lines in the direction

causes a current to flow

clockwise round the circuit, whilst a decrease in the

direction or

same

an increase

of field in the opposite direction to flow

would cause a current

contra-clockwise.

With

steady magnetic field (Fig 13), to produce currents in a coil of

wire,
it is

thus only necessary to rotate

that
it

the

coil so

cuts the lines of force.

Resistance and Penetration of Currents

"i\

//

in Conductors.

Taking the plate confound that this

denser and considering only the conduction current

it

is

commences
it

as the tubes of force reach the conductor, but

takes a further interval of time for the current to attain

its

maximum

value.

During

this process
is

it

penetrates into
is

the conductor.

This penetration
if

due to what

known

as electric resistance, 1 for

the conductivity were infinite

there would be no necessity for the current to penetrate.

No

substance

is

a perfect conductor, so there

is

always a
if

penetration of the electric field,

sufficiently long, will flow

and the current,

kept on

uniformly through the conductor.

is

Electric inertia,
circuit,

however,

always associated with every

and

this tends to decrease the speed of penetration.

Uniform Conduction Current.

1

To produce a steady direct

ohm.

The
See

practical unit of resistance is called the

p. 20.

l.I.KCTRIC

PHENOMENA.

19

conduction current there must be a steady and constant

difference of electric potential.

This difference of potential

must be maintained by a continuous supply of energy from some source, which originally may be chemical, thermal,
mechanical, or electrical.

Tubes

of force

are streaming

from this

source

of

electric

energy,

and the

energy

associated with these tubes, as they penetrate the conductor,

is

transformed into heat.

the
of

The
the
re-

greater the resistance of the

conductor,
difference

larger

potential

quired to keep the current

~~C\
x
'

uniform. With any increase

of difference of potential at

^
9 "----

the

source

more

tubes
first

>

stream out, causing

a
;

small displacement current

and then,

if

the increased

Fig. 13.

difference of potential be maintained,

an increased steady

conduction current proportional to the increased difference

of potential. 1

Electn>-intive Force

may

be defined as the measure of the

tendency to produce an
usually written E.

electric current.
It is

For brevity

it

is

M. F.

numerically

equal to differthe

ence of potential.

The

one, however, only denotes

difference of potential

between any two points

of a closed

With a steady current C through a

resistance r the potential

is

dill'erence

required to maintain the current

V=

given by

V.

c2

20

KADIO-TELEGKAPHY.
other
is

circuit, whilst the

the difference of potential at the

terminals of the source of power

when no current

is

passing.
at

When

a current flows,

the

potential

difference

the

terminals diminishes, due to electric losses in the source of

power, and
the circuit.

is

no longer a measure of the whole E. M. F. in E. M. F. must in no case be confused with

mechanical
former

force.

The

latter

tends to

move

matter, the

electricity.

Electric Inertia or Self-Induction.

The

self-induction 1 of

a conductor

is

denned as the number

of tubes of

magnetic

induction surrounding the circuit for every unit current

flowing through the conductor.
It is this

magnetic

field,

which

is

always associated with electric currents, that gives

inertia,

electric

and

this

inertia

is

proportional

to

the

current and the

it

self-induction.
of the

In the case of a conductor

depends on the shape

conductor and the magnetic

permeability of the conductor and

medium surrounding
all

it.

closely-wound helix has large self-induction, as nearly

all

tubes of force round one turn embrace

the other turns.

Two
of

wires very close together, carrying currents in opposite

directions,

have small self-induction as the magnetic fields each tend to annul one another. Iron compounds, as

conductors, or in the

medium surrounding them,

Most other materials

increase

self-induction enormously.
equally.

act nearly

Mutual Induction.
1

When a second conductor is surrounded

measuring self-induction
is

The

practical unit used in

called the

millihenry.

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.
by tubes
first

i'l

of

magnetic induction caused by a current in the

conductor, then the

number

of tubes

which surround
first

the second conductor, due to unit current in the

ductor, is called the

con-

mutual induction

of the

two conductors.
in the

When
same

two conductors,
direction, are

and B, carrying currents

brought closer together, the magnetic

lines of force will

embrace both conductors, increasing the mutual induction and the electric inertia of the system. With
currents flowing in opposite directions the two fields tend
to cancel

each other, reducing the inertia of the system, and

O
B
(1)

'

(2)

Fig. 14.

the mutual induction

Fig. 14, the

is less

than for the single

circuit.

In

conductor B, shown in section, carries twice

the current flowing in A.

the

Now, when the currents are

in

same

direction

(1),

the field at
if

is

the

sum

of the fields

due

to the currents, but

the currents flow in opposite direc-

tions (2) the field at

is

the difference of the two.

(1) is

The

mutual induction
arrangement
Relation
(2).
/

of

arrangement

three times that of

//field.

//

/;/ ,///<//// nn<l

Mutim-titm.
is

It

has been

pointed out that an electric current

a magnetic
force along

always associated with

Adding up

all

the elements of magnetic

is

any

closed circuit, the result

a measure of the

22

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
current through that circuit. 1

electric

An
of

electric

force

produces an electric current

displacement storing energy

made up
in

two parts, one

the

dielectrics,

other

conduction current transforming the electric energy into

heat energy, and in certain cases into mechanical energy.

magnetic

force

produces a magnetic
is

current,

called

induction, storing energy, but there

no known magnetic

conductor, and therefore no magnetic conduction current.

Energy.
work.

The energy of a body is its large number of engineering

:

capability of doing

enterprises resolve
of energy,

themselves into this problem

coal, oil, gas,

Given a source
is

water-power or chemicals, work

In recent years
it

required to

be done elsewhere.
often the

has been found that

is to

most convenient and economical method

it

con-

vert the energy into electrical energy, lead

to the place
it

required by

means

of conductors,

and then convert

again
be

into the form of energy required.

For instance,

it

may

converted into light, as in the case of electric-lighting;

heat for electric-cooking
;

sound through telephones, and

machinery, tramways,
tele-

mechanical energy
graphs and
bells.

for driving

The problem

in radio-telegraphy is to
it

transmit the energy into space and transform

into sound

or mechanical energy elsewhere without the use of con-

ductors between the two places.

We
which
1

have
(1)

to deal

with three different forms of electric

is electric

energy.
is

At any point there

storage of energy

proportional to the electric force

is

and displacement
in the circuit.

This

provided there

is

no permanent magnet

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA.
at that

23

point
to

(2)

There

is

a total magnetic storage of

energy due

an

electric current

which

is

proportional to
of

the self-induction of the circuit

and the square

the

current

and

(3)

There

is

a transformation of electric
is

energy to heat energy whenever there

current, due to the electric resistance
;

a conduction

and the heat energy

and the
electric force.
is

produced

is

proportional to the current

case of the
first

The simplest
Ley den
jar,

form

of storage
is

that of a

where the

total

energy stored

proportional to

the charges and the difference of potential between the two

coatings.

The

electric

form

of storage

is

the

one that

takes place

first in

the case

we

are especially dealing with,

at a

and one

of the principal
is to

aims

transmitting wireless

telegraph station

store as large a quantity of electrical

energy
place.

as

possible

before

disruptive

discharge takes

Units.

Using

electric

charges at rest

it is

possible to

work

out a complete system of units.

Starting with two charged

if

bodies, they are said to have unit charges when,

separated

by unit distance (one centimetre), they are repelled from

each other with unit force (one dyne).
In the same way,
starting with the magnetic properties of bodies, we

may
unit
It

define

unit poles to be such

that

when separated
is

distance

they will repel each other with unit force.

a
if

has

been pointed out that there

electricity

cross

connexion
with

between

and magnetism

so

we

start, say,

the magnetic system of units,

we can deduce an

electric

system.

Doing

this, it will

be found that the unit of electric

24

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
is

charge

30,000,000,000 times smaller than the unit denned

by the magnetic method.

is

The system using

is

electric

charges
is

known as

the electro-static system of units.

The other

the electro-magnetic system, and this

used for

all practical

purposes, or rather convenient multiples of these units.

Dimensions of Electric Quantities.

such as forces,
to the
velocities, energy,

Most things

in nature,

can be defined in relation

dimensions, mass, length and time.

From

both the
it

electro-static

and electro-magnetic systems

of units

would

appear that electric and magnetic properties could thus be

defined, but this is not the case.

The reason why the two

to the fact that in defining
specific induc-

systems are not the same

the electric charges
tive capacity of the
it

is

due

was assumed that the

(i.e.

medium

air)

between the charges

had no dimensions.
poles, the

In the same way, defining the magnetic

of the

dimensions of the permeability

medium

between them was neglected. The dimensions of these two properties are not known, but on them depends the velocity of
the electric and magnetic
sidered.
field of force to

be hereafter con-

CHAPTER

II.

ELECTRIC VIBRATIONS.
]'ibr<itions.

The term vibration

in a body.

is

used to denote any

is

periodic change

change

called periodic

when

the conditions, after continuously altering, arrive at

a similar state after a given interval of time.

The

best

known and
is

simplest vibration
the

that of

pendulum

of

clock.
is

in

The seconds pendulum the same position and

in

moving

the

same

direction

every two seconds.

The time

taken for a complete swing to

and
11

fro is called the period

the

umber

of
is

complete

swings in a
is

second

called the frequency (that of the clock

one half
its

per second), and the distance the pendulum swings from

perpendicular position
is

called the amplitude.

In the case

of the clock there is a source of

power, a coiled spring or a

vibrating.

falling weight, to

keep the
is

pendulum

In Fig. 15

the distance

AB

the amplitude of the swing.

The time
quarter of

taken for the pendulum to a period.

move from A

to

is

26

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Damping.
Suppose
this source of

power

to be

removed,

the amplitude of the vibrations would gradually get less,

due
It is

to friction

and the vibrations are said

to

be damped.

found in such a case, and in most kinds

of vibration,

that the ratio of the amplitude of each swing to the next

Fig. 16.

half

swing

is

constant.

Figs.

16 and

17

show the

relationship between amplitude of

vibration and time in

vibrations.

the case of
of the

undamped and damped

In the case

pendulum swinging with energy being constantly

supplied, as in the case of a clock, the vibrations can be

represented by the curve in Fig. 16.

The pendulum

start-

ing from B (Fig. 15), successive distances from the vertical are shown by the curve the time when it crosses the
;

vertical is thus represented

by the curve crossing the axis

X.

Fig. 17 represents a short pendulum vibrating in a

ELECTRIC VIBRATIONS.
liquid with

27

no energy supplied, when only four-and-a-half complete swings take place before it comes to rest. Node*, Antinodea and Harmonics. If a long elastic string
be set in vibration by means of impulses at one end
it

can

be

made

to vibrate as a whole,

if

the impulses follow each

other in certain fixed intervals of time,

depending on the
Fig. 18 illustrates

mass, length, and tension of the spring.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

a string fixed at two points,

and B, made

to vibrate as a of the string

whole.
at

The

full

thick line

shows the position

greatest amplitude.
is

After
it

a quarter of a period the

string

in the position
;

will

assume

at rest

shown by the

thin line in another quarter

period the string

position

is

in the

indicated
line.

dotted

by the and B are nodes

of

motion,

is

the

With a rather quicker motion the string is If the impulses merely agitated, as shown in Fig. 19.
antinode.

are given at a certain

still

quicker rate the two halves

if it

of the string will vibrate as

were fixed in the centre.

With a

still

more frequent

rate of impulse the string will

'2<>.

vibrate as

if it

were divided into three, as shown in Fig.

positions
of

and so
vibrate

on.

The
called

the string which

positions

do not

are

nodes,

and the

where the

28

RADIO-TELEGRAPRY.
is

amplitude of vibration

greatest are

called

antinodes

thus in Fig. 20 there are four nodes and three antinodes.

Vibrations
are

usually
is

not

simple

hut
of

compounded

generally there

one principal vibration

much

greater

amplitude than the others.

are usually quicker,
of

The smaller

vibrations,

which

and therefore have a greater number

then called the fundamental

nodes than the principal vibration, are called harmonics,

is

and the principal vibration As an example vibration.

in harmonics, the lowest

of

a piano vibrates to and fro thirty-three times a second.

The frequency
of the lower C.

of the

next higher

C an

octave above

is

twice this amount, and this

is

called the second

is

harmonic
this,

The

third

harmonic

the

above

which vibrates three times as

Energy
vibrates

fast as the

fundamental.
string

of Vibrations.
is

As the pendulum or the

stationary at the
it

it

for

moment

maximum
direction

distance from the normal, before

of motion.

changes
all

its

energy

of

The energy for the moment is As the pendulum and position.

potential or

string pass the

normal position in which they would naturally rest they have no potential energy. Some has been wasted as heat or
radiated into space
;

the remainder has

all

been transformed
In intermediate
kinetic.

into kinetic energy or energy of motion.

positions the energy

Interference.

is

partly potential
If the

and partly

Syntony.

impulses are given to the

it

string too quickly or too slowly

will

hot vibrate with

fixed nodes, but the disturbances will tend to destroy

1

one

another, and there

will

be spasmodic ripples along the

Yir.lIATlOXS.

2!

string.

This

is

due

to the lateral forces acting in opposite

is

directions

when

the disturbance

reflected

back from the

end, and

is

called interference.
so'

When

the impulses follow

each other

as to

make

the string vibrate with definite

If

nodes, the vibrations are said to he syntonic.

syntonic

impulses are

given to

a vibrating string just sufficiently

strong to balance the damping, the amplitude of vibration

will

remain

the

same.

With

stronger

impulses

the

amplitude of the vibrations will increase.

Fig. 21.
I'Jtasf.

Fig. 22.

At any point and time when two vibrations

periodicity are exactly in the
in the

of

the

same

same

relative state

and altering

same

direction, they are said to be in

phase; otherwise they are out of phase.

vibrations,

Consider two

and B, the

maximum

amplitude of

being
in
is

twice that of B.

In Fig. 21 the vibrations are shown

the

phase, and C

is

compounded

vibration

in Fig. 22

quarter of a period in advance of B, whilst in Fig. 23, A

half a period in advance of B.

is

The magnitude
C.

of

tin-

resulting vibration

is

shown by

and

it

will

be noticed

:50

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
if

that

in the third case the individual vibrations

had been

equal they would have exactly cancelled each other. Mass and Compliancy of Vibrating String. It should be

here pointed out that the nature of the vibrations depend

The greater the mass and the smaller the tension the longer the period and the smaller
on the density and tension.
the frequency.

The mass

gives

inertia

to

the

system.

The greater the mass the less is the amplitude of vibration The density also gives inertia to the for a given impulse. The tension gives string.
spring.

The more the

stiffer

ten-

sion

the

the spring.
stiffness
is

The opposite
compliance.

of

The greater the

the
larger

compliance
amplitude
of vibration for a given impulse.

the

It is

thus seen

that inertia and compliance impart opposite properties to the

vibrating string

if

we consider the amplitude

is

of vibration,

but the period of vibration

each.
If

altered in a similar

manner by

an impulse be given

to a long, very light string,

held loosely so that the density and tension are both small?
the amplitude of the
dies away.
If
first

vibration
is

is

large, but

it

rapidly

the string

made more massive

owing
will

the

first

amplitude
but the

will

be

much

less

to the increased inertia,

momentum imparted
damped.

be greater, so the vibration

will be less

These vibrations can best be studied

by

vertically

suspending a long india-rubber cord, and

giving the necessary impulses at the bottom end.

KLI-KTIJIC VIBRATIONS.

;51

Electric }'il>rations.

If

two coatings of a condenser be

charged, one with positive electricity and consequently the

other with negative electricity, and

if

a small air-gap be

placed in the conducting wire between the two coatings, when

the difference of potential

is sufficiently

great, a disruptive

discharge will take place across the gap.

Feddersen, by

observing the reflection of the spark in a rapidly rotating

mirror,

was able

to

show

that,

under certain circumstances,

the
first

after

discharge from the posi-

tive coating there

was a weaker

(b)

spark in the opposite direction,

proving that the electric charges

on the condenser coating had be-

come

reversed.

Under

suitable

conditions this reversal

place a large

may
of

take

number
is

times

before the jar

pletely.

discharged com-

This

phenomenon

is

called

an

electric vibration

or

oscillation.

Just as the

nature of the vibrations of a string depend on the mass,

compliance

and

friction,

Lord Kelvin has shown that

self-

the vibrations in an electric circuit depend on the

induction, the capacity and the resistance of the circuit.

Also in

the

electric

analogue we have

charge instead

of position,

and

electric current takes the place of motion.

Just before the spark the whole of the energy is potential, but after a quarter of a vibration the potential

energy

32

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
;

has vanished, and so have the charges of the condenser

the energy of the circuit
electric current.
is

now

kinetic

and due
all

to the

A
is

of

the circuit

the energy hut with positive and again potential,

in

quarter of a period later

negative charges
depicts an

reversed positions.

In Fig. 24
charged
1

(a)

oscillator.

When
shown

this is fully
is

just at
distri-

the

moment

of

sparking there
is

no current, and the

bution of potential
later the

at

(h).

quarter of a period
(c)

energy

is all kinetic,

and the ordinates

It will
is

measure

the relative currents along the oscillator.

there are nodes at
current.
tial

be seen that
of

A and

B, and at

an antinode
is all

At the end

of half a period the

energy

poten-

and distributed as shown

node with

at (d),

showing C

to be the posi-

tion of a

A and B

antinodes of potential.

Again,

after another quarter period the distribution is kinetic, the

maximum

current being somewhat smaller, flowing in the

opposite direction, and so on.

During the
is

oscillations the

current at the two distant ends

always zero, and in the same

way the potential somewhere near the middle of the spark gap remains constant. Also when the current curve is as shown
at
(c),

the potential curve

is

a straight line through the axis of

potential curve

the oscillator, and in the

is

same way when the

is

as

shown

at (d), the current

of vibration

zero along the whole length.

of the
of

The period

depends solely on the product

self-induction

and the capacity.

With a given supply

is

energy, the amplitude of vibration

induction, and increased by capacity
1

diminished by

self-

in the circuit, but as in

explained
later.

How

the oscillator

is

charged

is

ELECTRIC VIBRATIONS.

:w

the case of the vibrating string the electric inertia gives

momentum, and

forces the

waves on. Kirchhoff was the

first

to realise this action in 1858, but its

complete significance

was not understood

till

Oliver Heaviside showed the help

self-induction gave to long-distance telephony.

also considers that self-induction inertia

Heaviside

may

actually represent the

and inductance represent momentum.

We may

thus compare the electric vibrations with the mechanical

vibrations.

Thus

ELECTRIC.
Permeability.
Capacity.
Resistance.

MECHANICAL.
Density.
1

Compliancy.
Frictions! resistance.
Velocity.

Current.

Charge.
Self-induction.

Amplitude Mass.

of displacement.

Inductance.
Potential.

Momentum.
Position.

The

characteristics of electric vibrations

:

may

be sum-

marised as follows
(1)

To produce a primary
it is

electric vibration

with spark

telegraphy,

usual to have opposite charges of electricity

separated by a gap of air or other dielectric.

(2)
is,
1

These charges must be

sufficiently close together, that

the gap

must be
is

sufficiently small for the strain

between

Compliancy power to U-turn

K.T.

to its original

the opposite of da.-tirity. mid is the absence of .-state after the removal of applied forces.

,34

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

the charges to become large enough to cause a disruptive

breakdown
(3) (4)
(5)

of the gap.

The

resistance of the circuit 1

must be
is

small.

Before the discharge the energy

potential.

During the discharge a spark passes across the gap, a current flows, and the energy changes to kinetic till the

moment
energy
(6)
still

the system
kinetic

is

completely discharged,
is

when

the

is all

and the current

is

maximum.

When

the system

completely discharged the current

persists, gradually getting less

in the opposite

way

till

and charging the system the energy is once more all potential.

The

strain is sufficient to again break

is

down the

air-gap and

the operation
(7)

repeated.
is

When

the system

again charged as at

first,

a com-

plete vibration has taken place.

The number

of

complete

vibrations per second

of a

is

called the frequency,

is

and the time

complete vibration

called the period.

(8)

The

total charges stored at the

end

of

each half swing

are less than at the previous half swing, and also the total

current during each half swing

is less,

but the ratio of the

amplitude

of

both the charge and the current of each swing

to the next is the

same.

This

is

called the

damping

of

the oscillations.
(9)

This damping in the case of a condenser circuit

is

due

to the resistance of the circuit

1

and consequent

loss of

energy

The
first

the

resistance of the oscillating circuit should be infinite before disruptive discharge, and as small as possible whilst tho

oscillations last,

becoming

infinite

again when the vibrations cease.

ELECTBIC VIBRATIONS.
through heating.
the system
is

H5

Above a

certain resistance in any circuit

first

completely discharged in the

place.

half swing,

and no true vibration takes

With the vibrators used

in wireless telegraphy the resistance of the circuit or circuits

can be made very small, and

aerial circuits

it

will be seen later

is

that in

most

of the

damping

due

to radiation of

energy.
(10)

The time taken

for a

complete vibration depends on

if

the capacity, self-induction and resistance; but,

the resis-

tance be sufficiently small to allow vibrations,

it

may usually

not be taken into account.

(11)

The

effect of capacity is to increase

;

the amplitude of

charge and current

but increases the
(

self-induction diminishes the amplitude

momentum.
varies as the square of the resistance,

'2)

The damping
be shown

directly as the capacity

It

and inversely as the self-induction.

however, that in the case of a
effect of

will

later,

circuit containing a
is

spark-gap the
the

adding capacity
but
also,

not

only

to

increase

amplitude,

by

decreasing the resistance of the spark-gap, to diminish

the damping.
(13)

On

the other

hand

it is

often difficult to increase the

self-induction without increasing the resistance

and damping.

Unfortunately the self-induction cannot be increased by

placing iron in the magnetic
in
field,

as the loss due to changes

magnetising iron produces considerable damping

It

may

be here noted that another method of producing

electric vibrations

due

to

Duddell adapted by

I'oiilsen

is

36

KADIO-TELEGKAPHY.
;

described elsewhere

also

several

methods due

to other

inventors are touched on.

In the case of electric vibrations produced by a spark,

Fig. 17 would represent the alterations of current with time,

say at the antinode of current

and

in the

same way

it

represents the alterations of potential at the antinodes of

the oscillator. Poulsen claims to produce vibrations that would be in a similar way shown by Fig. 16.
Oscillation Constant.

The square

root of the capacity of

a circuit multiplied by the square root of the self-induction

is

called the oscillation constant of the circuit.

For

different

circuits, as

long as the oscillation constants are the

same

the natural periods of vibration are the same, though one

circuit

may have

large inductance difficult to set in vibra-

tions of large amplitude, whilst the other

may have

large

capacity easily set vibrating but with small inertia to

keep

the vibrations from being

Stationary Waves.
string
is

damped out. The simplest form

of vibration of a
;

when

it is

fixed at

two ends and vibrates as a whole

if

with a quicker rate of impulse the string will vibrate as

central point were fixed
;

the

quicker

still it will

vibrate as three

strings having four nodes, and so on.

five

If

there are at least

nodes, at

string

any moment there will be two points on the both the same distance from the mean position and

both moving laterally in the same direction.

The distance

between these two points

is

called a
It will
is

wave length. In Fig. 20

be seen that the fundahalf a wave-length; for

AC

is

the wave-length.

mental vibration

of the string

KI.K'Tllir VIBEATION8.

37

the second harmonic the length of the string

is

a wave-

length
half,

for the third

harmonic

it

is

a wave-length and a
dis-

and so on.
all

The fundamental and harmonic

same

turbances
velocity.

travel along the string with the

initial

This velocity depends solely on the nature of the

of the

string, but the length

string

and the nature

of the

impulse given determine whether the

movement

takes the

form

of the

fundamental vibration, harmonics, or merely

disturbances without definite wave length.

Secondary Electric Vibrations.

If

a straight conducting

wire or a helix be brought into contact with a charged con-

ductor as has already been pointed out, the total charge

is dis-

tributed over the two in a period of time depending on the

self-induction

and capacity

of the wire or helix,

it

supposing

the resistance be so small that

account. This
is

need not be taken into

analogous to giving a definite steady lateral

pull to the stretched elastic string.

But suppose instead that

taking place, the electric

the wire or helix be brought into contact with an electric

circuit in

which

oscillations are

impulses given to the wire or helix will produce an electric

vibration in
it

provided the oscillation constants for the two

circuits bear a special relation to

one another, just as an

alternating impulse would set up vibrations in a string, pro-

vided the impulses were properly tuned with the natural

vibration of the string or one of
}'i'locitif

its

harmonics.
Wires.
It
is

of Mori ii;i
electric

Clniri/i-a

aloini

will

be

remembered an

charge on a conductor

always
of

associated with an electric field of force.

The energy

KADIO-TELEGBAPHY.
the
field
is

outside the conductor, and

where

this
is

field

touches another conducting surface a charge

formed.
spread

Thus on a long wire a charge

at

one end tends

to
;

over the whole conductor with the speed of light

but the

MA/V-VWWW

Fig.

2(5.

growing charge or electric current on the wire has the effect of tending to cause an electric field of the opposite sense to be
formed, which has to be continuously wiped out by the

oncoming energy,

so that

though the wire throughout

its

AAAAAAi
-I

l-^/WWW

H
Fig. 28.

Fig. 27.

entire length
light, the
is

commences

to get

charged at the speed of

time taken for the current to reach a

longer.

maximum
returning
it

much

When

the wire

is

a finite length and

surgings take place, the commencing current

from the

far

end

of the wire

may

get wiped out owing to

being out of phase with the advance current, and only the

ELWTIIH
growth
of

VIBRATION'S.

charge that
persists.

is in

oscillation

phase with the natural period of This gives an apparent velocity of

propagation which only depends

on

the oscillation

constant of

the circuit.

dary Vibrations.

There are three

Fix. 29.

methods

of

producing secondary
(1)

vibrations.
of

By actual contact
is

wires.

This method

shown

in Fig. 25.

is

the

primary

circuit with spark

gap G, condenser C, and helix

circuit

of wire I.

The secondary

is

a helix of wire

it

may, however, be a closed

ing a condenser.
as
(2)

circuit, as in Fig. 26, contain-

By

electric induction,
;

shown

in Figs.

27 and 28

and

(3)

by

electro-magnetic induction, as in Figs. 29

and

30.

Diagrams

of

each method are

given.

Figs. 25, 26, 29 and 30 represent

typical circuits generally

employed

to obtain

secondary vibrations in radio-telegraphy.

Mi'tltoil

of Examining A7/r/nV Vibrations

It
is

in

in/v.s.

a very simple matter to

30.

Fig. examine these vibrations by means of a If one pole of such a tube be connected Geissler tube. 1

to

different

points of

an

oscillating

circuit

it

will

glow

Geissler tube consists of a glass filled witli run-lied gas,

and has

two

im-tal terminals for

other through the gas.

an electric current to (low from one to the The current causes a nebulous glow of light.

40

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

according to the amplitude of potential change at that

point,

showing brightest

at

an antinode and dark at a

electric

node.
is

The

fundamental

vibration

generally

one quarter of a wave-length. Instead of there being two nodes, one at each end, as in the case of the
is

vibrating string, there

a node of potential at the point

where the secondary vibrating circuit is attached, and an antinode at the free end, and vice versa a node of current
at the free end,

and an antinode

of

current at the fixed point.

Also in

the case of the harmonics, the conditions

must be such that there

is

a node at one end

at the other. A
B

and an antinode

In Fig. 31 the straight

wire

AB

is

supposed to touch at

a vibrating circuit having the same

--^-

r-"^-c-

oscillation constant

the

maximum
maximum

amplitudes of potential are shown

by the
amplitudes
vibration
of current are

full lines,

and the

shown dotted
and second

for the principal

(c)

(a)

and the

first (b)

harmonics.

Professor Fleming, in the Cantor lectures delivered in

1905, gave the results of some experiments on this subject.

He

used a fixed length

of the

of helix,

and varied the capacity and

circuit

self-induction

primary vibrating

so

as to
first,

produce waves corresponding with the fundamental,

1

A similar set of

ciVcuit

curves would be obtained by touching an oscillatory with a helix of wire.

ELKCT1MC VTBRATIOXS.
second, and third harmonics of the helix.

41

This helix was 210

centimetres long and consisted of 5,470 turns of wire.

The

detecting Geissler tube contained rarefied neon gas, which

Professor Fleming found gave the most sensitive results.

The experiments with. each harmonic gave the fundamental wave of the helix as 871 centimetres. The rate of propagation of the disturbance along the helix

was calculated
of

from the measured

primary vibrating

self-induction

and capacity

the

circuit.

From

the experimentally found

wave-length of the fundamental and harmonics an almost

identical

velocity

of

about

1,200

miles a

second was

obtained.

The

positions of the antinodes of current can be studied

at different points

and inserting a short length of very thin wire, which would get heated more or less depending on whether it were inserted at a by breaking the helix
node or antinode.
It will

be noticed that when there

is

more than one node

the

in
of

an

electric vibrator, the current at

will

same moment

time

be flowing in opposite

directions in the parts of the wire separated

by the node.
it

In carrying out experiments with secondary vibrations

must be remembered that the capacity

of the

helix will

vary, depending on its relative position to other bodies, and under certain circumstances, though the oscillation constants be the same, there will be an interaction between the

two circuits causing compound waves in the two

circuits.

CHAPTER

III.

ELECTKO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
History.

Certain simple electric and magnetic phenomena

to the

were known
Oerstedt,
of

ancients, but

it

was not

till

1819 that
interaction

Copenhagen, between a magnet and an electric current.

currents acted on magnets in the same
plete electric circuit

demonstrated

the

Ampere
as
if

shortly

afterwards showed that conductors carrying steady electric

way

the com-

the electric circuits

repelling in the

were a magnet, and that, moreover, acted on each other, attracting and
as magnets.

same way

These and other

properties of electricity gave

ticians of the time,

ample

scope to the

mathema-

and a complete mathematical theory was constructed which took into account all the facts then
known. Just as
all

the perturbations of the heavenly bodies

were being worked out with precision without any consideration of any substance between the bodies, so also were
the motions and interactions of electrically-charged bodies,

magnets, and conductors conveying currents.

Faraday's conception that the

Then came
the bodies

medium between
and
stresses.

was the

seat of

the

strains

Using

this

hypothesis Faraday made many brilliant discoveries. The most useful and probably the most brilliant was that

Ku:<Tii<>-MA<;\KTir AVAVKS.

4:*

the alteration of the magnetic field through a circuit produced

an

electric current in that circuit,

thus laying the foundaof to-day.

tion for the electric light

1 1

and tramway industry

>till

remained

for

Faraday's conceptions to be formulated

till

in

mathematical shape, and this was not done

his treatise

1873,

when Clerk Maxwell published

and Magnetism."

on

"
Electricity

This work, which the author modestly reof

garded as being principally for the assistance

standing Faraday's
discoveries
these.
;

underof

mode

of

thought, was

full

new

but we are chiefly concerned with only one of

Clerk Maxwell formulated the hypothesis that the

strains
in

electro-magnetic
definite

the

medium

travelled

at

speed, depending on the permeability

and

specific

inductive capacity of the

in air this speed

medium. He showed,

further, that

was the same as that

of light,

which led

him

to

suppose that light was an electro-magnetic

wave

probably due to electric vibrations taking place over the

surfaces of masses of molecular dimensions.

That

electric

vibrations could be produced in electric circuits had been

demonstrated by Feddersen in 1857, and the complete

governing the conditions

l;i\vs

under which these vibrations

would occur were worked out by Lord Kelvin in 1853. At the same time it seemed hopeless to expect any experimental data to strengthen Maxwell's hypothesis, but within
twenty-five years from the publication of Maxwell's treatise

Heinrich Hertz, a

German

professor, gave to the world a

complete demonstration of electro-magnetic waves.

\\as

Hertz

not content to produce these waves

he measured their

44

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.

length and their frequency.

of parabolic mirrors,

He

reflected

them by means

change

of

and he showed that just as there is a direction in the wave front of light when it

penetrates a

new

material, so also are the electro-magnetic

waves refracted when they pass from

another.

one substance

to

Waves.

In the case of a string vibrating, when fresh

it,

impulses are not given to

tions
loss
its

the amplitude of the oscilla-

becomes

less

and

less.

This damping

is

partly due to

by

friction,

but

it is

also

due

to the string
air.

imparting

vibrational energy to the surrounding

laterally

As the string

moves

outwards from

its

duces a compression of the air

normal position it proin front, and this state of

air to the

compression
next.
air.

is

imparted from one molecule of

Behind the moving string there is a rarefaction of When the string moves in the opposite direction the
;

conditions are reversed

there

is

rarefaction \vhere

pre-

viously was compression and

vice versa.

There

is

thus an

alternate state of compression and rarefaction of theair whilst

the vibrations

last.

The energy

of the vibrating string is

being radiated as waves of compression and rarefaction of

air
is

into space.

In certain special cases,

if

the

string

neither vibrating too quickly nor too slowly, a

membrane
same

of

the ear

is

set

in vibration,

and we have the sensation

the

called sound.

Any

sensitive

membrane having

natural period of vibration as the oscillating string, and

placed so as to be acted on by the waves of alternately com-

pressed and rarefied

air, will also

be set in motion.

AVAVKS.

45

1'cloriti/

ni'

Propagation
of

Frequency and Wave-Length.

The

velocity

propagation of a wave depends on the

greater density
is

medium through which the wave is moving. The the elasticity of the medium and the smaller the
l

the greater the velocity.

The frequency

of the
is

wave
in the

the

number
state,

of times per

second that the

in the

medium

same

and changing

same way per second.

In the

case of a vibrating string consider the air immediately next

the string where

the string
to

it is

furthest extended (see Fig. 32).

As

moves from
air
is

B
/
/ / \
\

the

being

compressed at A. Again, as the string moves from

'

to

the air at

A
till

is
it

becoming rarefied
reaches
pression
It will

,'

B,

when comagain.

begins

be seen that the air at

of state in the

goes through a complete

string

change

same time as the

makes a

complete vibration, and in general the period and frequency

of a

wave are always the same as that

of the vibration

causing the wave.

compression travels outwards from the string, and at the beginning of a second vibration the air along a
this

Now

nearly spherical surface in space at

to
1

will

be just starting

be compressed from the

Elasticity is the

first

vibration,

and again

at the

si/o nfter the

power a body has to resume removal of applied forces.

its

original shape

and

46

RADIO-TELEGKAPHY.

beginning of a third vibration a disturbance will have

started at D.

The distance

AC

is

equal to

C D, and

is

called the wave-length.

It will

be seen that the quicker

the speed of propagation the longer will be the wave-length,

but the greater the frequency of the vibration, that

is,

the

shorter the period of one vibration the shorter will the wave-

length become.

It is

important to realise that the

It is

air does

not travel from

to C.

only the density of the air

that periodically changes.

Amplitude of Wave Disturbances.

In the special case we

of the disturbance is

have been considering the amplitude

the greatest difference caused in the density of the air from

its

normal

state.

After several vibrations,

when

the string
;

is at

A
,

position, the air is densest at A,

C and

rarest at

A'

etc., and these are points where the disturbance has the greatest amplitude. As the string vibrates back to
,

C'

D'

the positions of greatest amplitude shift from

to A,

to C,

and

C' to A'

and the points A, C and

;

become

posi-

tions of greatest rarefaction

that

is,

as the string vibrates

and B, the initial distance A B depends on force exerted and the properties of the string, whilst periodical disturbances take place between A and C, C and
between
D,
etc.

Suppose that the string is not permanently kept in motion and the vibrations are damped, the amplitude of the swing

and the distance

the wave at

AB

becomes gradually
amplitude

less

the energy of

with

its

will also
;

be less at each

vibration, both dying away together

but the wave-length,

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
depending only on the nature mission, remains the same.
of

-47

the

medium

of

trans-

The energy
directions.
less

of the vibration extends out in space in all of the disturbance is

At C the amplitude

much

than at A, and at a short distance the amplitude of

disburbance becomes greatly diminished.

The V Uniting Receiver.

period of
oscillation

A body having

the same natural

set

as the vibrating

string will be

in vibration
elasticity

It is by the wave. nor the mass of the receiver be the same as the

not necessary that the

vibrator, but the quotient of these

must be a constant. same as that

of

The frequency
the string
but,
will
if
;

of vibration will be the

the amplitude of vibration will be small at

first,

the friction of the receiver be small, the amplitude

gradually increase, as long as the energy received from

is

each succeeding wave

greater than the loss in the receiver

during the period of the preceding wave.

Electro-magnetic
IfV//v.s-.

Under

certain conditions,

when

electric oscillations take place in wires, a part of the

energy

of the oscillation is radiated into space as electro-magnetic

waves

of definite

frequency and length depending on the

oscillation

constant of the vibrator.

From

the theory of

Maxwell and the experiments

propagation of the wave
is

of Hertz, the velocity of the

about 186,000 miles a second.

These waves can be detected by means of a vibrating circuit placed in the path of the waves having the

same

oscillation constant as the primary vibrator. To understand the elementary properties of these wave.- ii

48

EADIO-TELEGEAl'l IV.
best to briefly describe a few of Hertz's experi-

will be

ments.

Hertz s Experiments.
electric vibrator

Hertz's apparatus consisted of an

coil

charged by means of an induction

and

a resonator having the same oscillation constant as the

Fig. 33.

vibrator.

Various modifications of vibrator and resonator

;

were used
Fig. 33.

typical

form

of

vibrator

is

shown

in

The vibrator always consisted

of

two straight conductors

-0with small capacities at the extreme ends, the arms being

separated by an air-gap.

The resonator consisted

of

loop of wire, and of such a length and shape that the

natural period of electric vibrations in

the vibrator, and
air-gap.
it

it

was the same as

was broken

at

one point by a minute

This loop of wire was placed in a central position

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
some distance from the
oscillator with

49

no walls near by,

otherwise the reflection from the walls would interfere.

!'..!

rime >it I.

Let the resonator be placed as shown in

Fig. 34, with the air gap at the highest vertical position, as

shown

at C.

When

sparks take place at A, there

is

no

spark at the

resonator.
;

round

in its

own plane
till

Turn the resonator gradually the resonator will become more and

more responsive
revolution

it

has

been turned a quarter of a

;

when

at D, the

sparking at the resonator

gap

is

maximum, becomis
till

ing less as the resonator

turned on,
is

at

E
till

there
Fig. 35.

no response, the sparks

the position

again increasing

is

reached, where the

results are similar to position D.

l\.i

}>f

mm ut

II.

Starting as in experiment

I.

with the
it

resonator in position
its

or F, and gradually rotate

about

horizontal axis, sparking in the resonator will gradually

less

become

and

less, till in

the position

shown

in Fig.

:}.">

there will be no sparking.

]'.'

lriiiieiit

III.
in

Starting
Fig. 85,

with

the

resonator
it

in

the

position

shown

and gradually rotate

in its

own

plane, there will be

'/'nix's
</'

no sparking
L'orci'.

Cloxftl

i'.l'cti-'ii-

at any position. The results of

tlie-r

experiments are what would be expected from A line of force from a linear vibrator theory.
R.T.

Maxwell's

when
B

fully

50

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

charged

may

be shown roughly as in Fig. 36.

If

spark

takes place.

the resistance be sufficiently high, the time

of discharge is
field to

prolonged sufficiently for the whole electric

shrink back, the whole of the energy being dissipated

in the vibrator, but with a lower resistance, the discharge

takes place quicker.

lateral pressure

As the shortest tubes vanish, the

is

on the remainder

diminished, and the

diminution

of pressure is greatest

near the vibrator.

of pressure
first

This

diminution
inside

from the
flattening
of

causes

and then

squeezing in

the

tubes as they are rapidly shrink-

ing inwards,

At a certain stage

the pressure becomes sufficiently

reduced for the sides to meet and

two tubes are formed, one shrinking into the vibrator whilst the
closed tube
is

radiated into space.

The shrinkage and breaking up

of a

tube are shown in successive positions

It will

1, 2, 3, 4,

5 in

the figure.

be remembered that a tube of force

merely depicts the

In most

electric intensity or the size

and direction

of the electric force.

of the

diagrams in this book only the lines

It will

of

force are shown.

be remembered
its size.

a line depicts the

of

direction of the force

force only are

and not
in

In general, lines

shown

diagrams

of the electric field, the

nearness of the lines to each other representing the strength

BLECTBO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
of the field.

51

In some cases
it

it

is

however best
idea
of

to use the

word tube, as
space.

gives a

better

the field filling

Travelling along a closed tube the electric force

direction all round in a similar

is

in

one

way

as in the case of a
all

smoke ring
tending to

there

is

the same force

the

way round
along the

make

the
is
is

smoke

travel in a ring, but in the

;

smoke ring there

electric

a motion of the smoke

tube there
is

perfect analogy

simple and more found in a closed magnetic tube. A

is

no motion.

conductor carrying a current

closed tubes of magnetic force.
to set itself

always surrounded by
small magnet will tend

longitudinally along the lines of magnetic force,

but there
along
the

will

be no tendency for the magnet to move

;

lines

also

a small

iron wire

placed

along

the tube will become magnetised.

electrified

In the same way an

longitudinally along

body

will

tend to set

itself

the lines of electric force, and a conductor placed in the

field will

become oppositely
is

electrified at the

two ends.

There

this

remarkable difference between the closed

magnetic and electric tubes. When the magnetic field is due to a steady electric current it is stationary but it has
;

been found impossible^ produce a steady magnetic current,

so that closed electric tubes are never found at rest.

Under

ordinary conditions, \\hen

an

electric current ceases, the

magnetic

field

shrinks back to nothing.

In the same way,

when magnetic induction

to

ceases, the electric field shrinks

\\heii

nothing, and

it is

only

there are violent surgings

52

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
electricity that

of

closed magnetic

and

electric

tubes are

radiated into space.

Representation of Electro-magnetic

Wave

striking a

Hertz

Resonator.
depict an

An

attempt

is

made
of

in Fig.

electric field striking a

37 roughly to Hertz resonator. The

arrow

shows the direction

motion, the velocity being

lines of

186,000 miles a second.

closer together at

The

force

are

shown

and

C, because these

are

positions

Fig. 37.

where the

field is strongest.

The

directional character

is in-

dicated by arrows, and at 0, halfway between

direction of the field changes sign,
i.e. its

and

C, the

direction.

The
it

tube
at E.

is

shown

striking the conductor at

is

F and
is

leaving

As a conductor

the seat of dissipation of energy and

does not support electric strains, the pressure

lessened in
field.

the neighbourhood of the resonator, distorting the

tube of force terminating or leaving a conductor constitutes

a charge of electricity.
at

As shown, the

field is

most intense
is
is

and F,

so the electricity

on the resonator

densest at

these points, positive at

where the

force

from the

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
resonator and negative at F.

53

As the

field

travels,

the

position of densest positive charge travels in the direction

of the

arrow, the moving charge constituting an electric

current.

The

distortion of the field, causing

it

to travel

slower at the surface of the conductor, depends on

capacity and inductance of the resonator circuit.
these constants are such that the
travels

the

Suppose

maximum
If

positive charge

from Gi

to Ga, following the arrow, in the

same time

that the field travels from

to C.

the travelling field

were now suddenly to cease, there would he a positive

charge at Ga and a negative charge at Gi, so a current

would flow from Ga

to GI.

If

the wave, however, persisted

and remained nearly the same strength, it would also have caused an additional current to flow from Ga to Gi, so that
the total current might he nearly double that during the
first

half wave.

When
for a

the charges are greatest at Gi and

Ga the energy is become sufficient

potential,

and the difference

It

may

soon

spark to pass.

was

this spark

that enabled Hertz to study these waves.

If,

however, the moving charge travelled from Gi to

during the half period, secondary disturbances would be set

up; the disturbance due

to

to the first halt \\ave

still

tending

send a current

from F

to Go, whilst the

on-coming wave

would be tending to send one from Ga to F. The vibrations would no longer be syn tonic, and the difference of potential
would probably not become sufficiently large for a spark
]>a
.-.-;.

to
is

to

With the gap flow from G a to

at

G3

the tendency of the currents

II in opposite

directions around the

54

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
which now may be considered as two resonators withgap.
It
is

loop,

out any tendency to spark across the

also

obvious that no electric strains can be set up across the gap

when the plane

of the resonator is either turned through a round the axis GI K, wherever the gap may be. right angle The Magnetic Field. Associated with the electric field is

the magnetic

field.

In Fig.

37 the absence of lines

It is greatest at 0,

denotes the strength of the

field.

and

Fig. 38.

nothing at

and

C. 1

The

direction

is

at right angles to

the paper, the lines of magnetic force being closed circles

round the

oscillator.

A Method

of Depicting the Electric and Magnetic Fields.

Perhaps the simplest way to picture the fields is by co-ordinates. In Fig. 38, represents a Hertz oscillator.

Let

be any point in space some considerable distance

from H.
tion of

Draw

a line

in space representing the direc-

motion

of the

wave.
1

Draw
p.

Y
5.5.

parallel to the axis

See footnote,

ELECTRO-MAGXETIC WAVES.
of the oscillator
field

55

and perpendicular

to

X.

The

electric

at

points along

will

be greatest in the plane

it.

X
Draw

Y, and nothing in the plane at right angles to

Z perpendicular

to the plane

XY
Z.
If

the magnetic

force will be greatest in the plane

X represents

distance in space the intensity of the field at any instant at

points along

X may
D.

be represented by
of the

a curve

AB C

The distance
is

curve from

the intensity of the

field at that point.

In the same way the

strength of the magnetic field

depicted by the curve

may
1

be

EFG

K.

At any point
ordinate

M along X the strength

by the by
the magnetic
field

of the electric field is represented

M B, and the ordinate M F.

Fig.

Representation of a Train of Waves.

88 represented the

intensity, of

the field of electric force along an axis.

train of waves is roughly depicted in

( Fig. 3 J.

The

lines are the positions of

maximum
C C

field.

From B

the field shrinks back into the oscillator;

D E
E
is

aiv points of

no

field at

the instant of time taken.

!!<> ("Electrician," September L'O, 1007), According to O. Fig. 3S, would represent the electric anl magnetic fields in a conductor only when a wave has reached a quarter of a wave length from the n.-cillator the electric and magnetic fields are in phase and so continue
<

'.

as the

wave

travels out into

56

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
The rapidly thinning
weakening
of the lines
it

the wave-length.

shows
travels

to a small degree the

of the field as

into space.

The Medium through which Electro-magnetic Waves are Propagated.

In the case of the vibrating string the energy

is
it,

transferred from one molecule of the string to those next

and with the consequent wave radiated

of

out, the transference

energy

is

from one molecule

to the next, of gas, liquid or

solid, as

the case

may

be.

Electric transference of energy

always takes place through the

stellar space

medium, which both

fills

inter-

and the space between the molecules

This

of matter,

solid, liquid or gaseous.

medium is called aether, and it is

is

the

medium

in

which everything

immersed.

The

electric

and magnetic
energy
it is

fields are

the strains in the aether.

When

the

of the field is potential the strains are electric,

when

kinetic the strains are magnetic.

is

The transference of this

elasticity

and density of the aether, the speed being less when the aether is bound up with
energy
at a speed

depending on the

liquid or solid dielectric.

is

about 186,000 miles a second.

is

The speed in air or interstellar space The action of a conducting

Suppose the arms
varying source of
is

wire

toguidethefieldasawater pipe guides the flow of water.

Comparative Duration of Vibrations.

of a

Hertz vibrator be connected

to a

electricity

so arranged that the vibrator

fully

charged

and discharged by sparks two hundred times a second. Consider what takes place during each period. To com-

mence

with, the two

arms
is

of the vibrator are at the

same

potential,

and there

no charge.

The arms

are

now

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
continuously charged
till

57

at
is

one four-hundredth

of a

second

the difference of potential

just sufficient to cause a break-

During the time the vibrator was being charged tubes of force were being generated, stretching from the positive to the negative

down

of the air

between the knobs.

arm.

This

action

started

difference of potential,

immediately there was any and continued as the difference of

of these tubes

potential increased.

Some

would take short

paths, but others stretched out far into space.

of force travels at the rate of

As the

field

186,000 miles a second in the

be just commencing

5^j of a second, a 465 miles away. At

field of force will

this

moment

the resistance of the air-

gap breaks down and a spark takes place. Suppose the natural period of oscillation of the Hertz vibrator to be
one million a second, in ^5^000
vibrator will be at the
of a

second the whole

same

potential,

and immediately
During

afterwards there will be a reversal of potential.

this 2^3\5(5o of a second the field of force will be shrinking,

and the tubes within the distance

have vanished.

of nearly a mile will

of

With the

reversal

potential a fresh

electric field in the opposite direction is

produced, repelling
to

the former field into space.

Suppose the damping

be

such that the amplitude of

at the second
first

the current in the vibrator

swing

is

74 per cent, of the amplitude at the

swing

then, after eight half vibrations, the current

amplitude

will

be only one per cent, of that at the

lirst

swing

so that after o-j^iro of a second the vibrations are

practically over,

and the time during which no vibrations

58

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

are taking place the disturbance.

over 600 times

of

more than the time

of

The number

charges

named would

be

of the order usually

given to an electric oscillator.

With

Hertz's oscillator the damping was probably of about this

order, but the natural frequency of the vibrator

was about
is

500 times greater, so that the time during which there

no

wave being emitted

of the disturbance.

is

300,000 times as long as the duration

Wave-Length of Light compared with that of Hertz, and the Waves used in Practical Radio -Telegraphy. It would take
us too far from the subject to fully describe Hertz's experi-

ments on the
all

reflection

and refraction

of his

waves, and

how

experiments since have tended to confirm Clerk Maxwell's

original view that light, radiant heat,

and

actinic or photo-

graphic rays are

due

to

electric

vibrations.

The wave-

lengths of light visible to the

human

eye vary from between

about -joooo

t TOUOO f a millimetre, whilst actinic rays have been measured as small as joioo' an(^ radiant heat

The waves produced waves as large as of a millimetre. by Hertz were about sixty centimetres long, but successive experimenters have succeeded in producing shorter and
shorter waves by electric

means

till

Lampa

has obtained

waves four millimetres in length. These are seventy times as long as the longest heat waves experimented with, but
the properties of the two are most closely allied.

In the

next chapter we will consider the form of modified Hertz

wave used

in practical radio-telegraphy,
of

which
to

is

generally

made

to

have a length

from about 100

3000 metres.

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES.
The Tiro Forms of
essentially different
Klrrtrir
<

59

)*<-iU<itor.

There are two

forms of

electric oscillator.

The

first,

as

used by Feddersen, consisted of a Leyden jar and In this case practically the whole of the spark-gap.
field
is

electric
of the

concentrated between

the

two coatings

Leyden
charged

jar.
is

The

field travelling

into space as the

field
is

jar

is

very minute, and the whole of the

to

between the coatings shrinks

nothing as the jar

The energy, not absorbed in heating the airdischarged. gap, causes a reversal of charge and electric field, which in
this case

may
1

be nearly as great as the

oscillator,

first.

V. Bjerknes,

experimenting with such an

of

found the decrement

damping

to

be O'Ol due to a spark-gap of one millimetre,

or the amplitude of each vibration would be 99 per cent, of

the previous one.

form form
there

of

oscillator

The damping due to other causes in this can be made negligible. The second
and
it

of oscillator is that of Hertz,

is

will

be seen that

no such concentration

of electric field.
is

Some

of

the field spreads out far into space, and

consequently

radiated as electro-magnetic waves into space as previously

explained.
oscillator,

V. Bjerknes measured the

damping
of

of a

Hertz

which had a wave length

to radiation

443 centimetres.

The damping due

one swing
is,
1

to the last

was 0'26, or the amplitude of before it was about 77 per cent. that
is

the energy radiated at each vibration

about 22 per cent.

amplitude of each

The logarithm

to the base c of the ratio of the

is

half swing to the next

dumping.
the

a constant, and is called the decrement of The decrement m ultiplird by twice the frequency is called
factor.

damping

CHAPTER

IV.

MODIFIED HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

The way for practical wireless telegraphy was numerous inventors. Munk discovered in 1835 prepared by and E. Branly, of Paris, rediscovered, 1 in 1890, that the
History.
state of metallic filings

was changed when placed in a

resonating circuit in the vicinity of a vibrating electric

current.

Lodge improved Branly's instrument and used

it

for receiving signals over a distance of

150 yards in 1894,

and called the

filings

tube a coherer, as the filings cohere

together, and become a conductor under the influence of the Hertz waves. Popoff, of Cronstadt, used the coherer
in 1895,
first

for

registering

electric

discharges in

the

atmosphere and

later for detecting signals, obtaining

good

results over a distance of

three miles.

Popoff,

in these

experiments,

made one most important improvement

in

that his resonator consisted of a wire carried high

up into

the air.
for the

It

remained
Post

for Marconi, in 1896, experimenting

Office,

British

then under the engineering

guidance of Sir William Preece, to discover that waves

could be detected over longer distances by prolonging one

arm

of

the

oscillating circuit both

1

at the

sending and

See

p. 163.

HEETZ WAVES USED IN IUPIO-TELEGRAPHY.

receiving station high into the
air.

61

This wire

is

now

called

the aerial or antenna. the other

Tin'

Marconi, at the same time, earthed

arm

of the oscillator.
<

Marconi A

rial.

It will

be seen Marconi introduced

:

two important modifications into the Hertz oscillator

(1)
(2)

Using the earth as one arm

Carrying the other

of the oscillator.

arm high
to

into the air.

By

this

means the

distance of signalling was

increased

from one or two miles

one hundred miles.

Marconi

further found that by doubling the height of the aerial the

distance of signalling was increased four-fold, or that the

distance of effective signalling, other conditions being kept the same, was proportional to the square
of the aerial.
is

of the height

George W. Pierce has shown that the law

the

modified according to

method

of

bringing

the

receiving circuit into tune.

if

With

similar sending circuits,

to

the receiving circuit

is

brought

resonance by capacity
is

placed as a shunt to the detector, the current received

approximately proportional to the square of the height of

the receiving antenna
;

but when resonance

is

obtained by

added inductance
current
is

in series with the detector, the received

proportional to the height of the antenna.

It is

K<irtltin<i (lie Aerial.

now

generally allowed that

it

is

a difficult problem not to earth one

arm

of a

commercial

radio-telegraph oscillator, though with the original Hertz

arrangement there was no such

difficulty.

Marconi and

'most of the early pioneers of wireless telegraphy believed

it

essential to obtain a good metallic

and conducting earth,

62

RADIO-TELEGEAPIIY.

and they used the same means as employed in ordinary

telegraphy: they connected the aerial to copper conductors
buried in the earth.
Sir Oliver Lodge,

on the other hand,

thought

that

the

action

of

the

earth

was

altogether

prejudicial,

and that the whole

oscillator should be

removed

as far as possible

from the earth.

this idea,

The Lodge-Muirhead
it

Syndicate, working on

found

impracticable to
the earth,
so

raise the oscillator out of the influence of

they placed the lower

arm

of their oscillator

on the ground,

and

later a short distance

it.

above the ground, and insulated

that
for

from

It

is

now

generally admitted
is

land

stations this

arrangement

usually

much
the

better than the

conductive earth of Marconi, for reasons to be hereafter

mentioned

this

insulated

arm and

earth
to
offer

together
a

form a condenser, which can be made

very

small resistance to the rapidly alternating currents used in

radio-telegraphy.

Theory

of

Earthed

Hertzian

Waves.

The generally
first

accepted theory of the action that takes place in wireless

telegraphy can be most

readily

followed

by

sup-

posing the earth to be infinitely conducting.

it

Considering
is

as one

arm

of

an

oscillator,

its

capacity

immensely

greater than the other arm.

The

potential of the earth will thus remain zero during

the charge of the oscillator.

The

field

of

force during the

charge, between the aerial and the earth, will be exactly the

same

as

if

it

were twice the height and the earth were not

lines of force

there, and the

meet the earth

at right angles.

HERTZ WAVKS USED IX RAIHO-TELEGRA.PHY.

<>:i

When
field

a spark takes place there

is

the shrinkage of the

and diminution

of lateral pressure,
off of

which causes

first

a depression and then a breaking

the tubes, as in the

is

case of the Hertz oscillator, but there

difference
:

this

important

with the Hertz oscillator the tubes of force were

closed on themselves, whereas in this case they have

two
tube

ends on the conducting plane.

Consider
;

a unit

travelling off with the velocity of light

the two ends on

the conducting surface will be unit charges, one positive

and the other negative.

there will be no penetration.

Supposing perfect conductivity The moving charges will each

constitute an electric current; thus taking

any point on

the earth there will be a current flowing in the direction

the waves are being propagated, alternately positive and
negative, with

a periodicity the

same

as the propagated

wave; whilst at right angles to the direction of motion

in the plane of the conducting sheet there will be

no current.

In Fig. 40 are shown two lines of force as radiated from a

Marconi aerial separated

t i-ii

by half a wave-length.

The
an

veiling charges along the earth's surface constitute

64

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
current.

electric

The time taken

is

for

the
;

field to travel

through the dielectric

the same

as light

along the con-

ductor the speed depends on the inertia and capacity of the

earth, so that consequently there
is

a distortion of the field

is less

near the earth.

at

The

intensity of the field

at

than

for

two reasons, one due

of the field

to general dispersion
oscillator,

and

radial
loss

growth

from the

and secondly

due

to the resistance of the earth's surface.

Pierces Experiments.
aerial

That an earthed
to a

behaved in a similar manner

duplicated aerial was proved by Pierce

in 1905.

"With a given sending station

he made arrangements in the receiving station so that the aerial could be

switched either to a metallic earth, or to
a horizontal wire placed three feet above

the

earth.

This

is

shown

in Fig. 41.

The

aerial

is

connected through inductance L, a measurS,

ing instrument B, through the switch

earth

either

to

the

E
J.

or the horizontal wire

H, containing the inductreceived

current, the

ance

To obtain the maximum

horizontal circuit had to be similar to the aerial circuit.

Moreover,

if

instead

of

the inductance

J,

the wire was

extended, the best length was a quarter of the wave length

of the radiated

waves.
Dr. Erskine Murraj7

Dr. ErsJdne Murray's Hypothesis.

has lately brought forward the hypothesis that the waves as they spread out from the oscillator impinge on the rarefied

HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

upper strata
of the

65

atmosphere, and thus eventually consist of tubes of force travelling between two conducting surfaces,

one being the earth and the other the rarefied upper strata
of air,

which has been shown by Professor

J. J.

Thomson

to

be an almost perfect conductor.

interest, but as the air

The hypothesis is of only becomes gradually more and

more
it

upper conducting strata is reached, would appear probable that considerable energy would
It

rarefied before the

be dissipated in partially conducting strata.

might here

be pointed out that the rarefied upper strata of air being a

good conductor would effectually prevent the possibility of

signalling to Mars, which
will
it is

so often popularly supposed

field of science.

be the next triumph in this

I-'ree

Hertzian Wares.

It
is

has been believed by a few that

the action of the earth

prejudicial only, causing losses

due

to currents
if

upon

its

surface,

and that

if

possible

it

would

be best

the whole oscillating system could be elevated high

above the earth so that free Hertzian waves would be used.

It is difficult to

prove

if

this be correct.

Most of the

earliest

experiments over not more than a few hundred yards were

carried out with free Hertzian waves,

and longer distances

were not traversed

till

the earthed waves were employed.

But

at the
free

The

same time another important change was made. Hertzian wave employed had a wave length of only
AVith the earthed system waves at first of the

a few metres.

order of about 100 metres, and

now

for long distances

waves

as long as 8,000 metres, are used.

dielectric.
K.T.

The

air is not a perfect

As in the case

of light,

it is

only the long red rays

66

KADIO-TELEGBAPIIY.
it

that can pierce a fog, so in wireless telegraphy

is

found

that for long distances, or for signalling over obstructions,

it

is

necessary to employ a radiator emitting long waves.

to the increased

The whole advantage may be due

length, but as
it

wave

would be necessary

to elevate the radiator

is

high above the ground to obtain free waves, this

not

Fig. 42.

Fig. 43.

Fig. 44.

practicable.

Dr. Muirhead has lately found that to obtain

best syntony the aerial should be

removed from the earth

further, the radiation
is

a certain fixed distance reduced.

aerial

removing

it

Moreover, Lodge

now

considers that earthing the

may

be best for long distance signalling for untuned

stations,

where

interference

is

of

no

importance.

Earthed Waves with Surface not perfectly Conducting.

It

has been pointed

out that in the generally accepted theory

of wireless telegraphy the electric field

consists
in charges

of

tubes of force terminating

on a conducting surface; if the surface be a perfect conductor, the field and charges expand from the radiator with the velocity of light, and these moving charges
are electric currents.

However, the earth

is

is

not a perfect

conductor, so that there

penetration and consequent dissi-

pation of energy as heat, accompanied by a lag of the current

HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

behind the
field.

67

Associated with this current are

its electric

and magnetic

fields.

The combined

electric field is there-

fore rather tilted

forward from the earth's surface, as was

shown

in Fig. 40.

The Radiated Magnetic Waves.

the

As with the Hertz waves,

round
the
current.

magnetic

field

does

not

circle

Looking at a single moving tube of electric force T, in

Fig. 46.

plan, a
circle

line of
it

magnetic force

may

be represented by a

round

as in Fig. 42.
;

Next consider two adjacent

close

tubes (Fig. 43)

lines

when

these are quite

together the

between them being in opposite directions cancel,

and the magnetic field becomes a series of closed curves round the two tubes (Fig. 44). Next take a circle of tubes,
all

moving away from the centre

:

(in

this case the axis

of the transmitter)

it

will be seen the curves of Fig.

44

become two

circles of

magnetic force (Fig. 45), embracing

r9

68

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Then suppose a second
fields

the circle of tubes of electric force.

circle of tubes (Fig. 46)

spreading out close behind, the

between cancel each other.

With

different strength of field,

however, as in the case of a radiated wave, the two circles

C C 2 do not
(Fig. 47)

cancel,

and we get

finally a series of circles

of

which represent the differences

magnetic

field

due

to circles of electric tubes following

It will

each other and of

slightly different strength.

thus be seen that, at a

Fig. 47.

given time and place, the current

tions along the conducting surface

is

radiating in

all direc-

from a

fixed point, viz.,

the position of the radiator

so that the lines of magnetic

force due to the currents in the conducting surface, as well

as those of the travelling

radiator.

field,

will be circles

round the

Obstructions, Inequalities,
If

and Curvature of the Earth. a stone be thrown into a smooth pond the ripples will be
all directions,

seen to spread out in

and

if

a small obstruc-

tion be placed in their path, just behind the obstruction

,

there will be smooth water, but a

ripples will

little

way

further on the
if

curve round and progress

apparently as

HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

nothing had obstructed them.
notice this effect with light, but
It is
it

69

extremely

difficult to

is

very noticeable with

first to

the waves we are considering.

Jackson was the

observe

how

signals vanished when high land intervened

between two ships, one ship being close under the land.

Suppose a perpendicular conducting body, such as a

be in the path of the waves, the
field,

tree,

striking this con-

ducting body, causes a current to flow on the side of the

tree facing the radiator, with consequent loss of energy.

There

will be a certain

amount

of radiation possibly

from

the tree back towards the radiator, and a consequent distortion of the field.
tree,

This distortion
if

is

only quite close to the

and the wave continues as

slightly

nothing had happened,

but with

diminished energy.

Next consider a

gradual slope of conducting material.

The whole

of the

energy striking the slope

will

be given up to the conductor.

Some

of this

energy

will

be dissipated and the rest will be

returned, and the electric field due to the current on the

surface of the earth will be at right angles to the slope,
so that

there

is

a tendency for the electric field of the

moving wave to be always at right angles to the earth's surface. The form of the waves over hilly and wooded
country must be extremely complicated, and
considerably more energy
it

requires
to

at the transmitting station

signal over land than over sea, the extra

on the character

of the soil, the

amount

of forest land,

amount depending and

the hilliness of the country.

It is

usually stated that under

ordinary conditions the amount of power required to signal

70

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

over land

from three
it

to ten times that over sea,

but in

certain cases

may
is

be

much more.

It is

evident that the

worst condition

when

a mountain rises close to either the

sending or receiving station and between them. Probably in such a case the hill acts as a mirror, almost completely
reflecting the waves.

The curvature

of the earth will also

it

cause loss in the same

way

as a change of slope, but

has

I
I,
1,000

2,000

3,000 4,000

5;000

6,000

7,000
feet.

Distance between Transmitter and Receiver in

Fig. 48.

been pointed out that

if

it is

possible to signal half (180)

round the globe,

after that there will be conflux of

energy

towards a point immediately

station.

opposite the

transmitting

Experiments on

the Screening Action of Obstructions.

Very careful experiments were carried out by Messrs. Duddell and Taylor in Bushey Park, 1904, for the Postal
,Telegraph Department, at the instance of the engineer-inin the chief, Mr. J. Gavey, and later in the Irish Channel,

HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

vicinity of the Hill of

71

Howth.

In the Bushey Park experifeet

ments the receiver

aerial

aerial
;

was 56

and the transmitter

42

feet

high

the wave length at both stations was

400

feet,

the

spark gap 7'08 mm., and the current in

the transmitting wire varied from 0'5 to 0*56 amperes.

The current

in

the

receiving wire

was measured by a
of the

Ducldell thermo-galvanometer, the position of the receiver

was kept

fixed,

and the transmitter was moved. One

is

curves giving results obtained

reproduced in Fig. 48,

for different

which shows the product of current and distance

distances
trees is

from

the

transmitter.

The

position

of

the
is

depicted.

The screening
further

action of the

trees

very marked, as well as the rapid improvement as the

receiver
these.

was

moved

out

of

the

influence

of

According

to tests carried out

by F. Braun, neighbouring

obstacles always have a screening action even

are behind the radiator and acting as a reflector.

gives an easy

when they F. Braun

method

of

demonstrating this fact for a closed

oscillating circuit acting

on another similar

circuit.

It is

found that a sheet of

secondary
a
flat

tinfoil will diminish the action on a

if

coil

equally well
coil or

it

be placed either behind

primary

between the primary and secondary

coils.

Trees as Aerials.

Major

S.

0. Squier, of

the United

States Signal Corps, has used trees as receiving aerials, and

has received messages over a distance of thirty-two miles.

The

roots formed a good earth,

and he made connection

to

72

KADIO-TELEGKAPHY.
The
detector

the tree by driving in nails.

portion of the tree.

was a shunt

to a

Dissipation of Energy due to Light.

Geitel,

Professors Elster and

and independently Professor Eighi, found that bodies with high potential charges of negative electricity became
de-electrified

under the influence

of light.

Marconi, in 1902,

put

it

down

as probably due to this cause that he could not

receive signals from

Poldhu out

at sea

more than 700 miles

during the day, but the signals were clearly decipherable up

He noticed by night. further that the signals rapidly weakened as daylight increased at the sending station. This effect has not been
to a distance of over 2,000 miles

noticed except in the case of long-distance transmission.

It is,

however, more probable that the principal loss due to

is

sunlight

owing

to

it

ionising the air and so

making

it

slightly conducting.

According
at

to

Fessenden, the strength of signals received

at
;

Washington in June

midnight and midday were in

he, however, claims that

the ratio of 1,200 to 30

(1907) he has been able

now

to radiate

energy by a

new method,
and the day
in

so that the night signals are decreased to 80

increased to 76.

This method probably consists

using

waves

of the order of 3,000 metres.

Dissi2Jation of

Energy due

to

Conducting Particles in the

Air.

Captain L. D. Wildman, of the United States Signal

Corps, carried out experiments for over a year in Alaska

with stations 107 miles apart, and aerials consisting of two

insulated wires 200 feet
high.

He

tabulated as far as

HERTZ WAVES USED IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

possible the atmospheric conditions
of

7:3

and the

relative

amount

energy received,

and found that

this varied

approximately
of

inversely as the wind velocity and

amount

moisture in

the atmosphere.

Captain Wildman thought the result was

due

to the

the loss was

air

wind taking energy from the receiving aerial, but more likely due to increased conductivity of the
conducting particles in
it.

due

to the suspension of

Energy Received. Messrs. Duddell and Taylor, in 1904, carried out numerous and careful experiments to compare

"5

6,000

4.000

2,000

74

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
In both cases the surging current in the

twenty-five miles.

transmitting aerial was about 2'8 effective amperes, and

at a distance of thirty-five miles the current varied

from

200 micro-amperes, depending on details of transThat is, at a distance of twenty-five miles the mitting. 120
to

surging current in the receiving aerial

is

about one-fifteen

thousandth part of the surging current in the transmitting

aerial, or

the energy in the transmitting aerial

is

more than

200,000,000 times greater than

that in the receiving aerial.

Distance of Transmitting Signals.

These experiments were

carried out over a comparatively short distance, but a large

number

of disturbing causes

have been indicated which tend

to lessen the

energy received, and these only become apparent

over longer distances.

The most constant

all

results can be

obtained over sea, but even then, with

ditions at both sending

the working con-

and

receiving stations apparently

the same, signals can be received at a distance of 1,000 miles

for a time, but shortly afterwards, perhaps, only at

200 miles.

When

this

is

realised

it

can be better understood how

so

extravagant claims of long-distance transmission are

often misleading,

and that

to substantiate the claim

good

working signals should be received under the most unfavourable conditions, which are usually at midday during

hot sultry weather.

The

best published results are those of

the system between the

Andaman

Islands and
is

Burma, where

rather less than one horse-power

used for a distance of

about 300 miles.

Lodge has pointed out that with a similar transmitter and

HKHT/ WAVKS USED IN BADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

receiver the ratio of the received to the
theoretically
of emitter

75

emitted energy

depends on the cube of the linear dimensions

receiver, as well as

and

on the cube of the distance

between them.
this,

In one special instance he has confirmed

in

which case the emitted energy was 100,000,000

times as great as the received energy.

Difficulties of Signalling at

Dawn and

Sunset.

Marconi

has lately pointed out that greater

difficulty is

experienced

in transmitting signals across the Atlantic in the

morning

and evening than during day or night.

He

considers this

may

be due to reflection or refraction of the waves at the

sun-lit

boundary between the

and the non-illuminated

air.

CHAPTER

V.

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

History.
oscillator

In practice

three methods of charging the

have been used, but there are other methods

Hertz used an induction
coil,

in the experimental stage.

and

this is

still

used for short-distance signalling.

De

Forest used an alternate current transformer, and this

method was brought prominently before the public during

the war between Japan and Eussia, as the Times news-

paper was very successful with this apparatus.

practical development
is

The

latest

due to Poulsen,

of

Copenhagen,

who

in 1906

made

use of the musical arc.

The Induction

Coil.

An induction coil (Fig.

50) consists of

a core of thin iron wires surrounded by one or two layers

of fairly stout copper wires

forming the primary winding.

is

Round

the primary circuit

a thick layer of insulating

of

material,

and then many thousands

turns of very fine

insulated

copper wire forming the secondary winding. This winding ends in two terminals, which are connected

to the

two arms

of the oscillator close

to the

spark gap.

The primary

circuit is

connected through an interrupter,

reversing switch,

transmitting key,

and switchboard

to

the source of electric supply.

In Fig. 51 the number of

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

77

78

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
cells

primary

can be regulated by the switch E.

The

connexions are made through a double pole fuse

F,

ammeter

A, switch S, to the induction

coil,

the voltmeter

being for the

purpose

of

measuring the pressure.

At
rest the
is

The

commutator

enables the current to be reversed through

the primary of the coil F.

P!
of

platinum contacts

P make contact. When

2

the circuit

completed by means

key K, the current from the

cells

magnetises the iron

;

core placed inside the primary winding

an iron armature
is

attached to Pi

attracted to

the iron core, and the circuit

is

broken.
is

large part of the

energy
the

then transferred to

secondary

winding

Or,

causing a flow of current to

earth,

and

at the

same time
till

charging the aerial J

the

difference of potential is suffi-

cient to cause a disruptive discharge across the spark

Some
tacts

of the

energy
is

is

gap H. wasted in sparking across the conenergy that would be wasted

to the contacts, is

P, but this
;

mitigated to a great extent by the

of the

condenser C

most

in this spark, causing

damage

absorbed

in charging the condenser.

When

the circuit

is

completed the
;

first

rush of current

charges the condenser

the primary winding,

and owing
the current

to the self-induction of
rises to

maximum

comparatively slowly, so that the inductive action on the

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

secondary
in this
is slight,

79

and no disruptive discharge takes place case hoth the condenser and the self-induction of
;

the coil help to prevent a quick rise of current through the

primary.

On

the other hand,

when the

circuit is broken,
coil,

the condenser quickens the discharge from the

sufficient

so that

energy

is

transferred to the secondary to cause

the required spark.

To

utilise the

energy of the
in

coil

as

much

as possible,

Professor

Ewing showed
of

make and break

1880 the importance of the the circuit being sudden, and Lord
if

Rayleigh has proved that

sufficiently

the break

could be

made

quick the action of the condenser would be

deleterious.

Rating of Induction Coils.

Induction coils are generally

rated by the length of spark they will give between two

terminals with no capacity in circuit.

coil suitable for

Rontgen rays working would give a spark of from ten to but such a coil would be unsuitable for twenty inches
;

radio-telegraphy unless

it

would

give, say, a spark of quarter

of an inch, with a capacity of one hundredth of a micro-

farad across the terminals.

to use a smaller spark,

The tendency has been

it

lately

charging a large capacity to a com;

paratively small difference of potential

will thus be seen

in this case the function of the induction coil is not to pro-

duce a large difference of potential in the secondary circuit but a large quantity of electricity. It would seem probable
that to obtain the best results the induction coil should be

expressly designed for the oscillator

it

has

to charge.

80

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
The Telefunkcn Induction
Coil.

Die Gesellschaft

fiir

Telefunken system use a thicker wire in the secondary than is generally employed,
drahtlose Telegraphie in their

and

it is

built so that the

primary and secondary

circuits

have the same

oscillation constant, viz., a frequency of fifty

cycles a second in each case.

set

Small oscillations are at

first

up in the secondary circuit, increasing in amplitude as more energy is supplied from the primary circuit till the
discharge takes place.

The

Interrupter.

When

such an induction

coil is

used

with large currents the circuit has to be broken at definite

intervals,
to

and very quickly, so a separate motor is required make and break the contacts. Usually the contact is
the disadvantage of
that
requires considerable attention

made between metal and mercury, and

the arrangement
to
is
it

keep

the

interrupter

working well

in

consequence

this type has, except in

Germany, been mostly used for

a

experimental work.

With
;

small

current

simpler

arrangement can be used

self-acting.

this is to

make

the interrupter

Two platinum
end

contacts are normally touching,

is

one

is

stationary and the other

attached to a piece of
;

soft iron at the

of a steel spring,

in the

primary
the

coil acts as

attracting
circuit.

iron

core,

the growing current an increasingly powerful magnet and momentarily breaking the

This form of interrupter has been successfully

used for currents of ten amperes.

The author has found the

latest

type of interrupter
satisfactory.

employed by Mr. H. W. Sullivan very

The

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

armature J
(Fig. 52) is fastened to

81

an upright spring

fixed in position.

The break

is

made

at platinum contacts
coil in

PI

P2

the armature being attracted towards the

the

direction of the arrow.

The contact

is

regulated by the

screw A, which
feature

is

locked in position by the nut B.

The

of this interrupter is the adjustable spring E, whose pressure against F can be regulated by the screw C, the spring moving as a whole along the guide pin H, so

that however adjusted the two

pieces

contact

o&platinum make good when touching.

used for
icorkin<j

Ap]>aratu>i

ImliK-tiuii Coils.

In Fig. 51 the

coil

shown working with a primary battery. For practical

is

work the dry cell is probably the most convenient, but is too unreliable
;

the bichromate battery would be

more economical.

For very intermittent or experimental working with a coil taking say two amperes, a battery of twenty cells rated at
ten amperes would be sufficient, with a spare battery to be

used in parallel

if

necessary.

Such an arrangement would

be the most economical for signalling over distances of about

fifty

sea miles.

For longer distances up to about 100 miles, when more than three amperes would be necessary, a small oil engine, dynamo and accumulators are advisable, as shown in Fig. 53.

The shunt wound dynamo D, with

R.T.

field

coils

W, and
o

82

RADIO-TELEGKAPHY.
is

regulating resistance L,

used for charging a battery of

about ten accumulators B, the battery when charged being

used for working the induction
coil.

The two-way switch

S allows the accumulators

for

to be

connected to the

dynamo
;

charging, or

the induction coil for discharging

the

ammeter

measures the current, and the fuse

protects

the battery.

The switch

regulates the pressure supplied to the

coil,

which

is

measured

by
This
in

the voltmeter V.

arrangement
general
for
If

would

be

satisfactory

about 100 sea miles.

instead of
or
fifty

ten
cells

cells,

forty
Fig. 53.

are

used, and

resistance

placed in the induction

coil circuit, sufficient to

reduce the current to ten amperes,

dis-

the extra pressure

is

found to increase the signalling

tance to 150 miles or more.

Arcing between Spark-knobs.

This

is

only troublesome

when

the capacity

is

too small as energy

and the discharge commences

is
still

at the

same time

being given to the

so that the current
to

oscillating circuit

from the induction

coil,

persists for a longer time

than the natural period due

coil.

energy supplied directly across the gap from the

The

trouble can to a certain extent be remedied by the arrange-

ment

of

the air-gap

but

when

this

cannot be further

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

improved
it

83

is

necessary to decrease the energy given at

each charge.

This

is

done by increasing the number of

charges per second, increasing the speed of the motor

interrupter, or

weakening the tension

brake.

of the spring with

the

hammer make and

effect of
is

This latter operation also

has the
second.

increasing the

number

of interruptions per

Arcing
is

only likely to occur with open circuit

it is

systems, as

explained in a subsequent chapter, and

coils

more troublesome with induction

than transformers.

Bad arcing

is

easily distinguishable

a red furry character.

The spark

to

by the spark assuming be aimed at is thick,

intense white, and has a sharp crackly sound.

For military purposes a great deal is sacrificed to lightness, and to obtain this the LodgeMuirhead Syndicate use an electric valve or specially made
Valve.

The Lodge

vacuum

tube.

Two

valves

are necessary,

and these are

placed between the

action of this valve
direction, so that

secondary and the spark-gap.

The

is to

allow current to flow only in one

it

permits energy to be accumulated in

the oscillator during a

induction
coil, till

number

of interruptions

of

the

the potential of the aeria] can be

potential furnished by the
coil to

made
coil.

as great as the

maximum
is

This enables a small and light

seen the valve
useful

be used.

It will

be
is

when
it

the capacity to be charged

too large for the coil, but

probably also protects the

coil

from breakdown due

to oscillatory currents.

Alternate Current Transfnrim'r.

1

This
16.'},

is

a similar piece
Chapter XIV.

The two valves

are

shown

in Figs.

164,

o2

84

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
apparatus to the induction
coil
;

of

but, instead of direct

currents being

made

pulsating by an interrupter, alternating

is

currents are employed so that no interrupter

required.

The following arrangement

of several horse-power.
its

is

suitable for a small station

In Fig. 54 the alternator J has

field

magnetised by means of the direct current

dynamo
coil,

on the same

shaft,

S being the dynamo

field

and Kj

adjustable resistances in the fields of the

alternator and exciter respectively.

The current from the

alternator

passes

through a double pole

switch P, fuse L, arid
adjustable
coils C,

choking

ammeter A,

transmitting key K,

and the primary of transformer T. The

Fig. 54.

alternator

is

pro-

tected

from

oscillatory current by

means

of
is

condensers

connected to earth, and the transmitting key

a condenser

shunted by

M to prevent excessive sparking.

The
of

The Lodge-Muirhead Transformer and Alternator.

latest type

transformer

made by

the Lodge-Muirhead
is

Syndicate

is

of the

open magnetic type, and the primary

wound on

a straight bobbin of finely divided wires.

The

circuit, consisting of

the aerial and the secondary of the

transformer, has the same oscillation constant as the circuit

of the alternator

and primary winding,

this frequency being

APPARATUS rsKD
necessarily low.

Foi;

CHAIMJIM; THE OSCILLATOR

the

83

When

discharge takes
is

place

the

secondary

of the

transformer

short circuited by the low

and the frequency of the oscillations is high, depending only on the capacity and inductance of the To prevent breakdown the secondary of this aerial circuit.
resistance spark,

transformer
in series.

is

wound

in unit coils of

250 watts connected

1

In ordinary alternators such as are used in electric

light

systems the designer

tries to

obtain a sine curve con-

necting current with time (see

Fig. 21), but in

a
it is

radio-tele-

graph alternator
to

important

keep the current charging

the aerial at a

maximum

as
is

long as possible, and this

done by aiming at a curve of the nature shown in Fig. 55.

is

An

alternator of this type

now used

Lodge system. For closed systems, where large

in the

capacities have to be
is

charged, a low frequency, such as 50 periods,

generally

employed, but with open circuits and smaller capacity as

high a periodicity as 200 has been used to avoid arcing, as

will

be explained

later.

Hi'ili

Po/rcr Apparatus.

When

the signalling distance

it is

is

over 500 miles, and at the same time

necessary to have

a sharply-tuned transmitting station to avoid interference

with other systems, about 80 or more horse-power has to
1

TK> Watts

horse- jx>wer.

88

RADIO-TELEGKAPHY.
With an open
circuit

be used.

circuit the aerial

would probably

have

to be a quarter of

a square mile or

more

in area,
;

and with coupled

the open

systems two difficulties occur the capacity in the closed circuit and the radiating surface of
circuit

have both

to

be made enormously large.

To obviate

this Professor

Fleming, in 1900, used a subsi-

diary oscillatory circuit of intermediate frequency.

By

this

means

instead of charging the oscillatory circuit about 200

it

times a second he w^is able to charge

as often as 20,000

times a second, allowing the

condenser and radiating surface to be one fiftieth of the

size

which otherwise
would
In
a

pro-

bably
56

have

been

required.
-

Fleming's
2,000
is

arrangement

volt

alternator at 100 periods supplies current which

to

raised

a pressure of 20,000 volts by the transformer

(see

Fig. 56).

The

rotating

arm B comes

alternately within
first

sparking distance of the sectors

circuit

C and D,

closing the

ACF

for sufficient time to allow the condenser

to

be fully charged, and then completing the circuit

GDF

through the primary of a second transformer; during \\hich

time the condenser
is

discharged, the natural periodicity of

both circuits being about 10,000 a second.

acting through the transformer
P, and
setting

This discharge,

L, charges the condenser

this in turn is discharged

through the spark-gap R,

up

oscillations in the radiating circuit.

APPABATUS
It will
(1)

rsi-lli

R>K

'HAlMilM

Till-:

OSCII.LATOfi. 87

be seen there are six circuits

current
circuit

Alternate

at

low

frequency

and

pressure.
(2)
(3)

Intermediate circuit Intermediate

circuit

A C B F charging condenser F. B D G F discharging concharging condenser P.

denser F.
(4) (5)

Closed circuit

L PQ

Closed high frequency circuit

P Q E

discharging

condenser
(0)

P through spark-gap
circuit.

R.

Radiating

The function

of all this is

fundamentally the same as

reducing the tension of the spring of the interrupter in the

induction
coil,

namely,

it

allows a larger

number

of smaller

impulses to be radiated.
Protection of Apparatus.
If

the frequency of the circuit

containing the

secondary of

the induction coil or transoscilla-

former and the spark-gap approaches that of the

tory circuit,
tection,

there

is

a danger of breakdown. are

often

choking

coil

inserted

For probetween the

The generators are also secondary and the spark-gap. liable to break down from oscillations set up in the connecting wires, so
it

is

customary

to

connect each terminal to

earth through a Leyden jar (Fig. 54), the condenser offering

a

path of infinite resistance to the direct current of a

or the low frequency current of an alternator, and

dynamo
at

the same

time short circuiting them from the high

frequency oscillations.

The Musical Arc.

In 1892 Elihu

Thomson

88

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

that electrical oscillations could be produced by shunting

an air-gap in a continuous current circuit with capacity and inductance. Duddell, in 1900, using the ordinary continuous
current arc lamp,

shunted

this

with

suitable

capacity and

inductance, and

measured

frequencies of

50,000 per second, too low, however, to admit of radiation.

It

remained

for Poulsen, using

an arc between carbon and

copper in hydrogen, to obtain frequencies of 1,000,000 per

second, and

show the

possibility of radiating a practically

continuous supply of energy into space.

There seems no

doubt that with the Poulsen apparatus as now made, a

practically,
is

though not perfectly, continuous train of waves produced, and that remarkably good results have been
it is

obtained, though
tus
is

not yet apparent

how

far the appara-

reliable for
it

everyday working.

Professor Fleming
it is difficult it

has given
erect

as his opinion that at present

arc,

to

and adjust the Poulsen

and that moreover

can

only be

made

to absorb neither

more nor

less to

than about

two horse-power.
oscillations,
it

According

to Duddell,

produce the

necessary that the rate of change of potential with current across the arc should be negative
is

and greater numerically than the resistance

tory circuit.
1

of the oscilla-

Whilst current

is

flowing into the condenser

is

the potential difference across the arc

1

increasing, causing

If at

any moment,

V is the
:

potential difference across the arc,

C the

current through the arc, and r the resistance of the shunt circuit, oscillations occur when

-dv d C

APPARATUS rsKD FOR CHAIMilXC

a further charging of the condenser.

TIIK OSCILLATOR. M)

On

the other hand,

the
arc,

when

the

condenser

disci larges

through

the
the

increased current quickens

potential difference.

the rate of

decrease of

Simon found that higher frequencies

these results have been

were ohtained hy increasing the current through the arc or

decreasing the length of the arc
;

confirmed by Austin.

Austin has also obtained equally

good results with the arc in steam as in hydrogen.

action of the hydrogen appears to be partly due to
its

The

greater

conductivity compared with

air,

thus

helping

to

cool

the

arc

electrodes.

Poulsen also considers that the hydro-

gen increases the conductivity

arc.

of the

The Cooper-Hewitt Mi-rmn/

form
of his

Inter-

Kg.

67,

nipter ax a Radio-telegraph Discharger.

special

Hewitt has used a

of the spark-gap in

mercury vapour lamp to take the place an oscillating circuit. In Fig. 57 an

about. 6 to 8 inches in diameter, has

exhausted bulb

I,

two depressions containing pools

the discharge takes place.

mercury between which Pierce has shown that if the

of

vacuum
and
if

is

too high the discharge cannot readily be started,

it is

too low the vibrations are feeble,

to

and there

is

tendency for an arc

form in the bulb.

Current

may

be

obtained through an ordinary alternating current trans-

former P charging the condenser C.

potential between the coatings

When

the difference of

become

sufficiently

high the

resistance of the interrupter drops to a fraction of

an ohm,

90

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
and
an
oscillatory
dis-

charge takes place through

the Tesla transformer T. 1

As the

oscillations be-

come

weaker

the

tube

becomes

non-conducting,
is

and the condenser

again

charged.
thoroughly

Pierce has
investigated

the behaviour of this form

of

discharge.

With

particular

interrupter

he

found the discharge always

began

to occur of

when

the

difference

potential of

the

condenser

reached

7,070 volts, and the dis-

charge continued

till

the
to

pressure was reduced

1,600 volts.

By

using a

small Leyden jar and a

charging potential
200 complete
during T |
1

of

15,000 volts he obtained

discharges
a second,
of oscil-

of

For arrangement

latory circuits, see succeeding

Fig. 58

chapters.

APPARATUS USED FOE CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR,

the one half cycle of the charging transformer;
that

ni

is,

he obtained 24,000 trains

of

vibrations

a second,

and

each discharge was separated by an interval of 700*000

of

second.

"With

a larger capacity, 0'013 mf. about

1,440 discharges were obtained per second.

By

photoof the

graphing the spark Pierce showed that in the case

ordinary spark-gap from a transformer, the discharges were spasmodically strong and weak, due to the spark-gap
retaining
its

conducting character too long

sharp,

but with the

definite,

vacuum tube every discharge was

regular.

and

In Fig. 58 are given two photographs of successive

discharges with ordinary spark-gap under best conditions,

using

cadmium knobs, and

resistance
of

Fig. 59

is

photograph of

successive discharges with the

vacuum

tube.

The

the tube

decreased

with

increased

condenser capacity, and increased with added inductance

in circuit.

The following

results are typical

TAKI.E SHOWING

WITH CAPACITY.

CHANGE OF RESISTANCE OF MERCURY INTERRUPTER INDUCTANCE = 0-000117 HENRY.

0'0130
7'76
0-37

... Capacity in microfarads Period, millionths of a second

(V313

0-730
18'6
0'24

(V117
23-5

11M
0-44

Resistance in

ohms ......

0'20

TABLE SHOWING CHANGE OF RESISTANCE OF MERCURY INTERRUPTER WITH INDUCTANCE. CAPACITY 0-0730 MICROFARADS.
in millihenrys ...... ... Period, millionths of a second

Inductance

0-0110
(5-

0-117
lv<;
0--J1

1'42
iij

14

Resistance in

ohms

.........
<>t

0-14

0-60

Modification
\ it

tlic

M,-rcnrii

(land

lias

used

mercury vapour

lube to obtain

92

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
As
will

continuous oscillations.

be seen from Fig. 60, the

tube containing mercury vapour has two metal anodes 1 and

one mercury cathode.

Direct current from cells

is

used,

and variations in the current between the two anodes and

the cathode cause oscillations to be set up.
It is to

be

noted that the two coils next the tube are placed, not as

shown

in diagram, but so that the magnetic field

is

perpenare

dicular to

the plane of
the

the anodes.

Choking
circuits

coils

placed in

battery circuit.

The

are

never

exactly symmetrical, so that current

tends

more through one arm than the other. The action

to

flow

is

intensified

by the

coils

which
the

deflect

the

current,

so

that

whole or most
Fig. 60.

of the current flows

through one

anode.
is

When

the

condensers are charged the current

reversed, the coils

deflecting the current to the second anode, and according to

Vreeland the energy

is

fed to the oscillatory circuit

in

synchronism with the vibrations. The Hic/k Frequency Alternator.

have been made
to obtain

great

many

attempts

undamped

oscillations

by employit

ing an alternator having a frequency sufficient to enable

to

be utilised so as to produce oscillations direct without the

This arrangement has

intervention of a spark or an arc.

He makes by Fessenden. alternators, driven by De Laval steam turbines, having

been successfully employed
1

See footnote

p.

174.

APPARATUS USED FOR CHARGING THE OSCILLATOR.

frequencies of about 100,000 periods per second.

9;i

Single-

\vound armature machines have an approximate output of

1 k.w.,

and double armature machines 2 k.w.

Fessenden

gives for the single

of

150

volts, field

armature type the open circuit pressure current 5 amperes, and resistance drop in

armature 6 ohms, with a similar inductance drop, which is, however, neutralised by capacity, and so has no effect on the

The double armature machine gives 270 volts on open circuit, and the armature has a resistance of 9 ohms.
output.

When

used for radio-telegraphy the continuously geneThis w ould prevent

?

rated waves are broken into groups.

the cancelling effect that has been noticed

when continuous
Following Fes-

waves are produced. The Spark or Arc, in Compressed Air.

senden L.
of

W.

Austin has used direct current from a source

4,500 volts in series with a 30,000

ohm

resistance

and a

spark-gap of 0'4

ampere.

mm., The spark takes place

the current being rather less than

in compressed air, the

gap being shunted by capacity and inductance.

surgings occur in rapid succession
the spark
is

Oscillatory

when the pressure round

about 6 atmospheres; and several hundred

inserted in the oscillatory circuit.

ohms might be
slightly

When

oscillations occur

the current through the gap decreases

difference
at

and the potential

the

terminals

increases twentyfold.

Austin also found that the greater

the heat conductivity of the spark-knobs the better were

the results obtained.

CHAPTEE
THE ELECTKIC OSCILLATOR
History.

VI.

METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

The

greatest advance from the Hertz oscillator

in 1896.

was that made by Marconi

He
to

used a conducting
of the oscillator,

wire carried high into the air as one

whilst he connected the other

arm

arm

earth.

For some

time progress was made in two directions

the height of the aerial wire
;

(1) Increasing

(2)

loading the aerial wire

chiefly in

with capacity.
the

At

first

Marconi experimented

first direction.

Sir Oliver

Lodge believed

in the second.

He had shown
circuit could
circuit.

in 1896

how

oscillations in

one Leyden jar

be

made

He

found that
of

tion
alike

constants

up oscillations in a secondary was necessary to have the oscillathe two circuits made more nearly
to set
it
;

than in the Hertz arrangement

jar oscillator the vibrations

in the case of the

Leyden
sistent,

and the waves emitted were of

until

were both more perone definite frequency,

but

it

was not

1897 that he patented an intermediate

form

of oscillator consisting of large cones or plates far

apart, a system that has been successfully developed

Lodge-Muirhead Syndicate. due to F. Braun, of Strassburg, who in 1898 was the

to use

by the The next improvement was

first

two

circuits, the closed Leyden jar circuit of Lodge

giving a persistent train

of

oscillations

coupled to the
it.

Marconi

aerial

which quickly radiated the energy given

Till:

KUKTIUC OSCILLATOR.

95

From 1898

1906 great progress was made both in details of arrangement and manufacture, and in the last named
to

year Marconi

made

practical the use of a long horizontal

wire some distance above the earth.

directional character to the radiation.

This gives a partly

In 1907, Bellini and

Tosi discovered that any closed circuit placed in a vertical

plane gave this directive radiation.

Systems of Transmitting.
are

All the following

arrangements

now used

in practice

(1)
(2)

Single aerial or antenna.

Aerial loaded with capacity.
Aerial circuit coupled through auto- transformer to a

(3)

closed oscillatory circuit.

(4) Aerial circuit

coupled electro-magnetically through

Tesla transformer to a closed oscillatory circuit.

(5)

Multiple coupled systems with aerial circuit coupled

through
circuits.
(6)

transformer to two or more closed oscillatory

horizontal wire above the earth's surface forming

single
oscillatory circuit

either a

or coupled through a

transformer to a closed circuit.

(7)

closed radiating circuit in a vertical plane either

single or coupled.

Single Aeriul

<

Antenna.

On
of

account of

its

simplicity
to

the

single

open-circuit
it

aerial

Marconi has much

It
is is

recommend
shown
1

as

a transmitter.

diagrammatically

in Fig.

61. 1

The antenna

taken high into

It will

be noticed that oscillatory circuits are shown in thick

lines, 'other circuits in thin lines.

96

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

the air and

kept well insulated.

It is

connected through

the spark-gap
is

to the other

arm

of the oscillator,

which
lines

the earth, through the earth-plate E.

are the wires from the induction

The two thin

BB

coil.

and self-induction and self-induction

of the earth is constant. of the aerial

The capacity The capacity

the energy
Different

varies directly with the

is

length, hence the longer the aerial the greater

that can be stored and the longer the wave-length.

\1/

values have been given for the wave radiated by

such an

aerial,

varying between four and

It is

five

times

the total length.

probable that the discre-

pancies are due to minor details of arrangement.

In practice

it

is

always best to arrive at the wave-

length by actual measurement, in the

manner

to

be explained in a subsequent chapter.

Disadvantages of the Single

ever, a
circuit.
(1)

Aerial.

There

are,

how-

number

of disadvantages in using a single aerial

The capacity
it
1

of the aerial
little

cannot be

made

large,
it

and
to a

therefore

requires very

energy to charge
it is

given potential.

In other words,

incapable of taking

up much energy at a time, to transform into radiations. The student has to clearly grasp the idea that radiotelegraphy
is

a system of transmitting energy.

is

The actual

energy received

indeed minute, but to obtain this minute

energy at the receiving

1

end a large quantity

of

energy has

A wire one -tenth of an inch in

to store the

diameter would have to be 500 feet

high

same energy

as a pint

Ley den

jar, of

which the

capacity would be about O'OOl mf.

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

to be radiated for long distance working.
It is

97

an easy

problem to-day
power, but
It is this
it

to generate several

hundred

electrical horse-

is

extremely
is

difficult to radiate

the energy.

problem that

being worked at by the principal

radio-telegraph

companies.

When

energy can be

satis-

factorily radiated at the rate of, say,

one hundred horse-

power,
will

it is

probable that a few millionths of a horse-power

be received with certainty at the other side of the

Atlantic.

Using the single

aerial

circuits

less

than

quarter of horse-power can be utilised, which

for distances of
.

is sufficient

one hundred miles over

sea.

The energy

stored can be increased by lengthening the

is

spark-gap, but the resistance

more than proportionally

is

increased so that the total energy radiated

reduced.

(2) For long-distance and over-land transmission it is found best to employ a long wave-length. With the single
it is not usual to attempt a greater wave-length than 200 metres, with aerials 100 to 120 feet high.

aerial

(3)

According to Zeneck the damping of the single aerial

wire,

due

to radiation only, is of the order 0'3, so that after

about
of the

fifteen vibrations the

amplitude

will

be one hundredth
there
is

maximum.

For short distances,

if

no

fear

of outside disturbances, this is

an advantage, as with a
first

given amount of energy the amplitude of the

is

vibration

much
it

larger, causing a greater radiation of

of first

energy and
;

greater amplitude

swing

in the receiving circuit

but
is

will

be explained later

how a

receiving circuit
is

which

acted on by one surge of electric energy

R.T.

acted on by

98

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

any electric disturbance independent of the wave-length. The reason for the rapid radiation is easily seen. The
field of force is

not concentrated as in the case of a Leyden

far into space

jar

between the two coatings, but stretches

of the aerial

between the top

the frequency
to shrink to
(4)

and the earth.

is

Moreover as
field

is

high there

very

little

time for the

nothing before reversal takes place.

that, the less the

Drude has shown

damping

of the

transmitting circuit, the more nearly one fundamental wave

is

radiated.

Aerial Loaded with Capacity.

lator

The

original Hertz oscil-

end to increase the capacity. The Lodge-Muirhead Syndicate have developed a system on

had plates

at each

these lines.

Their aerial consists of two large carpets of

wires, one high

up

in the air, the other formerly lying

on

the ground, but

now

preferably raised a few feet above the

ground.

This arrangement has several advantages over

:

the single aerial wire

(1)

The

vibrator has a larger oscillation constant giving

a greater length of wave.

(2)

More energy can be

stored with the larger capacity.

of the air-gap diminished.
;

(3)

Consequently the resistance

smaller and the damping
is

may

be

made
(4)

The energy

is

not radiated so quickly

this also

reduces the damping.

(5)

The wave radiated

aerial.

is of

more

definite frequency

than

with the single

The two

principal variables are the size, and the height

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

of the aerial carpet

99

above the earth carpet.

The
;

larger

the carpet the less the

greater the syntony.

damping and radiation

and the

The

greater the distance the carpets

;

are apart the longer the distance of transmission

is

but this

gained at the expense of syntony.

Sir Oliver Lodge's original plans have not yet been

com-

pletely carried out in practice.

According to his ideas the

transmitter would take the form shown in Fig. 62 instead

Fig. 62.

Fig. 63.

of the practical

form

of Fig. 63.
is

The

difference between

the two arrangements

arrangement there is wires A and B causing subsidiary waves, so that the resulting wave radiated cannot be made so pure as would
otherwise be the case
;

one of symmetry. In the practical a mutual inductance between the

but the great advance that has been

made towards
Chapter XI.
Coupled

realising Lodge's ideal

may be

gathered from

the description of the latest

developments described in

Si/xti-iiis.

At present the most usual method H 2

of

100

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

transmitting

that due to Braun, viz., coupling the closed

Leyden

jar circuit of

Lodge

to the

open radiating

circuit of

Marconi.
can, at the
of

By

increasing the

capacity the closed circuit

to absorb as large a quantity
of air-gap

same time, be made

energy as required, and to contain tbe length

offering least resistance to the oscillatory discharge.

As

practically the only waste of energy

is

due to the small-

resistance spark-gap, and that given to the coupled circuit,

it is

possible to set

up a very powerful and

slightly

damped

train of vibrations.

The Radiating Circuit. Connected to the closed oscillaThe best method tory circuit is an open radiating circuit. of connexion depends on the distance of transmission and
the required

absence of

interference

to

other

stations.

With the radiating circuit, what has to be considered is the total amount of energy that is given it from the closed circuit
during each oscillation, to be radiated, and this energy

depends on the energy

of coupling.

of the closed circuit

and the method

is

With the

closed circuit the

damping

made

small, but the radiating circuit has to radiate as rapidly as

possible

so the

damping due

to radiation should be large

whilst

the

small as
given at

damping caused by resistance should be as With only a small amount of energy possible.
each oscillation the single aerial

may

be used,

omitting the spark-gap.

radiating surface
1

is

With increased energy a greater 1 necessary and multiple antennae are

The aerial wire is sometimes called an antenna on account of a supposed resemblance in action to the antenna of an insect.

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

used. Different

101

forms are employed in various systems.

On

ships parallel wires are generally placed a few feet apart

(see Fig. 64), three or five of these

being often used.

One

typical arrangement as used at the high power Marconi

Station at Poldhu

is

shown

in Fig. 65.
oscillations in
circuit the

Methods of Coupling.
set

Where

one

circuit

up

oscillations in

an adjacent

two circuits

Fig. 64.

are said to be coupled.

field of force of

If

a considerable portion of the

the
;

first circuit is
if

embraced by the second

the coupling
is loose.

is

fast

only a small portion, the coupling

In Fig. 66 a circular loop of wire

oscillatory current
is

is

shown, in

which an

growing.

Another circular

coil of wire,

brought close to

into position B, embraces

is

nearly the whole of the field and the coupling

violent

fast

interaction

takes

place between the two

sets of

vibrations,

which increases the damping in A.

Moving the

102

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

Fig. 65.

Fig. 66.

Fig. 68.

secondary
coupling

coil to C,

the field through

it is

lessened and the

is loose.

In radio-telegraphy the circuit

circuit,

A may be
coils at

taken as diagrammatic of the closed

and the

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

B
is

or

of the

open radiating circuit.

A greater total
number

energy

transferred with coil at B, but a larger

of vibra-

Fig. 69.

Fig. 70.
it

tions take place

when

is

moved

to C.

Two methods

of

coupling are employed, one electric and the other magnetic.

The first method

is

shown diagrammatically
first

in Figs. 67, 68, the second in Figs. 69, 70.

It will

be seen by the

there

is
;

actual
in the
field is

contact between the two circuits

second a portion of the magnetic

common.
effect that

In general

it

is

the

capacity
cir-

predominates in the closed

cuit,

and the inductance in the radiating

circuit.

With
is

the

electric

method the
71

coupling

said to be fast or loose, depend-

ing on whether a larger or smaller portion

is

common

to both.

Fig. 71 represents a fast, Fig. 68 a loose

coupling.

On

the other hand the magnetic coupling can be

made fast

or loose by bringing the windings closer or further

104

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
The arrangement shown
Using the
in Fig.

apart.

70

is

the better

than in Fig. 69, as both closed and aerial circuits are more
symmetrical.
electric coupling,

one of the

latest

methods

of

connexions as employed by the Amalgamated

Radio-Telegraph Co.

is

shown
power

in Fig. 72.

The

circuit consists of

alternator

M,
coil

key
R,
S.

T,

choking

and

transformer

The

primary oscillatory circuit has condenser J,

spark-gap D, and several

windings of inductance

which are also common

to

the
is

aerial

circuit.

What
spark

called

an anchor
the

isolates

transmitting

circuits

during receiving, as
Fig 72
' ' '

may

be seen by referring to
[Reproduced
from Electrical Engineering of Feb. 14th, 1907, by permission of the Pro-

108 J-"

<->>

Damping
in

oj V ibrations

Radiating

Circuit.

The

variation

of

amplitude with

the

number

of vibrations for a simple oscillatory circuit

caused by the breakdown of the air-gap has been depicted

in Fig. 17.
is

When

the disturbance in the radiating circuit

set

up by the

oscillations in another circuit the effect

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

is

105

somewhat

different.

In the case of a single radiating

it

wire about 26 per cent, of the energy, given

first
if

by the

vibration of the

closed

circuit,

is

radiated.

Now
the

the vibrations in

the

closed

circuit

were so rapidly

damped
the

that the energy given to the aerial during

second vibration were only 26 per cent, of that given in

first,

then the amplitude of oscillation, in the radiating

aerial for the second swing,

first

would be the same as for the

swing.

For the third vibration the energy would be

Fig. 73.

88 per cent, of the second, after which the energy would

diminish rapidly.
closed circuit
circuit
;

But as explained, the damping

of the

is

in fact

made very much less than that of the open it is feasible to make the amplitude of each
is

vibration in this closed circuit 99 per cent, of the preceding

one, so

that the second vibration of the open circuit

cent.,

173 per
first.

and the third vibration 228 per

circuit balances the

cent, of the

The amplitude

increases until the energy given by

the primary

energy radiated by the

secondary.

Fig. 78 after Zeneck shows the amplitude of

106

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
losing

secondary vibrations with a closed circuit

cent, of its

2 per

energy each vibration, and in the same time the

open

circuit radiating 18 per cent.

The Principal Wave of a Vibrating Circuit. With different musical instruments the same note gives different sounds
due

harmonic vibrations, and in general the energy These associated with these harmonics is very small.
to

harmonics have also been observed in the case

vibrations,

of electrical

but
:

there

is

another
electric

effect

with

the
is

oscillator there

not one fundamental vibration,

but the vibrations are

if

such as

all

the notes of

a piano had been struck at

once but with varying

force.

The
500 600
700

vibration of the note

struck loudest might aptly

Fig. 74.

be
the
electric

called

the

principal

vibration,

and

in

analogue

the

vibration

associated with the greatest energy might also be called the

principal vibration.
scale gives

Fig. 74 illustrates this.

The horizontal

the

different

height of the curve at

wave-lengths, and the vertical any point is a measure of the energy

of vibration for that particular wave-length, i.e., the ordinates of the

curve are a measure of the energy of vibration, the

abscissa give the

wave length.

In Fig. 74 the principal

wave

is

600 metres.

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

In the example given, the aerial radiates twice as

107

much

energy

of

600 metres wave-length as what

So

it
if

radiates of

either 500 or 750 metres wave-length.

the station

could just transmit signals over 1,000 miles to a properly

tuned receiver, other stations within a limit

tuned
to receive at liable to

of

250 miles

anything between 500 and 750 metres

If,

would be

be interfered with.

however, the energy

associated with the primary closed circuit be

made

of the

order

of

50 h.p.

instead

of,

say,

5 h.p.,

the coupling

between the closed and the radiating circuit can be made looser, so that the wave of 600 metres is associated with a

500 metre wave

it is

of, say,

only one tenth of the energy, and

probable that stations further than ten miles would not

be seriously disturbed.

In an actual case measured by the author, the principal wave was 495 metres, the distance of transmission was
60 miles, and signals were received by a ship 500 miles away. At a distance of 100 miles this ship would have
found
it

necessary to use a wave length of less than 480

metres or more than 520 metres to avoid interference

or

employ a very loose coupling on the receiver, and use excessive power for sending. The method of
else

finding the principal

wave

is

described in the chapter on

tuning.
It is

found that, the less the damping of the

oscillator,

the nearer the vibrations approach to a single fundamental

one, so that with a very slightly
tions

damped

circuit the vibra-

might be likened

to those

caused by striking say the

108

KADIO-TELEGRAPIIY.
force, the adjacent

middle C of the piano with great

and

D
to

with

medium

force,

and the other notes so

softly as not

be distinguishable.
Limitations of Close Coupling.

At

first

sight

it

might

appear

to be

advantageous
if

to use as close a coupling as

possible sending,

there were no outside stations in the

this
is

neighbourhood,

but

not

the

case.

Drude has
and

theoretically shown,

the theory has been con-

firmed

by experiments

by G. Pierce, that with the closest coupling

theoretically possible the

damping decrement
half the

is

sum

of the de-

crements of the closed

and aerial circuits. Thus,

if

the decrement of the

aerial be 0'3
Wave Length
In Metres.

and that

of

the closed circuit 0'02,

the combined decrement

Fig. 75.

would be 0*16, so that the energy of each vibration cannot be made more than about 86 per cent, of the preceding one.

He
less

also

showed that the weaker the coupling, that is, the the energy that was transferred from the primary to
Also

the secondary circuit during each oscillation, the nearer the damping approached to that of the closed circuit.

with very close coupling there

is

an interaction between the

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

two
circuits causing

109

a compound wave, so that there are

two maxima.
Fig. 75 shows the
relative

energy of vibration in the

sending maximum distance,

radiation circuit, with A, coupling too close, B, coupling too

loose,

and C, coupling correct

for

D, possibly correct coupling for signalling a required distance,

at the
station.

same time avoiding interference with an outside

Coupled

Circuits

compared

with

Open

Circuits.

The

advantages

of using coupled circuits as originally

:

claimed

by Braun are as follows

(1)
(2)

Larger amount of energy stored. No danger from touching aerial wire.

Insulation of aerial wire not required to be so perfect.

(3)

damped. For short-distance working a large amount of energy not required. For long distances, however, the battery

(4) Oscillations less

is

of

Leyden jars The other method

is

a very convenient method of storing energy.

of obtaining a large capacity

by means

of a carpet aerial, as used

is

by the Lodge-Muirhead Syndicate,

much more cumbersome.

is

On

the other hand, there

is

not the loss of energy due to coupling.

Where

this latter

system

used between India and the

Andaman

Islands, a
is

distance of about 800 miles, a 3 b.h.p. oil engine

used,

and the carpet

aerial is 10,000 square feet.

For a 20 or

50 h.p. station the area of the carpet would become excessive

and troublesome

if

subjected to high winds.

With the open

circuit there is storage of

energy in the

110

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

Using the coupled circuit there is no such storage, and hence there is no danger from touching the aerial.
aerial.

With the open

during the

circuit the leakage is

always taking place

;

accumulation of

energy

with

the coupled

system leakage only occurs during the time oscillations are

taking place.

For land

stations the aerial can be easily protected, but

for ships there is

more

liability to

danger from using the

of

open

circuit.
is

For extremely dry situations the question

not so important as for extremely

insulation

damp

tropical stations.

In the case of closed circuits the oscillations can be made

less

damped by

several

methods

(a)

Reducing the resistance

of

the circuit by adding

capacity, enabling a smaller spark-gap to be used.

(b)

Decreasing the coupling so that less energy

is

trans-

ferred to the radiating circuit each vibration.

(c)

Making the
is

closed circuit completely symmetrical.

till

In the author's opinion, up

lately

this decreased

damping
system.

the principal advantage of

is

using a coupled

This

more

especially of importance

when
;

inter-

ference with

any other station has to be avoided it will, however, be seen from the chapter describing a LodgeMuirhead station that very good syntony has now been
obtained by making the circuits more nearly approach to

Lodge's original suggestions.

It is

probable there

is

another advantage, not originally

claimed by Braun, due to the vibrations in the aerial circuit

Til K

111.

:<

TRIG OSCILLATOR.

1 1 1

first

rising

to

maximum and
with greater

then diminishing; this

causes

them

to act

effect

on a detector such as

Tfi.

would be placed in a sharply -tuned receiving circuit, which would require a cumulative wave of energy to actuate it.

112

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
This
is

The Auto-Transformer.
of

the

name given

to a piece

apparatus for coupling two oscillatory circuits by direct

It consists

electrical contact.

simply of a number of turns

to the aerial circuit.
is

of wire, giving

added inductance

small portion of this inductance

closed circuit.
If
;

made common

to the

only one or two turns are

common, the

coupling

is

loose

with more and more turns in common,

the coupling becomes closer.

Loose and

fast couplings are

shown

in Figs. 68

and

71.
of

A combined
Leyden

auto-transformer,
adjustable for

spark-gap,

and battery

jars

radiating waves of from 120 to 1,000 metres, as used in the Telefunken system for ship work, is shown in Fig. 76.

The Tesla Transformer.

is

The magnetic method of coupling

made by means

of the high-frequency transformer first

described by Tesla in 1891,

when he used

it

for lighting

by
It

a single wire, and obtaining powerful brush discharges.

is

made up

of a few turns of wire in the closed circuit con-

taining the spark-gap, and a larger

number

of

comparatively

thick wires surrounding the others in the aerial circuit.

The
to

principal points in designing a Tesla transformer are

perfect

obtain

insulation

secondary windings, to

primary and have no iron core, and for both

between
the

windings to consist of a single layer of wires. The Auto and Tesla Transformer compared.
electric

Both the
have their

and

magnetic

systems of

coupling

The auto-transformer has been mostly used by De Forest, and the Tesla transformer by Marconi whilst the Germans use the electric method for long distances with close
advocates.
;

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

coupling,

113

and the magnetic method where loose coupling is necessary. The three first advantages for coupled systems, as
given by Braun,are the same for both methods. Experiments

made by G.

Pierce would, however, tend to show that the

best.

magnetic method is the

ing and receiving

He found that after tuning send-

same principal wave, using the magnetic coupling, a change of wave in the sending circuit of from 2| to 5 per cent, caused the energy received to be
circuits to the

reduced to half

whereas, with the

auto-transformer, the same reduction of received energy

was given
per
cent,

by a

wave-length 26

smaller, or 60 per cent, larger than

the principal.

These results do not

appear so good as can be obtained

with the carpet aerial.
Pierce also
Fig. 77

found that under the best conditions

and using the same power,

the energy received with the auto-transformer was only

1

times as great as with the electro-magnetic coupling.

It

must, however, be borne in mind that these experiments

were carried out over distances

of a

few hundred

feet.

Couplings for High Power Stations.

In the last chapter,

Fleming's method of radiating considerable horse-power

was shown how by modifications in the low-frequency generating apparatus he was enabled to produce 20,000 trains of waves per second instead of several

was described, and

it

hundred.
R.T.

Braun attacked the problem

differently.

He

114

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Ii I 2
,

arranged his closed circuit as in Fig. 77, where

leads from a transformer to three spark-gaps GI
2

are

G G3

and

charging three condensers KI

K 2 K 3 in

parallel.

During

the oscillatory discharge the three spark-gaps, condensers

and inductances LI
series, so that

L2 L3

of the Tesla transformers are in

of the

throughout the discharge, the capacity

circuit is

as

it is

one third and the inductance three times as great during the charge. It would appear that the object
is to

of this

arrangement

enable the use of three times the

total length of

spark-gap with one third of the strain on

the condensers.

Another method used by Braun has been

aerials with

to use multiple

separate closed circuits for each aerial, the

spark-gaps being cross-connected by high resistance coils, and the self-inductances cross-connected by inductionless
wires phase.
to

insure that the two circuits

should vibrate in

System of Directed Waves by means of Horizontal Wires.

would be very advantageous to radiate waves in only one direction, and sometimes it would be equally advantageous to receive signals from only one
In

many

cases

it

place.

Marconi has developed an arrangement

first

used

by Garcia.
Instead of using vertical wires, Marconi has used long
horizontal wires above the earth, as depicted in Fig. 78,

where A
dng.

is

a station connected for sending, with

B for receiv-

As

will be seen, the wires at

each place are arranged

to lie in the

same

direction with connections at the nearest

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

points to the stations.

Uo

He

has found that the horizontal

length should be great in proportion to the height of wire

above the ground, but for high power stations this

may

be

100

feet or

more

the wave-length should be large,

and the

best results could be obtained by open circuit working.

this

With
in

arrangement, although the radiation

is

maximum

one direction, considerable energy

directions.

may

be radiated in other

In one of Marconi's experiments, signalling over

a few hundred metres,

when the

horizontal wires were at

right angles to each other,

the received current was

reduced to about one

half,

and when the two wires

pointed in
tion

same

direc-

the

received

current was about two thirds of the

maximum.
Probably the most interesting result so far obtained
is

that a land station was found able to determine the bearing

of a ship, signalling with the horizontal wire.

There
this

is

no doubt that nothing could be simpler than

;

arrangement
it is

but, at the

same

time, for long distance

working

probable that the length of horizontal wire, and

consequently the space required for the station, would have

to

be considerable.

Braun's System of Directed Waves.

Braun has been

working

for

many

years on this subject, but his system has

it is

not yet advanced beyond the experimental stage, so

not

proposed

to describe

it

here in any detail.

The

radiation

i2

116

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
in one direction
its

is

more concentrated

than with the Marconi

it is

arrangement, but on account of

that
it

complexity

probable
to

will
it

always require considerable

skill

work.

Briefly

consists in using three vertical oscillators at the

corners of an equilateral triangle, and producing oscillations

in each, differing in phase

by a

definite

amount.

By

this

Aerial

Fig. 79.
[Reproduced from
Electrical

Engineering of Nov. 14th, 1907, by permission of the Proprietors.]

means Braun has

in the

radiated about thirty times

more energy
At the

maximum

than in the

minimum

direction.

receiving end

Braun uses a wire not

quite horizontal, but

sloping slightly towards the incoming wave.

The Directive System of

Bellini

and

Tosi.

Marconi's

directive system is only a special

form based on a general

principle, namely, that any closed oscillator placed in a

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

vertical

117

plane radiates more strongly in the horizontal E. direction of that plane than in any other direction.
Bellini

and A. Tosi have been experimenting with various forms of closed oscillator circuits between Dieppe, Havre
for both

and Barfleur

sending and receiving, and their

system has lately been described in Electrical Engineering.

Detector

Fig. so.
[Reproduced from
/;/
//,><>/

Kimlm-iTing of Nov. 14th, 1907, by permission of the Proprietors.)

The general form used has been a

parallel with the
is

triangle with one side

in

power no case was more than 500 watts used

ground and the apex open. Rather more required than with a non-directive system, but
for signalling the

106 miles and the directiveness of the signals was well

marked.

To vary the

direction of sending or receiving two

aerial triangles with bases

A
For

B, AI BI, Fig. 80, at right

direct excitation the aerial

angles have to be erected.

118

BADIO-TELEGBAPHY.
shown
in

circuits are connected to a continuous spiral as

Fig. 79 the point of connection being varied to give the

desired direction to the radiation.

two secondaries

of

For inductive sending, a transformer each have their planes in

those of one of the triangles, whilst the primary can be

rotated;

and

in the

same way

for inductive receiving the

and the secondary S is moveable. As the first patent only dates from April, 1907, it is probable considerable improvements remain to be
primaries

N, Fig. 80, are

fixed,

worked

out.

CHAPTER
THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR The Aerial.

VII.

PRACTICAL DETAILS.

The ohmic

as possible, whilst

must be kept as low the insulation resistance and capacity

resistance

must be

as high as possible.
it

With
is

oscillating currents

it

has to be remembered that

only the outside skin of

Fig. 81.

the conductor that

is

effective, so that it is
at.

surface, not
is

mass, that has to be aimed

Insulation

especially

important with open circuit sending, as the leakage in the

aerial takes place during the comparatively long time of

charging.

The

oscillatory current will also tend to partly

follow the path of leakage, so that a small leak quickly

develops into a large one.

The author has found with

open

circuit sending that highly vitrified porcelain is the

120

KADIO-TELEGKAPHY.

only insulator that has any practical value in the vibrating

circuit.

He

has used the type

of

insulator

shown

in

Fig. 81 with great success at the

mast head.

Where

the

aerial wires enter the building a long porcelain tube slightly

sloping

down

to the outside is satisfactory.

Bare wire

is

generally used,

though well insulated wire has

its

advantage

in

preventing

dissipation of the energy during

charge

by

convection.
to

The

difficulty is

keep the insula-

tion in good order under the

conditions,

and in the places

where radio-telegraph stations

are erected.

Copper

is

the best material

for the aerial,

and

it

is

best to

have the copper tinned.

author,

The

when

this

precaution

was not adopted, has found that

Fig. 82.
[Reproduced from
Electrical Engineering of Feb. 14th, 1907, by permission of the Proprietors.]

in a salt atmosphere a chloride

of

copper

formed,

which

was very rapidly was probably

due

to electrical discharges

from the conductor.

It is also

important that there should be no sharp points

loss

which would cause

from brush discharges.

1906 by the Post

As an

illustration of the latest type of aerial construction

for a small

power

station, that erected in

TIIK ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

-v. sa
[Reproduced from
/-.'',-,7, ;,-../

of

i-vi>.

ntli.

I'.

r,

liy

i>orini>sioii >if

Office

may

be taken as a good example.

The contractors

were the Amalgamated Radio-Telegraph Co., the system

122

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

employed being that of De Forest and Maskelyne. Figs, 82 and 83 show the general arrangement of the wires diagrammatically and by photograph.
well

The construction has been

as
follows
:

described

in

Electrical Engineering

"

The masts

that carry the air-wire system are 122 feet

high, and are of very noteworthy construction.

Each has

been built

(in

a horizontal position) out of deal planks

treated with

carbolinium.

start

together five
to this

planks

of lengths

was made by placing varying from 5 to 25 feet

;

stump other 25 feet planks were laid in continuation,

and the process continued, with proper tapering, till the whole mast length is formed without two butt joints ever
coming together.
18 inches.

The whole

is

bolted

up by
is

bolts at every

The lower part

of the
is

mast

cased round with

four planks, but the upper part

planked only where the

1 foot square at the

edges show.
base,

The masts being only

is

prove very pliable in high winds, yet exceedingly

strong.

Each mast

steeped in concrete, and has three

tied to

sets of four stays,

which are

ground anchors confeet.

sisting of long bolts

through 6 feet oak baulks buried 6

The

stays are not continuous wire rope, but are each broken

into short lengths

by 3

feet lengths of pickled ash, furnished

with iron eyes.

The

air-wire system consists of six equal

wires hanging from a yard and spreader of oak.

Eighteen

inches from the top they are electrically connected by a

cross wire.

The wires

at both stations dip at about

30

degrees from the vertical towards the north-east, and are

held apart by insulated stays near the bottom. Here they are

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

123

gathered into two bunches of three, and both bunches are

insulated and led through an ebonite tube into the apparatus-

room."

Asa

further example, an illustration of the aerial at

(Fig. 84)

Scheveningen

on the Telefunken system

is

is

given.

For large power

stations steel construction

often used.

Fig. 84.

Typical examples are the Marconi aerial at Poldhu (Fig. 85)

and the Telefunken

aerial at

Nauen

(Fig. 153).

The Lodge- Muirhead into a building is shown

Earthing
telegraphy
the
it

insulator for leading aerial wires

in Fig. 86.

Aerial.

In

the earliest days

of

radio-

would appear probable that one

of the

most

124

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

Fig. 85.

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

125

frequent causes of failure in the case of land stations was

due

to defective earthing

arrangements.

The plan adopted

was

to imitate as closely as possible the earthing arrangeis,

ments used in telegraphy, that

copper buried in the ground.

to use large pieces of this

By

means a good
is

metallic connexion could be obtained, but this

not

all

Fig. 86.

that

is

required.

From

the elementary theory the reader

will notice that

it is

important the closed lines of force from

If

the aerial should stretch out well into space.

is

the earth

an especially bad conductor in the neighbourhood of

field of force will

the aerial the greater part of the

centrated

be conthe

on

the

earth

connecting

wire,

so

that

radiation each period is small.

In the case of the early

126

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
was high, the

stations the resistance of the oscillating circuit

damping large, and, moreover, the receiving arrangements

were such that they were only
effective

when

the initial

radiation during the first discharge was great.

The sea being

a comparatively good conductor, sending from ship to ship

has always been comparatively easy, and the greatest

culty has always been experienced over sandy deserts.

diffi-

For
most

high power land stations the problem of earthing

important
;

is

Marconi and Fessenden bury copper wires, which spread out from the radiating station for the distance

of a mile or more.

Another

loss occurs using a

conducting earth, as con-

siderable dissipation of energy takes place

where the earthing

wires enter the earth, the current flowing through varying

paths of high resistance.

With small power, and the

is

surface of the earth a fairly good conductor, the author

doubtful
loss is

if

any

of the current reaches a buried plate.

This
it

probably greatest with open circuit working, but

always occurs as shown both by the experiments of Lieut.

Evans with open

coupled circuits.

circuits,

and

of

Duddell and Taylor with

In a special case, using the open circuit

system, Lieut. Evans found the oscillatory current was

reduced 56 per cent, when the lower capacity area of Lodge

was allowed
cent,

to touch the ground,

and

it

was reduced 85 per

to a telegraphic

when

this capacity area

was connected

Using the same system, and the capacity area on the ground, the author has noticed sparking from Jying
earth.

the radiating wires to the ground.

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

127

Messrs. Duddell and Taylor, using a coupled system in

their
of

Bushey Park experiments, earthed the

feet of wire netting lying

aerial

75

on the grass.

by means They found

by using a metallic earth the received current was only 60

per cent, of that obtained by the wire netting.

These

experiments
*

show that

for

land stations the

inductive earth with earthing wires forming one plate of

a condenser
earth.

is

better than the old telegraphic conducting

is

This inductive earth

used both by the Lodge-

Muirhead Syndicate and in the Telefunken system. The author is of opinion that the ideal earthing would be
a combination of the lower insulated capacity area of Lodge

with underneath
but he
is

it

the radiating earthed wires of Marconi,

not aware that this has ever been tried.

circuit,

In the case of a ship

however, the metallic earth

may

be

made

good, without loss, by taking well insulated

wires to the steel framework of the vessel.

Protection

from Lightning.

In the case of land stations

the aerial is practically a lightning conductor entering a

building
;

for this reason

every precaution should be taken,

and

it is

unadvisable to attempt to work a radio-telegraph

station during a

bad thunderstorm.

Long-break highly

insulated switches should be placed where the aerial enters

the building, and the author has used in addition the device

shown

in Fig. 87.

The earthed copper rod A, lying

in a

wooden frame hinged at B, rests on the ground under normal conditions, but during a thunderstorm it can be
1

See Fig. 63.

128

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
by means
of a rope

raised

from the signalling room so as

to

make
from

contact with the aerial.

is

With the De Forest system there

aerial to earth called

a small spark-gap

an anchor-spark, which acts as

a partial protection against lightning.

Variation of Effective Spark-Length with Capacity.

To
little

obtain a good oscillatory discharge in a circuit with

damping,
possible.

it is

necessary to

make
of

the resistance as small as

The
1

greatest part

the resistance

is

in

the

spark-gap,

so this should be short.

On

the other hand,

the longer the distance of transmission the

that
is

more the energy

required to

be stored before oscillations take place.

The energy stored varies with the capacity of the circuit and the square of the difference of potential to which the
arms
1

of

the

oscillator

are raised.
is

This difference of

The

resistance referred to

that during the oscillations.

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

potential
is

129

mainly determined by the length of the sparkthe longer

the

gap,

therefore
of

gap

the

greater

is

the

amount

energy that can be stored, but under most

this

circumstances
efficiency
;

can

only
it

be
is

done

by decrease

of

at the

same time

found that for a given

spark-gap the greater the energy that can be stored, the

less is the resistance.
It is

the most important problem

at

the transmitting station to store as

much energy
result

as

possible in the aerial, and, at the

losses

same

time, reduce the

in the spark-gap.

The desired

has to be

sought by increasing the capacity of the

has the twofold
the
effect of

circuit, as this

increasing the energy stored and at

same time allowing a longer spark-gap to be used for the same loss of energy. It is found in practice that, for a given
oscillatory circuit

and a given amount

is

of

energy stored for

that
is

each group of surgings, there

best.
If

a spark-length

the energy be sufficient, the greater the capacity

is

the longer
of

the best spark-length, and below a certain length

place.
If,

gap arcing takes

however, the energy supplied

be too small for the capacity the potential

may

not even be

raised sufficiently for the disruptive discharge to take place.

Under a given
circuit

set of conditions the best

spark-gap can

only be found by placing an ammeter in the oscillatory

preferably at the antinode of current, and trying

different lengths of

gap
;

till

the

largest

reading on the

instrument

is

obtained

a subsidiary circuit

ammeter may be placed in acted on inductively and having the

or the

same
R.T.

oscillation constant.

130

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.

In Figs. 88 and 89 are shown the results of experiments

made by Kempp

to

show the

relation

between spark-length,
resistance, with

capacity of oscillatory circuit,

and spark

zinc spark-knobs one and a half centimetres in diameter.

It will

be noticed that for a given capacity the resistance

of the spark is a

minimum

for a given length, increasing

;

for

both shorter and longer gaps

also

if

the capacity
certain

is

below a
oh
In
*.

critical

value, the rate of increase

of

resistance with sparkis

gaps

CO

length

very

rapid.

Spark

(0

Eempp

calculated

the

of
-

damping decrements from

the results

shown

in Fig.

Resistance

90,

and found that with

each capacity the [lowest

decrement
order

was

of

the

O07

to 0'08, rising

as a rule to about 0'15 for sparks of either O'l or 5 centi-

metres.
Characteristics of the Oscillatory Spark.

The

best spark

can only be found by means of a hot wire ammeter, as before described, but it is easy to distinguish an oscillatory spark from one which is not. The ordinary spark of an
induction coil working with small or no capacity across the

terminals

is

blue, thin

and jagged when the gap

short.

is

long,

and red and furry when very

the oscillatory spark
is

On

the other hand,

thick, white, and,

under the best

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

conditions, straight, with a
is

1.-J1

much more

intense sound, which

quite deafening

when

large quantities of energy are being

utilised.

The sound

of the oscillatory

spark has generally

been described as of a snappy nature, but Sir Oliver Lodge

has lately pointed out that this snappy spark only occurs
with rapidly damped
lations.
oscil-

An
for

induction coil
wireless
tele-

made

graphy that would give a

twelve inch non-oscillatory
spark,

would also give a

oscillatory

good

spark

of

about quarter of an inch

when

used

in

circuit
of

having a capacity

one

hundredth
Potential

of a microfarad.

Difference -re-

quired
tive

to

Produce a DisrupIt is

Spark Length In Centimetres.

Discharge.

much

Curve
..

/t

Capacity

B
t.

= 0-000273 mf. = 0-000435

easier to obtain a disruptive

= 0-000&S3 = 0-00109 = 0-00303

= 0-00686

discharge

between

points

than between knobs, and

the larger the radius of curvature of the knobs the greater will

be the potential difference required.

as
it is

In wireless telegraphy

the object to store as

much

energy as possible before

the disruptive discharge takes place, the potential difference

must be made

as great as possible, hence

it

has generally

been found unsatisfactory to use points.

On

the other

&2

132

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

hand,

Kempp

in his experiments found that

under the best

conditions of spark-length the

damping decrement was the same for knobs from 1*5

to 5 centimetres

16

diameter

1-14

M2
I'OO

(Fig. 90), but with longer

spark-gaps
0-08
o-oe

the

decre-

ment was increased by

using the larger knobs.
It
is

0-04
0-02

thus evident that

for a given set of con-

ditions there
2 3 Spark Length in Centimetres.
1

is

a suit-

able size for the knobs

5 cm.

Curve A
,,

Diameter of Spark Knobs -

B C
Fig. 90.

=3

to be

made.

7-5

To keep the surface of the spark knobs free

from
points
these are
polished.
coil

usually

kept

With the induction

a
of

much

greater storage

energy can be obtained

with the knobs polished. This

effect

was the most

original

marked with the

0-2

-4

-6

1-2

1-4

1-6

Hertz oscillator; as the

energy stored was very
small relatively to the

Sparking distance in Centmetres. Curve A Radius of Spark knobs 2-5 cm.

B
,;

,. ,.

1-0

,,

0-5

D
Fig. 91.

0-25

length and resistance of

the gap,
it

was found

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

best to repolish the knobs after every few minutes.

133

On

the

other hand, with an alternator which has a

flat

curve of

E. M. F.

(Fig.

55),

the

between the arms can be

ing the knobs
is of

maximum potential difference made so much smaller that cleanLodge claims that under
/*

no advantage.
be

the best conditions a series of points in ionised air

may

employed so as

to

maintain
*

a lower resistance of the gap

for a longer period.

For obtaining the

first dis-

I
ao

ruptive discharge the variation

of

50

sparking

distance

with volts for different sized

knobs up
spark-gap,

to 1*5 centimetres
A
Ridius of Spjr* A/ioOj
2 S cm.

according to A.
is

Heydweiller,

given

in

Fig. 92.

Fig. 91, and for longer gaps, according to J. Algermissen,

in Fig. 92.

Multiple Spark-Knobs.

In some of the earliest experiin

ments made by Lodge and Righi, and

the earliest

experiments of Marconi, the single spark-gap of Hertz was

replaced by several gaps in series, but single sparks were

again used by
1904,

all

the Wireless Telegraph Companies

that small

till

when Slaby found

of

gaps had propor-

tionally greater conductivity than large gaps.

He

replaced

one gap
metres.

10 millimetres by three gaps of 2$ milliin each case

The discharge pressure

was 80,000

134

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
but whereas the single spark had a resistance of

volts,

15 ohms, the total resistance of the three gaps was 0'6 ohm.
It

may

be noted that the total energy stored before dis-

charge was the same in each case, and that the increased
efficiency

was partly due

to the use of

a smaller total

length of gap, this being 7*5 millimetres against

10 milli-

Fig. 93.

metres for the single spark.

that the multiple gap
(1)

It

would, therefore, appear

:

is

best for two reasons

Eeduction

of total

gap

for the

same energy stored

in

aerial.
(2)

Eeduction of ohmic resistance for the same total

length of spark-gap.

of
1

Like other factors in wireless telegraphy the best number gaps and length can only be found by experiment for
Multiple spark-gaps have
in

given conditions.
for

now been used

some time

the

Lodge-Muirhead and Telefunken

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

systems, one type of the last
Fig. 98.

135

named being

illustrated in

Material of Spark-Knobs and Density of Dielectric.

The

resistance of the spark-gap also depends on the material of

which the knobs are made.

comparison between iron

to

and brass or zinc knobs, according

Fig. 94.

Fleming,

is

given in

The Rev. Jervis-Smith found

compressed air round the spark-gap checked leakage,
enabling
circuit
to

in

1902 that the use of

the

oscillatory
to
|

be charged

a higher potential. Fessen-

$
-5

den

later

has
air

employed
with both

compressed

jj

spark-gap and condensers for the same purpose.

Position of Spark-Gap.

|
Spark Length
Curve
in

mm.
2-5 cm.

Radius of Spark knobs

There are two sources of

B
Fi S-

10

annoyance from the oscil1 latory spark, the sound and the ozone given
account of these causes
it is

off.

On

advisable,

when

practicable, to

place the spark-gap in a separate

room from the

operator,

and with

it

may

be conveniently placed the sending transIn some systems the

former, inductance and Leyden jars.

gap
1

is

enclosed in a case to deaden the sound.

is

In the

De

Ozone

disagreeable smell,

a modified form of oxygen which, besides having a is liable in sufficient quantity to cause headache.

136

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

Forest system the winding of the auto-transformer surrounds

this case,

forming a very compact arrangement.

is

In the

Telefunken system the case

Arcing.
It

covered with

felt.

has already been pointed out how an induc-

tion coil has to be adjusted to obviate trouble

from arcing.
is dissi-

When

it

occurs the whole or most of the energy

It is
is

pated as heat in one direction.

due
still

to the air-gap

breaking down

whilst

the aerial

being charged.

This breakdown should occur at the same time as the

potential difference of the alternator
or at the break of the

becomes a maximum,

hammer
is

of the induction coil.

When
and

the arc
hissing.

is

predominant the spark becomes

best

red, furry

The

remedy

to reduce the charge given to

the aerial by decreasing the current through the primary

of the alternator, or

weakening the tension

of the spring of

the induction

coil.

Increasing the spark-length decreases

it

the arc, but increases the resistance, so

practicable.

is

not generally

Keeping the knobs clean and using larger

spark-

knobs

is

occasionally useful, and using multiple

It

gaps greatly reduces troubles from arcing.

must be

remembered the primary cause

capacity
to
it.

of the trouble is that the

be charged

is

too

small for the apparatus

charging

Coupled Circuits.

To obtain the best

results with coupled

systems the two most important

factors are a symmetrical

arrangement
of

of the closed circuit,

and a suitable co-efficient

coupling between the closed and open circuits.

To

obtain

symmetry two

sets of condensers in series

have to be

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR

used
;

137

the

best

coupling varies with the conditions of

of the greatest

working.

Perhaps one

advantages of using
the ease of alter-

the auto over the Tesla transformer

lies in

ing the inductance, so that the best coupling can be found

by experiment on the
cuits

spot.

The coupling between two

cir-

may

be defined as the mutual induction of the two

circuits divided

inductance of

by the square root of the product of the selfeach circuit. The greater the mutual inducis

tance the closer

the coupling.

According to Zenneck

it is

never advisable to have a

much

closer coupling than 0'3.

When
good

the coupling

is

adjustable,

it is

most important

to

have

electrical contact

position of the contact.

and an easy means of altering the One method is to tap the autouse a clip that can

transformer at each turn, connecting to a series of plug

terminals
;

another method

is

to

be

fastened direct to the transformer winding.

Either of these

arrangements

may

also be used for short circuiting coils of

the sending inductance not required in circuit.

The con-

denser

generally adopted

is

the Leyden jar, batteries of

these jars being formed, each jar having a capacity of about

O'OOl microfarad.

In the Telefunken system the jars are

replaced by long glass tubes of small diameter, giving greater

capacity for the
trates

same weight of material. the framework of a condenser-battery

Fig. 95 illusfor a

600 mile

station.
Tnnixiiiittinfj

Key.

Much

greater difficulty

is

experi-

enced with the transmitting key than in telegraphic work on

account of the larger currents to be broken
;

and massive

138

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

OS

60

THE

KLKCTK'K
to

<

is.

ILI.ATO1!.

139

platinum contacts have

be used, the break being shunted

of

by a condenser.
key
for small

The Marconi Company employ a type

power stations with the condenser

in a case

below.

They use a relay for alterand the break

at
is

nating currents of 20 amperes

or more,
ar-

ranged to take place

zero

current to prevent sparking at

the contacts.
Eig 96
'
'

In the Telef unken system the spark between the contacts

A C

(Figs.

96 and 97)

is

extinguished by an electro-

magnet W.

For larger power automatic minimum current

140

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
when 40 amperes
or

cut-outs are used, and

more has

to be

broken, several contacts are arranged in multiple.

Auto-Transmitter.
is

In certain cases, when quick signalling

required,

it is

necessary to obtain accurate spacing of the

it

tape-received signals, and

is

advisable to use an auto-

Fig. 98

transmitter.

A tape is first punched in a special punching and then passed through the auto-transmitter, machine, which automatically makes and breaks the primary of the
The auto-transmitter supplied by the Lodge-Muirhead Syndicate is shown in Fig. 98 and the
transformer
circuit.

diagram

of

connexions in Fig. 99.

THE, ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

Arrangement of Apparatus.

141

For a small power

station,

such as at Skegness, where the alternator gives nine amperes

at 1 10 volts, probably the arrangement of the apparatus in the

oscillatory circuit, adopted in the

best.

De Forest
shown

system,

is

the

The battery

of

Leyden

jars is

at the far

end

MOTOR MAGNETS

Fig.

of the table in Fig. 100.

On

this is placed the auto-trans-

former

this

a talc casing.

embraces the spark-gap, which is enclosed in At the top of all may be seen the handle for
| to

adjusting the spark, which can be regulated from

2 inches.

The

rest of the table is taken

The Poulsen Arc.

up with receiving apparatus. The arrangement of the oscillatory

142

BADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
same as with other systems, the
of

circuits is the

actual

arrangement

the

station

at

Lyngby being given

;

in

Fig. 101, the arc only taking the place of the spark

but a

Fig. 100.
[Reproduced from
Electrical Engineering of Feb. 14th, 1907,

by permission of the

Proprietors. ]

large
tion.

number

of practical details require special considera-

The most important

cool,

factors appear to be to keep the

electrodes of the arc

and

to

keep the length and

THE ELECTRIC OSCILLATOR.

current through
results, obtained
it

143

constant.

It is

supposed that the good

its

by using hydrogen, are due to

is

greater

heat conductivity.
tion

Oxygen prejudicial owing and consequent heating of the electrodes.

it

to

combus-

these cooler

is

advantageous to

To keep use a copper anode, and

with large currents to artificially cool the anode.

To keep the

arc constant
first for

Poulsen employed at

the cathode a carbon of large

diameter, revolving at a

cir-

cumferential speed of about

^Q

mm.

per second.

Addi-

tional carbon

was formed on

the end, which was cut off

as
it

revolved, or

else

the
lg
'

carbon was changed at the

end

of a revolution.

In his latest apparatus, however, he

of

makes the arc revolve round the edge

Ordinary illuminating gas

the
it

carbon.

may

be used, but

must be

continuously changed, due to the action of the oscillatory

currents.

The
field,

arc

is

kept in position by a transverse

magnetic
coil in

the electro-magnet also acting as a choking

circuit as

the

main

shown
a

in Fig. 101.

Poulsen has patented

signalling

large

number

of

methods

of

to take the place of the

ordinary transmitting

key

to break the

main current.
:

Amongst these may be

circuit.

mentioned the following

(1)

Short circuiting a resistance in the generator

144

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Short circuiting a resistance in the antenna circuit,

(2)

(3)
(4)
(5)

Making and breaking

the arc.

Altering the length of the arc.

Altering strength of transverse magnetic
Altering the gas flow through the arc.
field.

(6)

Marconi's Transatlantic Practice.

Marconi now uses

at

Poldhu a high-tension continuous current, which supplies

two
circuits containing capacity

and inductance.

third

oscillatory circuit is brought into alternate proximity

by

means

of a rapidly rotating disc

nearing two balls in the

first-named circuits.

Alternate sparks from these balls to

the third

the disc produce the necessary oscillations in

circuit,

from which the energy

at

is

fed to the aerial.

of

The

aerials

Clifden
ft.

and Glace Bay consist

at a height of

200 wires

extending 1,000
giving

180

ft.

from the earth

a partially
is

directional character to the radiation.

The wave-length
1'8 m.f.

4,000 metres

the sending capacity

is

made

of air condensers,

and the spark-length

is

three-quarters of an inch.

CHAPTER
THE RECEIVER
Histoi'y.

VIII.

METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

The

loop of wire,
a

improvement from the original Hertz broken by a minute spark gap, was the use of
first

number

of filings

Branly had found in 1890 that a tube could be made, which was completely non-conductof filings.

ing under ordinary conditions, but that with such a tube a

small difference of potential between the ends, as would be

produced by an electro-magnetic wave, caused the string

of filings to
If

become a conductor

to

an

electric

current.

the current ceased the tube would

still

remain a conductor

till it

received a tap,

when

Lodge

called this tube of

became again a non-conductor. filings a coherer, and he improved

it

the circuit in 1894, by using a relay with arrangements for

recording signals and tapping the coherer at the same time.

Popoff, in 1895,

made

his receiving circuit a single wire

stretching high

and Lodge and Marconi, in 1898, placed the coherer in a secondary circuit at an antinode of potential instead of near the node, which had

up

into the air,

formerly been the only convenient place to

fix

it.

Since

improvements have been made in detail, making the circuits vibrate more to one particular frequency and less to various other waves and numerous
1898 a large number
of
;

R.T.

146

KADIO-TELEGKAPHY.

forms of detectors have been invented which are considerably more sensitive and reliable than Branly's coherer. Considerable progress

may

be expected in the near future as

regards the problem of receiving signals from one definite

showed that by laying the receiving wire horizontally on or above the ground, the
direction.

Garcia, in

1900,

electric vibrations are

much

stronger

when the
station.

direction of
Bellini

the wire

is

away from the sending

and

Tosi in 1907 have also received directive

signals
in

by using two closed aerial circuits a vertical plane and at right angles to
Radio -telegraphic

each other.

Method
Signals.

of
It

Receiving

has been pointed out that when

an electro -magnetic wave strikes a conductor

surgings of electricity are set up.
Fig. 102.

As

in the

case of the transmitter, at one

moment

the

whole

of the

energy

is

potential, with a

node

at earth

and an

antinode at the top of the aerial, whilst after a quarter of a

period the energy
aerial
is all

kinetic, with a
at earth.

node

at the top of the

and an antinode

To

detect electric oscilla-

tions in a receiving aerial a sufficiently sensitive instrument

for detecting small differences of potential

must be inserted
for detecting

at the antinode of potential, or

an instrument

minute rapidly-alternating currents must be placed at an antinode of current. Most detectors are not sufficiently
1

The

directive

methods

of receiving

were described in Chapter VI.,

directive sending.

as these are based on the

same principles as

THE EECEIVER METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

147

sensitive to be used direct for recording or reading signals

they are usually shunted by a circuit with a battery in which

is

placed a relay or a telephone.

The change

of the electric

properties of the detector causes in general a current or

more current

to pass

through the

local circuit,

working the

relay in the one case or

the other case.

receiving circuit.

making a click in the telephone in 102 represents the simplest form of Fig.

The current

detector

is

placed at an

antinode and
clanche
cell

ceiver C.

shunted by a Leand a telephone reB, Under ordinary conditions

is

there

is

a minute steady current

cell

from the

through the detector

and telephone.

An

electric oscilla-

tion in the aerial alters the properties

of

the
is

detector,

so

that

the
Fig. 103.

resistance

greater or less thereby,

decreasing or increasing the current in the receiver, causing

clicks, whilst

station.

waves are being transmitted from the sending When the waves cease, the detector and circuit

assume, or are
condition.

made mechanically
At

to

assume, their normal

The Receiving Transformer.

first

only potential

dif-

ference detectors were used in wireless telegraphy, and they

were placed in the least sensitive position. Lodge and Marconi overcame this difficulty by the use of a special
transformer which enabled the detector to be placed at the
antinode.
Fig. 103

shows the arrangement.

The

aerial

A is

L2

148

EADIO-TELEGEAPIIY.

connected through the primary C of the transformer to a

wire

leading to

the earth,

or

earth capacity.

The
an

secondary
at

of the transformer, with antinodes of potential

is

F and H,

connected to the coherer G, which

is

insulator to direct currents under normal conditions, but

becomes

a
is

conductor
sufficient

when

there

difference

of

potential

across

it

such as

may
As
a

be

caused

by a wave

striking the aerial.

the

coherer

G
is

has

very minute and variable

capacity,
it

generally
a
larger

shunted

by
the
to

variable capacity K, to

enable
circuit

secondary
be

brought
that

into accurate tune

is,

to

have the same

constant
as

oscillation
Fig. 104.

the aerial circuit.

Fig. 104 illustrates the transformer used in the Telefunken system for receiving with loose coupling. It will be noticed

the winding of the primary

is

removed from the secondary,

and

it

can be shifted so that the windings do not surround

the

those of
'

secondary.

Marconi sometimes places a

Other types of receiving transformers appear on pp. 222, 237.

THE RECEIVER METHODS OF AIMJANUKMKNT.

condenser at the node of potential
to

149

which the Morse

inker or telephone circuits are connected.

Low

resistance current detectors are always placed at the

antinode of current, with a condenser at the node.

Such

an arrangement

for diplex receiving is

shown

in Fig. 105.

The

circuit

A with

condenser in series with the aerial picks

up short waves, whilst the circuit

B with inductance in

series

r
Fig.
10,3.

Fig.

10(5.

with the aerial

wires

is

tuned to receive the longer waves.

The

C go
is

to the local hatteries

Auto-TransfoniKT.

Another n ethod
It

and telephones. due to Professor

be seen from Fig. 106

Slaby

sometimes used.

will

that the device acts on a similar principle to the sending

auto-transformer.

The

aerial
is

is

connected

through
circuit,

an inductance B, which

common

to a

secondary

containing an additional inductance

is

C and coherer D, which

The one shown
in

shunted by a variable condenser.

is for

Fig. 107

receiving waves of from 600 to 8,000 metrep.

150

&ADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
of

Importance
is

Syntony.

When

an electro-magnetic wave

radiated from a wireless telegraph transmitter, not only

of

waves

one definite frequency are produced, but a large

Fig. 107.

number

of other

waves, which

may

be associated with

nearly as

much energy

as the principal one.

is to

As

in the

sending station, the problem

radiate as far as possible

waves approaching to one frequency, so at the receiving

THE RECEIVER-METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

station the object is to

151

make

the detector respond only to

the waves radiated from a given transmitter without interference from waves of other frequencies.

This

is

done by

making same as that

the oscillation constant of the receiving circuits the

of

the sending circuits, and

the coupling

between the two circuits as loose as possible. In the arrangement shown in Fig. 102, any stray disturbance in the aerial will act on the detector and cause a
click in the telephone.

Advantages of using a Secondary Circuit.

Besides being
it is

able to place the coherer at the antinode of potential,

possible by using a secondary circuit to

damp

out a large

number

of the

waves

of other frequencies that are

surging
the

in the primary circuit.

The

oscillation constant of

secondary circuit must be the same as that of the primary. In the case of the transformer, the interference can be
diminished by reducing the number of turns of the primary

and increasing the distance

between

the

primary and

secondary windings, both being at the expense of sensibility.

With the Slaby arrangement the only means

the
to

of decreasing

interference

is

by reducing the inductance common

;

the

two circuits

it

is

more
'

subject

to

interference
;

than

the

transformer,
in
is

though

more
system

sensitive

it

is

employed
sensibility
circuit

the

'

Telefunken
It is to

wherever

great

required.

be noted that the secondary

has frequently a large amount of inductance, so that a single vibration in the primary has very little effect on it.
Just as a cathedral bell requires a large

number

of small

152

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
first

impulses before the

sound

is

made, so a large number

of vibrations are required in the

primary

of

a receiving

circuit to set

secondary to act

up vibrations of sufficient amplitude in the on the detector and the vibrations in the
;

secondary that are not completely in tune to the natural

period get wiped out.

Shunted Capacity

to the

Coherer,

state the coherer acts as a very

is

In its non-conducting minute condenser, which it

so
it

impossible to
it

keep

constant,

is

necessary

to

shunt

with a capacity, sufficiently large so that the

capacity of the capacity of

two condensers in parallel is practically the the shunt. Without this it is impossible to give
This capacity

the circuit a definite oscillation constant.

also acts to a certain extent as a short circuit to the coherer,

therefore

if

made
one

large

it

diminishes the sensibility

at the

same time
to

this condenser

makes the

detector respond only

it is

waves

of

definite frequency

and therefore

always

employed

in syntonic working. in the Receiving Circuits.

is

Damping

The function

of the

receiving aerial

completely different from that of the

is

sending aerial, though usually the same

used for both

sending and
is

receiving.
;

The function

of the sending aerial

is

to radiate energy

the function of the receiving aerial

to

absorb energy.

There

is

no damping in the receiving

circuit

due

to a spark-gap, but there

must often be conaerial.

siderable

loss

due

to

radiation

from the

Both

the experiments of Duddell

those
of Tissot in

and Taylor in England and

to prove that the

France go

damping

THE RECEIVER-METHODS
due
It is
less,

<>F

/ARRANGEMENT.

153

to radiation

from the receiving

aerial is considerable.

probable that the carpet aerial of Lodge, by radiating would have a considerably smaller damping decrement

than the aerial used with coupled systems.

De Forest

since 1903 has been using an arrangement which was a

good radiator for sending and a

good absorber
will

for receiving.

It

be seen from Fig. 108, which

the

illustrates

arrangement at
These two
discharged

Skegness, that the aerial consists

of

two sets
of

of wires.

sets

wires

are

through two spark-gaps G for sending, but for receiving the

wires are in series, so that the
radiating wires are in open circuit for sending

and closed

circuit

for receiving.
to

The tuning box

right
of

the

extreme

the
100)
I2 Fig. los.
'/

receiving
consists

apparatus
of

(Fig.

two inductances

and condenser KI, the adjustments being made by sliding

contacts movable from outside,

KnfjinffT.

ing of Feb. 14, 1907, by permission of

so that waves of from 200 to 6,000 feet can be received.

The
1

electrolytic cell

is

used as detector, and

on
p. 174,

it

is

also

The

electrolytic cell is described

and the potentiometer

(in p.

ISO.

154

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
which contains the battery V, potentio-

in the local circuit

meter F, and telephone receiver B.

Subsidiary
Circuits.

The simplest method

is

of

making

the oscillations apparent

to

shunt the detector with a

cell,

telephone receiver

and a Leclanche'

the alteration of

the electric properties of the detector

of current

causing a change
potential difference
it

through the telephone.

Leclanche
cell is

The

of a single

often too large, as

would

completely break down

the
resistance
of

sensitive coherer,

mak-

ing the filings conducting.

To obviate

this a

potentiometer arrange-

ment is often
cell

used.

The

discharges through

a high resistance
109.

B,

Fig. 109, and from two

this resistance leads are taken

suitable points

A C on

through

the telephone to the coherer.

Also,
is

if

a receiving trans-

former be used, a condenser

placed in the middle of

cell

the secondary to prevent current from the Leclanche"

flowing through the transformer.

The capacity

of

this

condenser should be sufficiently large not

to appreciably

dimmish the capacity

of the oscillating circuit.

is

the local circuit to the node of potential, there

for the oscillatory current to flow

Connecting no tendency
local circuit.

through the

Sometimes the

local circuit connexions are

made

at D, in

THE RECEIVED METHO

>s

<K ARRANGEMENT.
coils

which case two small inductance

have to be placed in
It
is

the circuit to choke back the oscillatory current.

instructive to note the two different devices, choking coil

and condenser.
tically

The choking

coil acts as if it

had prac-

no resistance

to the direct current

and

infinite resist-

ance to the oscillatory current.

On

the other hand, the

to the oscillatory

condenser acts as
currents,

if

it

had no resistance

and

infinite

resistance

to

the

steady direct current

from the
cell.

LeclanchS

Relay and Tapping

Circuits with Coherer.

As
large

there

are

a
of

number
still

stations

fitted Flg- 110-

with coherers on the

Branly principle, the necessary

Fig.
110.

circuits

are

depicted in

The

relay

circuit is

shown

in thin lines,

and

the branch to the tapping circuit in dotted lines.

action of the relay

The

is to

close the local circuits

when the
The

coherer becomes conducting through a recording apparatus,

generally a Morse inker

M, and an

electric bell B.
it

bell-hammer
again.

taps the coherer,

making

non-conducting
is

Whilst vibrations are taking place the coherer

being

made

alternately

conducting and non-conducting.

Just after they cease the bell acts,

making the coherer

15(3

BADIO-TELKGRAl'HY.

non-conducting

till

fresh vibrations take place.

The arrange-

ment

of circuits

is

instructive in illustrating one of the

general precautions necessary in a wireless telegraph station.

THE RECEIVER METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

The

157

relay and bell circuits are being continually broken at

C and D, and

as both these circuits contain electro-magnets

with considerable inductance sparking would occur at these

points.

Now

these sparks,

however

minute,

would be
across

sufficient to

cause a
it

difference of

potential

the

coherer to

make
is

conductive, so

it is

essential to prevent
resist-

them.

This

done by placing non-inductive high

across the gaps,
cells.

ance shunts

and a condenser

across

the battery of

The condenser F
it

completes the

oscillatory circuit,
is in series

and as

with the cohererit

condenser,

is

made

fairly

large, so as not to alter the

oscillation-constant.

A set of

receiving apparatus, as used

in the Telefunken system, is

depicted in Fig. 111.

Morse
fitted

Fig.

ii-J.

instruments are sometimes

with an arrangement by

means

of

which the

first

signal received sets the clockwork

to

in motion,

and the tape moving,

of the message.

be stopped automatically

at the

end

Syphon RaconliT ami Clockwork with Coltcrer. In place of the relay and Morse inker, which is used in ordinary
land telegraphy,
the Lodge-Muirhead
to

Syndicate

use a

syphon recorder very similar marine cable working. Fig.

a pattern used for subthe circuits.

11'2 illustrates

The source

of potential difference

are in series

and syphon recorder S with the coherer and the secondary of the

158

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
The
oscillatory circuit is completed

transformer.

through

the condenser T, which also short-circuits the recorder for

high-frequency currents.

The Overflow Arrangement of Lodge.

The

best syntony

can be obtained by making the condenser

large,

(Fig.

108)

and using only a few turns on the secondary

of the

transformer D.

The

oscillations take place

till

through this
is

condenser, increasing in amplitude

the coherer

broken

down.

This

is

in fact the

same

as the in

arrangement made
1890 with syntonic
jars.

in Lodge's experiment, first

made

Leyden

Lodge
in

found that by setting

up vibrations
j
i

the
113,

poo,

[^-^-j

circuit

A,

Fig.

vibrations occurred in
Fig. 113.
.

.,

Leyden

jar

circuit

nearby.

When

tune with

was brought into perfect by moving the slider S along the two parallel
the circuit

wires, the amplitude of potential increased sufficiently to

produce a spark.

Lodge

called this

an overflow.

Receiving Circuits compared.

generally used are:
(1)

The receiving arrangements

Auto-transformer.

(2) Closely
(3)

coupled magnetic transformer.

Loosely coupled magnetic transformer.

is

The auto-transformer
close

generally employed with a very

of the

coupling,
is

and sometimes nearly the whole

inductance

common

to the

two receiving

circuits.

THE RECEIVER- METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

detector in the secondary circuit is responsive to
of large amplitude, but the

150

any wave
This

damping

is

excessive.

arrangement

is

used to get into touch with distant stations.

coupled magnetic

The
The

loosely

transformer has small

inductance and a large capacity in parallel with the detector.

detector
is

thus short-circuited, except for slightly

are in such
perfect syntony with

damped waves, which

the vibrations set up in the secondary circuit that

the
SENDING

amplitude

of

the
DA
suffi-

vibrations increases
ciently
to

act

on

the

shunted detector.

This
used

arrangement

is

when

there

is liability to

interference from atmo-

spheric disturbances or
signalling from other stations.

capacity of half a micro-

farad has been used under special circumstances.

The

closely coupled

magnetic transformer

is

intermediate

in its action.

Changing from Receiving

is

to

Sending.

The same
;

aerial

used both in
to

sending and receiving

but

it

is

most

important

lated from the sending apparatus.

keep the receiving apparatus completely insuThis is generally done

It is

by a single switch.

usual to arrange this so that in the

sending position the primary receiving circuit is broken in two places: the potentiometer circuit is broken and the

160

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Fig. 114 shows diagrammatically

detector short circuited.

how

this

can be done in one operation by a three-pole throw-

over switch.

The outer

levers

would consist

of metal bars

connecting

to

and

to C,

completing the secondary

sending

these bars in the receiver position would connect

to L,

A to K and F
The
third

completing the primary receiving

circuit.

arm

of the switch is
strips.

made

of insulating material,

with two small copper

of these completes the

In the sending position one

of the transformer, or induc-

tion coil through

D
I.

primary E, and the other short-circuits the

coherer through J

On

the receiver one of these strips

completes the local battery circuit through

H.

The Poulsen-Pedersen Arrangement. Detectors always form a point of relatively high resistance in the receiving
circuit.

This

is

an advantage

in ordinary systems, as the

detector thus absorbs the energy of the

damped

oscillations.
is

In the case of the Poulsen

arc

the energy emitted

practically continuous, so the receiving circuit also vibrates

continuously.

The
of

less

the

damping

the

greater

the

accumulation
sending
it

energy in the circuit.

In the chapter on

has been pointed out that close coupling increases

the damping of the oscillations.

it

With continuous waves

to

is

both feasible and advantageous

use a very loose

coupling between the primary and secondary receiving

circuits to reduce the

damping.

To
in

still

further reduce the

damping the detector

is

is

placed
after

tertiary circuit,

which

momentarily

closed
circuit.

energy has accumulated in the secondary

This 4

THE RECEIVE!* METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

is

161

done by means

of

what

is

called a ticker,

which generally

consists of a revolving toothed wheel

whose teeth make

intermittent contact with two thin gold wires.

For a potential detector the ticker can be placed as shown in Fig. 115. The vibrations in the circuit gradually

ABC

an arranged time the ticker momentarily broken at B, causing a breakdown of the coherer resistance. The condenser K prevents the flow
increase in amplitude
till

at

circuit is

...

Fin-

115.

Fig. 116.

of current

from the

cell

flowing through the ticker, and

the choking coils

resistance
to

F F

offer

a path of practically infinite

currents.

the

oscillatory

Thus normally

rapidly augmenting currents are surging in

ABC,

being

momentarily
recorder R.

shifted through the coherer, allowing current

to

from the battery also

flow through the coherer and

With a current
circuit,
K.T.

detector the ticker

is

placed in the tertiary

so that the vibrating circuit

is

never broken.

One

162

BADIO-TELEGBAPHY.
is is

method
denser

shown

in Fig. 116.

The capacity

of the

con-

relatively large

and

of the order of one-fifth of

microfarad, so that

when

the ticker

B makes

contact the

condenser C

is

practically short circuited, all the energy

being shunted across the telephone T.

II

Fig. 117.

The method, however, recommended by Poulsen, on the

score of simplicity and certainty,
is

to use a telephone as

the detector, connecting

it

as

shown

in Fig. 117.
is

In this

arrangement it will be seen the telephone T shunted across the capacity C.

momentarily

CHAPTER
THE RECEIVER

IX.

THE DETECTING APPARATUS AND OTHER

DETAILS.

History.
differences

At

first

only instruments for detecting small

of potential were used. Hertz employed a minute spark gap, a most insensitive arrangement, but which served his purpose admirably for the few yards over which he worked, and it also formed a rough mode of

measuring the energy received. A much more sensitive detector had been discovered by Munk in 1835. He
found that the discharge of a Leyden jar decreased the
resistance
original
of
filings of certain

substances, but

that the

resistance

was restored when the

filings

were

Branly rediscovered this action in 1890, and Lodge about the same time found that two knobs placed sufficiently close together were made to cohere by the
shaken.
action
of

the

discharge,

hence he named

this

form of

detector a coherer.
in this type
of

The tapping back, always an objection instrument, was overcome by Lodge by

rotating one of the materials, and by Castelli in 1901 by using an iron cylinder containing two blocks of carl ion

separated by a globule of mercury.

This arrangement was

;

found

to

decohere when the wave ceased

but,

on the other
M
-2

164

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
it

hand,

soon lost

its

sensitiveness.

The forms

of detectors

now most commonly used

the modified

are

the electrolytic detector

invented by Neugschwender and Aschkinass in 1898, with

forms

of

Schlomilch and

De

Forest

the

barretter of Fessenden, the magnetic detector of Rutherford,

made

practical

by Marconi, and the well known microthe Detector.

phonic detector of Hughes.

The Function of
a

It

has been seen from the

taken

last chapter that the function of the receiving circuit,

as

whole,

is

to

re-transform

electro-magnetic waves

travelling through the aether into electric vibrations along

a wire.

A
it

detector

is

for
if

the purpose of making these

vibrations apparent, and

placed in an oscillatory receiving

circuit dissipates most of the energy of the vibrations; at the same time the more quickly it dissipates the energy

the greater the damping and consequent liability to be acted

on by waves of various frequencies. A compromise has to be effected between the two opposing qualities, and thus it
will

be seen

how

impossible

it is

adequately to compare the

detectors used

The best form of by various companies. detector depends greatly on the wave length and damping
of the

sending circuit

generally the greater the

damping
in

in the sending circuit the larger should be the resistance of

the receiving detector.

different sets of

For example

it

was found

two

experiments, using very similar sending

circuits, that the best resistance for the detector

was about
of

60 ohms.

Large alterations

of

some property

the

detector with minute electric vibrations and at the

same

TIIK

DKTKiTING Al'PARATl'S.
Electrically, detectors
first

165

time reliability are requisite.

may be

grouped into two classes.

In the

and

earliest used, the

potential difference at the terminals has to rise to a certain

critical

value

in the second

form the current alters some

property of the detector.

liJihTence of Potential Detectors.
is

This class of detector

placed at the antinode of potential of a receiving oscillating

circuit,

and

it

is

also in a subsidiary circuit containing

a battery
recorder.

with either telephone, Morse inker or syphon

Under normal conditions

it

is

practically

an

infinite resistance in the battery circuit

and a small conthis class of

denser in the oscillating circuit.

detector work,
potential.
all

To make
is

that

is

required

a critical difference of

Below
i>

this critical value the resistance to direct

currents
nothing.

infinite;

above

it

this resistance is practically

With most forms

infinite

of this detector the resistance

has to be made

again by some mechanical means.

is

The

detector,

when on

the receive,

permanently in

circuit
its

with a battery not quite powerful enough to break

resistance.

down
is

The

action

of

the oscillatory current

to

increase this voltage at the terminals sufficiently to

make

the detector conducting, thus allowing a flow of current

from the battery

to

work either recorder or telephone.

discharge these detectors

On

account of the joining together of the particles of

after

matter
called

the

electric

"are

coherers.

Theory of

the Coln-rer.

great deal has been written on

the theory of the coherer,

in

J. J.

Thomson's theory

of

166

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
electrified

matter each molecule consists of a large number of

corpuscles
;

even in a molecule of metal these are in rapid

motion, but they do not leave their molecule on account of

electrostatic attractions.

Guthe considers that an external

electrostatic field will assist corpuscles to leave their mole-

cules due to increase of kinetic energy

a vibratory electric

current helps the passage of corpuscles from molecule to

molecule of the metal.

dielectric,

This current pushes aside the

thus causing a continuous metallic conductor to

Fig. 118.

be formed.

The tapping

of the coherer brings into contact

fresh molecules of metal, between which the dielectric has

not been pushed aside.

Where

the surface over which

is to

coherence takes place

is

very small, the detector

a great

extent self restoring, and requires no tapping back, though

it

gradually becomes more and more insensitive.

In this

case
is

Guthe supposes that most

of the

passage

of electricity
is

through the j^is surrounding the molecules, which

In

made

conducting by the electric vibrations.

many

coherers

both actions are observable.

Branhjs Coherer.
but for a long time
it

This has

now only

historical interest,

and

its

modifications were the only

TIIK

DETECTING APPARATUS.

167

practical detectors available.

It essentially consists of

tube of filings making a series of bad contacts, the tube

1

laving a path of high or infinite resistance, with a low

potential at its terminals, but the resistance breaking

down

completely with a higher difference of potential.

With the
still

source of increased potential removed, the resistance

remains low, and the tube has

to be

shaken for
high

it

to regain its

original
critical

resistance.

The

pressure depends on the

material used.

Trowbridge, in

1899, showed that with twenty

steel contacts in series eight volts

were required, and later Guthe

found the
critical voltage

per con-

tact for various substances lay

between 0'05 and 0'25

of a volt.

Fig. 119.

The

typical coherer consists of

two metal plugs in a

vacuum tube separated one

between being partly
filled

or two millimetres, the space

with

filings.

Marconi uses

amalgamated and silver filings; his coherer

coherer holder and
tapper

silver plugs separated

is

by a mixture of nickel
in Fig. 118; his

shown
Fig.

in

119.

Dr.

W. H.
a good

Eccles, a leading authority on the coherer, points out the

long training and great

coherer
in the
;

skill

required to
file

make
for a

even the changing of an old

new one

making

of the filings alters the

behaviour of the

coherer turned out.

Dr. Eccles also found that to get the

168

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

best results the filings arrange themselves in conducting

chains more easily

a vibrating tube,
filings

if

moving slightly, as may be caused by and that the smaller the area of the
initial resistance,

with consequent high

the

more
initial

sensitive

becomes the

coherer.

He

gives

the

resistance of a

modern coherer

as 100,000

ohms.

There are several disadvantages to this type of coherer. (1) It requires a relay with tapping back arrangement.
(2)

Coherers vary greatly in reliability and sensibility.

(3)

Whilst transmitting, the

filings

are very liable to

become

permanently cohered

from

powerful
;

vibrating

currents set up in the connecting wires

hence in practice

they have to be fixed in a specially-made metallic box, and

the wires to the coherer have to be covered with lead, which
is

connected to the metal of the box.

(4)

The coherers work

best,

sometimes horizontally and

sometimes
shifting.

vertically, the same coherer frequently requiring

The Lodge -Muirhead Coherer.

over the filings coherer, and
stations.
is

This

is

a great advance

being used in a

number

of

This coherer

is

shown

in Fig.
a,

120.

It

consists of a

slowly revolving steel disc

globule of

rotating extremely close to a

it

mercury

b,

but separated from

by so thin a film

of oil that the insulation is

quarters of a volt

it

is

broken down by about three connected across a potentiometer

its

and battery, so as
nals.

to

have a third of a volt across

of potential

termi-

An increased difference

due

to the electric

Till-;

DETECTING APPARATUS.

vibrations in the receiving circuit causes a complete break-

down

of resistance, but

immediately the vibrations cease

this again

becomes

infinite as the
elec-

wheel revolves.

It

is

important to make perfect

trical contact

between the mercury and outside circuit this is done

;

by

the

platinum spiral
/i,

c,

conis

nected into the terminal

which

screwed into the mercury trough

d.

The other connexion

the copper

is

made by
on
Plan

brush

e,

resting

the coherer axle,/.

To keep the
felt k,

edge of the coherer disc perfectly

clean a cushion of
carried

from a spring
it.

/, rests lightly

on

The

steel disc is

geared by

the ebonite wheel g

to clockwork,

which

also

drives

the

syphon

recorder
pattern a

tape,

and

in the latest

special

interrupter

is

vised in circuit with a telephone

receiver; these instruments

have
120.

the recorder and a telephone in

parallel.

In this case the steel disc

is

notched evenly along

the circumference, and an interrupter making about 400

revolutions per minute

breaks the telephone circuit for

about ^oioj) of a second during each revolution.

Though not

so simple as Marconi's magnetic detector, the

170

E AI )IO-TELEGRAPH Y.

author has found this coherer very reliable over a period of

two years' observation.

To use the coherer the following instructions are recom-

mended by the makers To adjust the coherer

:

for use,

remove the cap which and

by
in

covers the mercury globule, screw up the reservoir until

the mercury

is

just touching the edge of the steel disc,

drop as

little

as possible of the

"
special

"

heavy

oil,
it

means

of a large needle,

on

to the disc after setting

rotation, thus allowing the oil tojilin nicely over the surface
of the

mercury.

The mercury should on no account be

touched with a copper or brass wire.

In adjusting the coherer
(1)
little

The

steel disc

should be immersed in the mercury as

as possible, otherwise the coherer will be too insensi-

tive,
(2)
is

and the signals

will

tend to run into one another.

It is important to see that the steel disc of the coherer

connected to the positive pole of the battery.

(3) It is

important to see that the connexion between the

spiral

mercury and the amalgamated platinum

ebonite reservoir
is

in

the

a thoroughly good one, otherwise the

signals will be imperfect

and

irregular.

If,

after oil

has

been poured on the mercury, the reservoir should be turned

over or emptied of
its

contents accidentally, some

"

oil is

almost certain to run down and "film over

spiral, so that
'
v

the platinum

on

refilling the reservoir

with mercury the

;

Too much
there
is

oil

when

too

on the mercury tends to make the coherer insensitive little the signals run into one another.

THi:

DETECTING AITAHATTS.

171

contact between the latter and the platinum spiral becomes

had and the signals received unsatisfactory.

To re-amalis to

gamate the platinum

in a

spiral, all that is

necessary

heat

Bunsen or methylated spirit flame to a bright red it heat and then plunge it into pure mercury. The amalgamation

mercury adheres to the platinum, and can only be shaken out of the spiral with
is

satisfactory

when

the

difficulty.

Before replacing the

platinum

spiral

in the

ebonite reservoir the latter should be carefully cleaned with

paraffin oil
(4)

and

dried.

It

/.s

iniiHtrtant that

the edge of the steel disc of the

coherer should be keen and free from notches or indents.

(5) If it

The speed

of the coherer

wheels

affects the signalling.

be rotating too fast the short signals

may

only result

in a slight flick of the

syphon needle, but

for rapid signalling

the coherer

must

also rotate fairly quickly.

Three pairs
three

of

ebonite change -wheels for

the coherer and

corre-

sponding pairs
with each
set.

of brass

ones for the clockwork are sent out

Auto-coherer*.

This

is

the

name

given to coherers that

uncertain, but the

require no tupping back.

They are very

one invented by Signer Castelli, of the Italian Navy, is of historical interest, on account of it being used by Marconi
in his original experiments

on signalling across the Atlantic.

carbon separated by a

It consisted of electrodes of iron or

globule of mercury, with a telephone in the local circuit.

The pressure of the electrodes on the mercury could be adjusted by means of a screw.

172

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.

The Audion of De Forest. 1

platinum
discs,

De

Forest has lately used two

with sides parallel, placed about 2 milli-

metres from either side of the filament of an incandescent

lamp.

He

claims that this type of detector can be

made

extremely selective to signals not only of waves of different

frequencies, but also to different spark frequencies depending

on the battery pressure and distances

filament.

of plates

from the he

De Forest

states that

found the audion has

to be placed at

the antinode of potential,

and

'the

action depended on the total energy

received.
is

The method
in Fig. 121
;

of

arrangement
is

shown

a galvano-

meter and
Fig. 121.
[Reproduced from Electrical Bn0tneertn0ofFeb.i4,i9or,

a telephone receiver.

Current Detectors.

The more com-

mon

forms

of detector

now used owe

of current in

their action to

by permission of the Proprietors.]

changes

the vibratory circuit.

Sometimes the
is

action

is

such that the actual energy of the oscillations

used as in measuring instruments, and in the magnetic

detector
;

but more often the action

is to

increase or decrease

the current through a local circuit containing a battery and

telephone receiver.

Current detectors with a high

resist-

ance are placed at the antinode of potential.

The Magnetic

Detector.

Rutherford, in 1897, found that

if

the properties of a strongly magnetised needle were altered

placed in a solenoid through

1

which

electric vibrations took

Fleming claims

priority in this invention.

THE DETECTING APPARATUS.

place, but with

173

each succeeding vibration the alteration

less.

became rapidly
tical as

Marconi made the instrument prac-

a radio-telegraph receiver by using a slowly moving

by induction, passing through the which the oscillations take place. Marconi's solenoid, through instrument consists of a solenoid (Fig. 122) in the radioiron band, magnetised

receiving circuit.

This solenoid
;

is

about

inch diameter and

several inches long

it

consists of a single layer of wire

wound on
amount
wave
this

a glass

tube,

the best proportions and

of

wire

on the

bobbin depending on the

-

length.

Through
passes

solenoid

an
[Reproduced
I-'fli.

endless core of fine iron

wires, revolved

from

MC<MY,-/

/,i./;,,,

7,

l'.H)7,

by permission of the Pro-

by clock-

pri'-tors.]

work as slowly as possible over pulleys. These iron wires Round are magnetised by two small horse-shoe magnets.
the solenoid
is

a bobbin
resistance,

wound with

fine wire of several to a

hundred ohms
receiver.
lines of

and connected

telephone

The

oscillatory current alters the

number

of

magnetic force in the iron and through the bobbin,

causing a current and a click in the telephone.

According

to

Dr.

Eccles the

sudden

change
is

of

the

magnetic

field

caused by the oscillatory current

in the

same
band

direction as the slower change produced by the

in the

permanent magnetic

field

moving and therefore the

iron should not be too strongly magnetised

when

acted on,

174

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.

but with a given force applied the rate of change of induction

should be as large as possible. Dr. Eccles also finds that the
effect is

proportional to the whole energy of the train of oscil-

lations,

but he could at the same time obtain more powerful

initial

sounds with largely damped waves of greater

tude.
It is,

ampli-

however, claimed by Marconi that in practice

this instrument can be

made
as
is

effective to only long trains of

undamped waves, and

if

generally shown

it

is

placed

directly in the aerial circuit this

must be

so, or

atmospheric

disturbances would cause greater interference than is the case.

It will
is

be seen that with Marconi's magnetic detector there

nothing to get out of order and no adjustments are required.

The

Electrolytic Detector.

In 1898 Neugschwender and

the
plating

Aschkinass found
of

that

when

on a

piece
to a

mirror was

cut

by a sharp razor and subjected

small difference of potential, no current passed so long as

the surface of the glass was
dry,

but

with the

glass

moistened

it

could be seen with the aid of a microscope

that minute metallic particles were torn off from the anode,

forming bridges across the gap, and decreasing the resistance

of the circuit.
If this

arrangement be placed

in a receiving

oscillatory circuit these currents will

decompose the water,

and the evolved gas

will

break down the bridges, thereby

last.

increasing the resistance so long as the oscillations

1

of decomposing a liquid by means of an electric the ends of the wires dipping into the called electrolysis The positive electrode liquid or electrolyte are called electrodes. where the current enters the liquid is the anode the negative electrode

The process
is

current

where the current leaves the electrolyte

is

the cathode.

THE DETECTING APPARATUS.

De

175

Forest found that a more sensitive arrangement was,

after the formation of the bridge, mechanically to separate

the electrodes.

There was then a back E.M.F. acting

to

in

an opposite direction
current.
If

the

battery cell

supplying the

this

be

now

placed in the receiving circuit

the oscillatory current causes a temporary annulment of

the back E.M.F.

allowing current

to

pass

through

telephone receiver in the battery circuit.

Instead of surfaces Schlomilch in

Germany and Fessenden

and De Forest

America have used a single fine platinum wire as the anode, and sulphuric acid as the electrolyte.
in

This form has been very largely used by the Fessenden,

De
of

Forest, and

German companies.
This detector
is

TJie

Lead Peroxide Detector of Brown.

It

the electrolytic type.

consists of a pellet of lead

peroxide (Pb Oa) placed between small blocks of lead and

platinum, the lead being at the end of a spring, so that

pressure on the peroxide
obtain
battery

its

may
The

be regulated by a screw to
positive

the best result.

pole of the

local

has

to

be connected to the platinum, and the

inventor finds two volts to be the best pressure for this

battery.

According

to

Brown two

actions occur.

The

local battery

tends to break up the peroxide into lead and oxygen, the

lead being deposited on the lead cathode

and oxygen on

the platinum anode.

The peroxide

cell,

on the other hand,

acts as a battery, tending to cause the lead to be deposited

on the anode and oxygen on the cathode.

Under normal

176

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
the
action
of

conditions

the

local

battery

is

the

more

powerful, but an oscillatory current enhances the action of

the peroxide

cell,

so

lead

is

actually

deposited

on the

platinum, to be removed

by the action of the local battery

so soon as the vibrations cease.

During the

oscillations

the electrical effect

is

an apparent increase
cell.
1

of resistance of

the peroxide

Fessenden's Barretter.

Professor Fessenden

has used a very fine platinum filament A.

(Fig. 123)

for

detecting oscillatory currents.

in dia-

The

size

used was about O'OOOl inch

less

meter, and rather

than an inch long,

having a resistance of about 60 ohms.

barretter
is

The
local

also connected

through a

[Reproduced
from
Electrical

c i rc uit

containing a battery and telephone re-

Engineering of Feb. 7, 1907, by permission of the Proprietors.]

ceiver.

The current due

to

received waves
of

increases the temperature

and resistance

the filament, decreasing the current through

the telephone.
is its liability

The

objection to this type of instrument

to being

burnt out

to obviate this

Fessenden

used a filament of weak acid (Fig. 124) which, besides being

more

reliable

gave a greater change

of resistance

with a

given oscillatory current.

This type of detector has a

as 30,000

very high resistance, as

1

much

ohms even

whilst

of resistance;

this detector found the opposite effect, a decrease he also found that the detector would not work efficiently with a greater battery pressure than half a volt. The normal resistance of this detector is about 10,000 ohms.

The author using

THE DETECTING A1TA KATUS.

177

the vibrations are taking place, and the current flowing

through the local circuit

is

about one-tenth of a milliampere.

In 1878 Hughes found that

The Mirrophonic Detector.

a loose contact,
circuit,
if

properly set
to

and placed

in a battery

was subject As used pressure.

detector
consists
lightly

change

of resistance with

changes of

in

radio-telegraphy the

microphonic

of

hard carbon
steel

point

pressing
detecting

on a

spring.
to

The

action

may may

be due

heating at

the point of juncture

between the carbon

and

steel,

but

it

also be partly thermoto the

electric

and partly due

carbon acting
of this detector Fl 8- 1 - 4 [Reproduced from Bt**rtai />/<-

as a rectifier.
is of

The resistance

the order of from 10 to 100 ohms.

Detectors.

Tliermo-electric

L.

W. Austin
two
therrno-

-Ing of F.-b. 7,

has found
elements

that

the

contact between
in

1907

'

'>>'

i><T'i*tlie

sion of

Pro-

differing

widely
effic

the

i-n,-t..i-s.|

electric series

makes an

ient radio-telegraphic detector

to

He

found the best elements

;

be aluminium against

tel-

lurium

and that greatly increased sensitiveness and con-

stancy of action were obtained by slowly rotating the point of

contact.

The
;

resistance of such a detector

is

from 1,000

to

8,000

ohms

the

surfaces have

to

be kept clean with

petroleum.

The Carborundum
1

D<-lfrtur.

H. Brandes,
It
is

in 1906,

found

Carborundum

is

a carbide of silicon.

the next hardest sub-

stance

known

to the diamond,

and

is

made

in electric furnaces at

Niagara,
B.T.

178

EADIO-TELEGEAPIIY.
which the current does not

that, in general, conductors in

vary

proportionally to

the

applied

of acting as detectors

owing to their makes the conductor have less resistance in one direction
than the other
ductivity of
;

E.M.F. are capable rectifying effect, which

in fact,

it

is

often thought that the conis electrolytic.

such

substance

Pierce, in

1907, found that with 10 volts at the ends of a crystal of

carborundum the current

in one direction

was 100 micro-

amperes, but with the E.M.F. reversed the current was

only 1 micro-ampere.
Platinising the

two ends

of

the

carborundum a much lower

and the excess
of current in

total resistance

was obtained,

one direction over the other

was

greater, though there was a smaller efficiency of recti-

fication.

General Dunwoody, of the United States Army,

has used this detector without any local battery, simply

shunting the carborundum with a telephone.

The Telephone Receiver. A telephone receiver consists essentially of an extremely thin disc of iron in the field of an electro-magnet. Kapid variations of current through
the
disc,

electro-magnet cause varying attractions of

the iron

and these movements

sound waves.
it is

of the disc are

imparted to the

air as

One

characteristic of the telephone

sensitive to

receiver is that
of current

much more

minute changes

than to minute

initial currents.

With spark

tele-

graphy

it

has been impossible

it

to

use the telephone receiver

directly as a detector;
circuit,

always has to be placed in a local

in
;

through

which,

the majority of detectors,

a
of

current constantly flows

and the

electric

properties

THE DETECTING APPARATUS.

some substance
in the circuit

179

has

to

be altered, changing

the current through the telephone.

With the undamped waves

possible to
circuit, so

of Poulsen, however,

it

is

accumulate sufficient energy in the vibratory

that
if

the

current

be

momentarily broken
of the oscillatory

through a telephone receiver, the energy

current
is sufficient

to cause the necessary sounds.

Potential versos Current Detectors.

of

At the present stage

our knowledge

it is

almost impossible to adequately comIt

pare different detectors.

special

has been seen how with a

system the ordinary telephone receiver

may be

used;

the choice of other detectors should depend on the character

of

the

sending
is

circuit.

The

resistance of

the potential
it

indicator

generally high, and as usually connected up,

;

requires waves of comparatively large amplitude

accord-

ingly

it

is

admirably adapted

for

use with
is

the original

Marconi

aerial,

where sharp tuning

not required and the

circuit is not subjected to extraneous disturbances.

The

action of the current detector on the other

hand usually
;

depends on the

total

energy absorbed by the detector

long trains of

it

therefore can be used for

waves

of small

amplitude in cases where good tuning

is essential.
it

One advantage

of the potential detector is that

can be

easily used with recording and calling- up apparatus on

account of the great change of ohmic resistance.

current detectors this change
a telephone receiver
satisfactory.
is
is

With

always so small that hitherto

the only indicator that has proved

is

Where

rapid signalling

necessary the tape

N2

180

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
to he discarded,
is

however has

as the

maximum
to

speed of

receiving at present

about fifteen

1 twenty words a

minute, whilst a good operator can read thirty-five words a

minute with the telephone, eliminating noises from atmospheric disturbances by the different character of the sound.
Testing the Detector.
It is

most important

to see that

the detector

is

in good

working condition from time to time.

This can be easily done by having a miniature oscillator a

foot or so
sists of

removed from the

detector.
bell or
cells

This oscillator con-

an ordinary electric two dry

buzzer worked by one or

circuit,

with a key in

and

an
to

aerial

about one foot high connected

one

of the terminals across

which the

spark occurs.
Regulation of Local Circuit.
detectors
Fig. I2o.

Some

work with a considerable range

O
;

adjustment of the battery power in

the local circuit

others require a rather fine adjustment,

is

more especially when the pressure required

of a volt.

only a fraction

In this case a potentiometer

is

used as shown
cells is

in Fig. 125.

The current from one or more

taken

through a high resistance, which can be tapped at any convenient point. In the instance given the potential of the
cell is

2 volts

the tapping

is

taken one-tenth of the distance

along the resistance, so that the pressure at the terminal of

the detector
is one-fifth of

a volt.
It is often

Calling-up Arrangement.
1

convenient to have
letters.

word

is

always taken as having five

THE DETECTING APPARATUS,

a calling-up arrangement on the receiver.

181

This

is

more

easily arranged with the coherer than with current detectors.

Fig. 12G illustrates the Lodge-Muirhead arrangement with

coherer and recorder.

In

addition

to

the galvanometer

hobhin

for recording, there is a half-turn of wire

which

Fig. 1UH.
is

Fig. 127.

connected to the metal disc

a rod

can be rotated so

that the

arm B

at the

end comes close

to C.

When

a signal

makes the coherer conducting the circuit is completed through the bell and battery. The bell starts ringing and
continues owing to the spark of the bell keeping the coherer
till

conducting

the rod

is

rotated,

moving the arm away

182

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
The switch
is

from C.

then moved so as to take the rod

of

out of action.
in Fig. 127.
plate, is

The method

suspending the
fixed to

coil is

shown

At the bottom,

a small aluminium

the syphon.

Sullivan's Relay.

Mr. H. W. Sullivan has

lately placed

on the market a relay which

up, or for signalling
ing.

may

be used either for calling-

up

to thirty

words a minute hand sendto

For signalling the relay is guaranteed

work with one

Fig. 128.

Leclanche
is

cell

through 250,000 ohms, and as a

to

call relay it

guaranteed
cell

ring

a bell in a local circuit with one

five

Leclanche

through

megohms.

The relay

consists of

a moving coil galvanometer with pivoted bearings, of which the general appearance
coil is
is

shown

in Fig. 128.

fastened a very light aluminium

To the moving arm with platinum

contact piece.
the

current through the moving coil causes

swing against a fixed platinum contact. The great sensibility that can be obtained is due to springs "fastened to both the moving and fixed arms, which cause

arm

to

THE DETECTING APPARATUS.

them
to yield

183

slightly
;

when

contact

is

made, thus prethe contacts

venting any rebound

self-cleaning.

these springs also

make

Further details

may

be gathered from Mr.

:

Sullivan's instructions,
(1)

which are as follows

of instrument,

To remove cover
lift.

turn anti-clockwise

about J-inch, then

(2)

The

coil

is

pivoted in

sapphire bearings, and

is

roughly balanced by means of the counterpoise on the back end of the contact-tongue, an exact balance being after-

wards

effected for ship-board use

coil

by means

of the adjustable

leaden arms soldered to the

(8)

frame, front and back.

To vary sensibility Move inward or outward the longer end

adjusting lever.

of the brass

The shorter end

of a
its

of this lever is

pinned

to the outer

end

non-magnetic hair-spring, surrounding and attached at inner end to the upper pivot rod, so that, on moving the

brass

arm

in or out, the spring is tightened or loosened,

the controlling force which the latter exerts upon the coil

system being correspondingly increased or reduced.

(4)

The white wire

spirals

from the two front terminals

complete the line circuit through the non-magnetic hairspring and the fine silver ribbon at bottom of coil
;

while

the two green wire spirals connected to the back terminals

marked "Local" complete the

contact screw in brass cock piece.
(5)

local circuit

through the

S-shaped attached spring of contact lever and the platinum

Bolh

line

and

iocal circuits are protected

by means of

184

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
In the event
of either

fuses in glass tubes.

fuse being

blown
(6)

it

can be instantly replaced with a spare one.

is

False contact due to mechanical vibration

remedied
Or,

by slightly moving the brass adjusting

the entire instrument

arm

inward.

may

be mounted, without screwing

down, upon a pad or bed

nesses).

of hair-felt (two or three thick-

The platinum contacts, being burnished, should be cleaned when necessary with letter paper (not emery) first
(7)

moistened with

spirit,

then dried.
It
is

Practical Details.

essential

to

have every joint

perfect, and the leads should be placed as symmetrically as The aerial is common to both sending and possible.

receiving circuits

the rest of the receiving circuit should

the sending circuit
of

be entirely

disconnected from

when
114).

transmitting, as

shown in diagram

main switch (Fig.

The

receiving leads should be kept far removed from the

sending leads.

Whilst sending, the local circuit through the

it

detector should be broken, and often

is

advantageous

to

short circuit the detector at the

same

time.

The

receiving

transformer should be wound with very fine stranded wire

to prevent

eddy currents

very

little

insulation

is

required,

so silk-covered wire is used, but only one layer should be

employed.

The

best syntonic results are obtained with as

few turns of wire on the primary as possible; one to three

turns will often be enough

primary and secondary windings can be removed from each other

;

also the further the

the better.

THE DETECTING APPAEATUS.

185

Instead of a single layer of wire on a bobbin the secondary

has sometimes been wound in the form

of a flat spiral.

Generally the variable inductance required for receiving

also consists of a single layer of wires

wound on a bobbin,

with plug connexions arranged so that more or fewer turns

may

be used, with the remainder of the winding short

circuited.

More

lately

two concentric

coils

have been used

whose planes may be

relatively changed, so that the self-

induction of the whole can be altered without altering the

ohmic resistance

of the circuit.

When

close coupling is employed, the capacities used for

shunting a potential detector are of the order of a few Those used for tuning in the receiving centimetres.
circuits are of the order of

one-hundredth

of

a microfarad,

and those used

about one-fifth

to

short circuit recording apparatus are

of a microfarad.

station

is

generally designed for a special wave length

so as to have the circuit as far as possible symmetrical about

the spark gap and receiving transformer.

To receive waves
primary

of higher frequencies the oscillation constant of the

is

decreased by placing a variable condenser in series with

;

the aerial

to receive

longer waves inductance

is

added.

The secondary

circuit

can always be brought into tune by

altering the inductance or the capacity.

CHAPTER

X.

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
Subsidiary Apparatus.
It is

important that the correct

current at a proper pressure be given to the induction coil

or transformer.

that this

in

To enable the operator to see at a glance being done, a dead-beat ammeter and voltmeter
circuit.
It is also

should be placed in the primary supply

advisable to have a linesman's detector, Wheatstone bridge,

and ohmmeter

for

testing the continuity, resistance

and

insulation resistance of the circuits.

Ammeter
of greatest

in

Sending Circuit.

To obtain the adjustment

an oscillatory
circuit con-

energy

of vibration in

taining an

rough adjustment may be and sound of the spark, but a obtained by the appearance more sensitive method for any oscillatory circuit is to place
air-gap,

the

first

a hot-wire

ammeter

at

or near the antinode of current.

The ammeter should have low

ammeter be
greater

resistance or

it

will itself

cause damping and lowering of the energy.

the
larger than No. 40
to

If

the wire of

S.W.G. the resistance and

for

will be

oscillatory

currents,

accurate
;

measurements the ammeter

will require special calibration

but for general purposes only the relative current is required.

When, during the measurements,

alterations of capacity or

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

187

inductance are made, the ammeter must be placed at the

antinode
;

for other

measurements anywhere near the

anti-

node

will

be suitable.

Any adjustment, such

as adding self-

induction, alters the position, and the fresh antinode has to

be found by

trial.

Fig. 129 shows an aerial circuit with

ammeter
tance
I,

at antinode of current.
circuit;

Increasing, say, the induc-

might improve the

if

but the antinode would be

left

shifted, so that

the

ammeter were

in the

same position

the apparent energy of oscillations would

be decreased.

The ammeter should be

shifted along the inductance (Fig. 130)

until the

maximum
is

reading possible

is

obtained.

Placing the

ammeter

at the

antinode

always the most sensitive

it

arrangement, but when

is

not neces-

sary to find the inductance or capacity

that gives the greatest surgings in the
circuit the
Fl o- 129

ammeter may be placed any;

where near the antinode

and so long as neither capacity nor

inductance are changed the readings are comparable.

The

more a

circuit is loaded with capacity, the less is the

change

of current reading caused

by shifting the

ammeter a short

distance from the antinode.

In the case of the single aerial

it

the change

is

very great, so that

is

most important

in

the case of the

receiving circuit to

insert

the receiving

transformer or detector at the exact antinode.

Obtaining the

maximum ammeter

reading

near

the

antinode forms a rough

but effective indication of the

188

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
As increased energy
coil,
is
is

surgings in the circuit.

say,

supplied,

through an induction
till

the reading of this

ammeter

rises rapidly

maximum

obtained; the readings again

rapidly falling off as the energy supplied becomes too much,

and arcing takes place across the gap. It must, however, be remembered that different receiving arrangements require
different classes of vibrations in the sending circuit,

one

working best with a largely damped violent surge

initial

of large

amplitude, whilst another requires a long train of

waves which

may

be of

much

smaller amplitude

more-

over, the function of

an

aerial circuit is to radiate energy,

field of force it

and
very

if

it

has too contracted a

may

radiate

little

energy, and yet the ammeter might show large

;

vibratory currents

it

follows that

it

is

impossible by this

means
circuit.

to

compare

different systems or

arrangements
tell

of

It is best

used as a means to
is

whether the

proper amount of energy circuit, and to obtain the

system.

being supplied to a given

best arrangement with a given

Most important results have been obtained by placing an ammeter in the receiving In practice two difficulties arise the instrument aerial.

Ammeter

in Receiving Circuit.

must be extremely sensitive, as the currents to be measured are very minute and with the most sensitive instrument it
;

is

impossible to
signals

measure the current over such distances

received.

as

can be

instrument as

sensitive as

To make the measuring possible its resistance must

Tissot

have

specified

value.

considers

from

his

MEASUREMENTS JN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

189

experiments that the resistance of the instrument should

he such that the total energy dissipated in the circuit
equal to the radiation from the circuit, that
aerial.
is,

is

the receiving

As a special instance, using very similar arrangements, Duddell and Taylor in England and Tissot in France found
the
hest
results,

or

rather the most energy to work a

detector were obtained, with a measuring instrument whose

resistance was about 50 ohms, though different types of

measuring instruments were used.

due

From

this result both

sets of experimenters considered that a part of the

damping
it.

in

a receiving circuit

is

to

radiation

from

In

Duddell and Taylor's experiments with sending arrange-

ments constant and receiving

results were obtained
:

circuit in

tune the following

Resistance of Receiving Circuit

in

Ohms.
<.

190

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

best tuning

obtained by making r as small as possible,

is

but the most energy

utilised

when the

receiving instru-

ment had a
used.

resistance of 56

ohms

for the particular aerial

From

the formula, Messrs. Duddell and Taylor point

if

out that the current flows as

an E.M.F. of 0'12 volts

it

were induced in the

as
if if

air wire,
of

and that

dissipated energy

it

had a resistance

56

ohms

they also point out,

this constant 56 could be reduced, both the sharpness of

tuning and the power available for working the detector

would be increased.

The following

additional data are useful with reference to

:

the foregoing experiment

Height

of transmitter wire,
of receiver wire,

42

feet.

Height

56

feet.

Distance between wires, 1,245

feet.

Current in transmitter wire, 0'486 ampere.

Wave-length radiated, 400

feet.

Number

of trains of

waves radiated per second, 18.

In another experiment

made between

the

"

Monarch

"

and the Hill

and a
hill

of

Howth

miles away, with weak coupling,

intervening, this empirical formula

~

became

0-0364 r 60

It

would appear

it is

this constant (60) that

Fessenden

calls

the radiation resistance, and which he has reduced to about

6 ohms.

Method of Finding
following

best

Coupling in Sending Circuits.

The

experiment

of

Duddell and Taylor

shows the

M KASI
importance
circuits.

'

l;

KM KNTS IN RADIO-TKLKOHA

I'!

V.

191

of

obtaining the best coupling-up of the sending

An

auto-transformer was used with seventy turns

aerial circuit.

of wire in the circuits

The sending and receiving

having been accurately tuned, signals were sent

miles, with the following results
:

over

(5^

XunilMT of Turns of Auto-transformer in common to both

Circuits.

192

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
As a general
;

Use of Ammeter in Subsidiary Circuit.

all

rule
it

that

is

required

is

to

measure

relative currents

is

then often most convenient

at the transmitter to place the

measuring instrument in a subsidiary oscillatory circuit of the same oscillation constant and acted on inductively.

The arrangement is shown in Fig. 131. hi taking measurements the known inductance I 2 is placed at a distance from
the single turn of inductance
:

Ii,

so as to get convenient
it

readings on the ammeter A, but

must

not be placed too near, otherwise

compound

waves

are

produced.

When
it

the variable

known

capacity

is

such that either inreduces the current

creasing or diminishing

through A, the oscillation constants are the

same.
for
It
is

this

arrangement that

is

used

measuring wave-lengths.
in the

Measuring Instruments used

Fig. 131.

Trans-

mitter.

The type
fine

of

instrument generally

employed in the sending

circuit is a hot-wire

ammeter.
it

The current heats a

platinum wire, causing

to sag,

and the sag is magnified by an arrangement of levers and pointer. For radio-telegraph work the platinum wire
should not be larger than No. 40 S.W.G., or several wires
of this size,
parallel.

and the same length should be placed in

the electric
like that of

Another very sensitive current indicator

J
,

is

The arrangement

of the

two inductances would be very

the receiving transformer, Fig. 150, p. 222.

MEASUEEMENTS IN KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
thermometer.

193

wire to be heated by the current

filled

is

at

one end

of

a U-tube partially

with liquid.

The

aperture at this end can be closed by a cock.

The heating

Fig. 132.

of the wire causes the air in the tube to expand, driving the
It is important to liquid up the further leg of the U. have the self-induction and resistance of the measuring
R.T.

194

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
it

instrument sufficiently small, so that

alter the

does not sensibly

wave length or damping. The Thermo-galvanomcter. Mr. W. Duddell has designed a very sensitive thermo -galvanometer for measuring currents
in the receiver circuits,

which

is

per-

fectly accurate for

high frequency cur-

rents

after

standardisation
It consists

by

direct

currents.

essentially of

resistance

of

negligible

self-induction

and capacity placed near a thermo1 The couple of bismuth and antimony.
rise in

temperature of the lower junc-

tion of this couple produces a current

in a loop of wire

which

is

deflected

by

a magnetic field against the torsion of

a quartz

fibre.
is

This instrument

illustrated in Fig.

132 and
Fig. 133.
Bi\ Is*

is

shown diagrammatically

in

Heater

In the
N, S
is

field

between the pole-pieces

rr
Pig. 133.

permanent magnet means of a quartz fibre suspended by

This loop

(Fig. 133) of a

a single-turn coil or loop of wire L, to the lower ends of

is fixed

which
1

a thermo-couple.

is

surmounted

If the junction of two different metals in an electric circuit be heated to a different temperature from the rest of the circuit an E.M.F. is set up between them. The two metals which produce

greatest

E.M.F. are bismuth and antimony, giving rather more than

C.

'100 micro- volts per 1

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
by a
glass

195

stem
"

which carries a mirror M.

is

Below the

lower junction of the thermo-couple

resistance or
heater," one end
of

fixed the heating

is

which

connected to

the frame of the instrument to avoid electrostatic forces.

The current
raising
its

to be

measured passes through the

rise in

"

heater,"

temperature, causing the lower junction of the

thermo-couple to

temperature above the upper, thus

producing a current round the loop

which

is

deflected

by the magnetic
fibre Q.

field

against

the torsion of the quartz

The
tional

deflections of the instrument are practically proporto

the square of the current

when
"

the heater

is

central under the junction.

The

sensibility of the instru-

ment depends on the

set

resistance of the

heater

"

and on

its

distance from the thermo-junction.

The "heaters"

are

up

in small protecting cases with contact rings, so that

it

they can be interchanged quickly when

is

desired to

greatly alter the sensibility of the instrument.

An

adjusting-screw

the distance between the

(Fig. 132) is also provided so that " "

heater

and thermo-junction

can be varied, and by this means small changes in the

sensibility

can be made without altering the "heater" or

changing the shunts in use for the experiment.

The base
and
levels.

of the instrument is fitted with levelling screws

shows the heavy metal plate E which protects the couple removed and standing on the base of
Fig. 132

the instrument. the

illustration)

stout

mahogany cover

(not

shown

in

protects the instrument from dust

and

o2

196

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
The mirror

heat radiation.

(Fig. 133) is plane, but the

instrument

is fitted

the scale at a distance of one metre

with a lens which gives an image on when used with the

ordinary galvanometer lamp and scale.

The following

table

shows the approximate

sensibility of

the instrument with heaters of different resistances.

TABLE OF APPROXIMATE SENSIBILITIES. ONE METRE.

Resistance of Heater.

SCALE DISTANCE

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
bolometer for measuring the current in a receiver

197

circuit.

bolometer consists essentially of two fine metal wires

placed as two arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

balanced, and the current

The bridge

is

to be measured is sent through one arm, raising its temperature and resistance so that balance has to be obtained again. The arrangement has to be calibrated with direct currents as in the case of the

thermo
current
bridge
;

galvanometer.
is

One method

of

measuring

the

shown

in Fig. 134.

AB

are two

arms

of the

the other two arms

G F
1'5

consist of fine wires,

cm. long and O'Ol mm. diameter, with special ironless

choking

coils

placed between.

Finally a

very sensitive galvanometer

and battery are connected as shown, and one of the

Fig. 134.

fine wires is placed in the receiving circuit.

The impor-

tant precautions to be taken are to localise the received

current in one of

the

fine

wires

to

prevent

irregular

heating from outside sources, and to prevent the heating of the one wire affecting the other. Tissot with this

arrangement was able

to obtain deflections of

10

mm. on

a scale 1 metre away with 100 micro-amperes. Later experimenters have obtained greater sensibility by using Fessenden's barretter with wires 1*5
diameter.

mm.

long and 0*002

mm.

198

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

The High Frequency Dynamometer. G. Pierce has used an instrument on the dynamometer principle for measuring
relative currents.
It consists of

a small coil about 8

wire.

mm.

diameter, with 30 turns of O'l

mm.

This

coil is in

series with the condenser circuit of the receiving station.

Immediately in front
mirror 3

of

the coil

is

hung a plane

glass

mm.

diameter, backed by a thin disc of silver, and

of

making an angle

45

with the plane of the

coil,

the

distance being regulated by a micrometer.

Oscillations in

the coil induce oscillations in the disc, increasing the angle

between them.
telescope and
is

The

deflections are read

it

by means of a
G. Pierce

scale,

and

has been found that the deflection

proportional to the square of the current.

found with this instrument that he could directly compare quantities of energy that were in the ratio of 1 to 20,000.

Wave Measurement.
currents

It

has been shown how relative

circuit

can be measured by using an auxiliary

containing an ammeter, and having the same oscillation

constant as the main circuit.

If

the self-induction and

capacity of this auxiliary circuit be known,

we have a

direct

method

of

measuring the frequency

of the vibration
J.

and

consequent wave-length of the radiations.

the
first to

Zenneck was

tical

arrangement, and several pracinstruments have been made on the principle.

of this

make use

Die Gesellschaft fur Drahtlose Telegraphie manufacture

an instrument designed by Donitz, illustrated in Fig. 135,

which they

call

an ondameter.

The

variable condenser consists of two parallel sets of

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
plates,

199

one

of

which

is fixed,

whilst the other can be rotated

is

so that
plates.

more

or less of the surface

between the

fixed

in

oil.

To obtain greater capacity the whole is immersed One of three coils of inductance can be used,
to

depending on the wave-length

be measured.

One

of

Fig.

l.'Jo.

these

is

shown

in position to the right of the condenser,

and

to the left

may

be seen the electric thermometer, and

it

as the heated wire has varying resistance

circuit,

is

not in direct

but

is

acted on inductively by

means

of a

miniature

transformer with a primary of one turn.

This instrument

can be used for measuring wave-lengths of from 100 to

1,200 metres.

200

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
of

The type

instrument used in the Marconi system was

is

designed by Professor Fleming, and

called

by him a

cymometer. A plan and elevation are given in Fig. 136. The makers describe the principle of the instrument as
follows
:

"

It consists of a sliding

tubular condenser formed of two

brass tubes, separated by an ebonite tube.

The outer tube

Fig. 136.

can be moved by a handle A, and an index pointer

with
is
it

P moves

over a divided scale SS.

coil

Parallel with the condenser

an inductance

HH,

consisting of a bare copper wire,

of the

wound on an ebonite tube, and from the outer tube

resting on the inductance coil.

condenser 0, a pin I projects, which carries a half collar

K
of

The

circuit of the con-

denser and inductance

is

completed by a copper bar

is

LL

square section.
tube V,
filled

With

the instrument

supplied a vacuum-

with rarefied neon, attached to two small hooks

MKAsrilKMKXTS

IX

!!A1>I< >-TMU-:< JI!A

I'll

V.

i>dl

placed on the ends of copper wires, which are respectively in

connexion with the outer and inner tubes of the condenser.

The instrument

is

employed

in the following

manner
is

Place the cymometer so that the copper bar

with,

L L

parallel

and

close to,

any straight portion

of

the circuit in

which

electric oscillations are taking place.

Then

fix

the

vacuum-tube
terminals
collar

to the

two small hooks in connexion with the

Y, and screw the ebonite handle into the thick

of the outer

tube of the sliding condenser.

Move
Then

the handle, thus sliding the outer tube of the condenser

along, until the vacuum-tube glows most brightly.

the end of the index slip

will

indicate on the lowest of

the four scales the

of a second.

number

of oscillations in
it

one millionth

Thus, suppose

reads 3*5, this indicates that

is 3'5

the frequency of the oscillation

millions.

Also the

top scale reading indicates the oscillation constant of the

circuit being tested, viz., the square-root of the product of

the capacity in microfarads and inductance in centimetres

of the circuit.
If

then we

know

either the inductance or

the capacity of that circuit

we can determine the second

The range of the oscillation constant for the quantity. instrument illustrated is from to 12."
To measure the wave-length
cymometer
it

of

an

aerial circuit with the

is

placed several inches from the oscillatory

circuit at the antinode of current,

and with the copper bar

is

parallel to the aerial wire

the handle of the instrument

then moved

till

the vacuum-tube glows most brightly,

when

the wave-length can be read.

202

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
fiir

For rough work Die Gesellschaft

Drahtlose Telegraphie

make an instrument
a Multiplicator.

invented by Professor Slaby called long solenoid of wire, whose length

circuit, the

A
is

can be adjusted,
free

connected to the oscillatory

end acting on a tube containing platino-cyanide

of

barium.
is

When

the oscillation constant

of

the solenoid

the same as that of the circuit to be measured the tube

Fig. 137

becomes most luminous.

shows a box containing

Fig. 137.

three of these solenoids.

that
if

With

this

instrument Slaby found

held six feet from the earth the wave-length of the

increased 3 per cent., due to capacity
it
;

rod ^.was
fifteen feet

but at

was inappreciable.

He

further found that the

inductive influence of conductors was about half the capacity

influence acting in the opposite way.

In the case of measuring the wave length of an open

aerial circuit, say with a

Donitz wavemeter, the arrange-

ment
is

of

apparatus is as in Fig. 131.

capacity of the

The transmitting key

wavemeter altered
till

held

down and the

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
the largest reading
is

203

obtained on the ammeter.

To bring

same frequency as a closed circuit two methods maybe adopted, either (1) an ammeter may be placed
an open
circuit to the

directly in the

open

circuit

and the induction

the

coil circuit

closed

then, by

altering

inductance of the open

circuit, the largest reading of the

ammeter may be
It

obtained,

and the two

that
if

circuits are in tune.

must be remembered
are obtained.

the coupling be close two

(2), is

maxima

The

second method

to place the

wave-

meter in the open

circuit

and complete

the closed circuit. In measuring the wave-

length of a secondary receiving circuit

is

it

best,

when

the coupling

is

very

close, to

use a very small induction-coil with spark-

gap
ing

in the aerial circuit, to avoid break-

down

the

receiving transformer E,

placing

the

ammeter

or

wavemeter

W
Fi &- 138
-

(see Fig. 138) in the secondary.

If sufficient

energy be available, the tuning at the receiving

of the

end can be accomplished with instruments

or

Donitz

Fleming type by replacing the electric thermometer or vacuum tube by a therm o-galvanometer or bolometer.
If,

however, the inductance of the secondary winding of

the receiving transformer be known, and a standard variable

condenser be available,

it

is

easy to measure the wave-

length of any distant station.

Fig. 139.

The method

is

shown

in

The secondary

of the receiving transformer

must be capable

of being shifted relatively to the

primary

204

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
the detector D, patentiometer P, and telephone receiver
a shunt to the variable
of

T form

known

capacity K.

To

measure the wave-length

inductance

a distant station, the two

receiving circuits are brought into tune by altering the

L and

the capacity K.
is

The secondary

of the

receiving transformer

then moved away from the primary

the

until

sound in the
is

telephone

receiver

just

audible.
is

When
in

the

receiving

station

tune
if

with the station to be measured,

the slightest alteration
is

made

to

the capacity K, the signalling ticks

in
Fig. 139.

the telephone receiver are

this

lost.

By

method

the

author

has

stations sending
differed only

measured the wave-lengths of two simultaneously, and whose wave-lengths

two per cent. The Theory of Wave Measurement.

is

wave measurements are taken

determined that to obtain

The theory on which due to Lord Kelvin. He

electrical oscillations in a circuit

K
A

2
2
""* **-*' must be
f*r\j

1
AV^JkJ less

than
uo-J-clAJ.

-y

.^

where

is

the resistance to

oscillatory currents,
of the circuit.

the self-induction, and

C the capacity
by

The periodic time T

of the vibrations is given

27T

V TTn L C

"

L2

MKAsrRKMEXTS

IX

RADIO-TELBGBAPHT.

205

In radio-telegraph circuits jy-j

to be neglected,

K2

is

made

sufficiently small

and we have

T
where
s is

= 27rVLC =
_

27rs

the oscillation constant, and

1_
2
TT

VL c'
is

The wave length

in metres A

given by

_ 3 ~

X
n

10 8

where n

is

the frequency of the oscillations.

For

practical

measurements
A

60

where C

is

the capacity of the circuit in microfarads and

:

L
or

the inductance in centimetres

A
is

60,000

VC

where LI

inductance in millihenrys.
It is

Resonance Curves.

advisable in taking the wave-

length to use a measuring instrument in preference to a

vacuum-tube, as

it

enables a resonance curve to be plotted.

In the case of a sending circuit the resonance curve shows the

and consequent energy radiated of different wave-lengths greater and smaller than that of the principal wave-length, and thus indicates the amount which
relative vibratory current

the transmitter

is

likely to interfere with other stations

and

in the case of the receiving circuit, the resonance curve

of various

shows the relative vibratory currents received

206

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

wave-lengths, indicating the likelihood of interference from

other stations.

The resonance curve

is

best taken with fixed

inductance in the subsidiary

small capacity the current
capacity by given
is

circuit.
;

Commencing with
then altering the

measured

amounts successive currents are read.

circuit,

In the case

of

an open

when the
Fig.

results are plotted,

a curve of a similar

nature to

140

is

obtained.

A
a
I

40

30

z
400

420

440

460

480

6OO
In

520

540

660

Wive Ltnph.

Metro.

Fig. 140.

Generally the steeper the shape of the curve the more nearly
is

the circuit vibrating to one fundamental.

At the peak
of readings,

of the

curve

it is

best to take a large

number

as slight differences in the spark are liable to cause large

differences in the

maximum

current readings.

G.

W.

Pierce, in taking resonance curves of the receiving

aerial,

has used his dynamometer directly in the circuit and

altered the receiving capacity.

He

also used the Cooper-

Hewitt mercury interrupter instead of spark-gap, on account oi the constant results obtained, only one reading being

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
necessary, whereas using a spark-gap
it is

207

necessary to take

the

mean

of at least five readings.

Resonance Carres of Coupled Circuits.

When two circuits

are coupled the mutual inductance generally causes two

distinct
sets of oscillations.

This

is

clearly illustrated in

Capacity in Receiving Circuit.

Fig. 141.

Fig. 141, giving results obtained by G.

W.

Pierce taken in a

receiving circuit with a magnetically coupled sending circuit,

having an aerial 16 metres long.

Each curve

represents

results taken with different lengths of receiving aerial, the

number against each letter being the height of the aerial in metres. From numerous experiments Pierce drew a

208

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
and from the maximum
deflections

series of these curves,

he plotted fresh curves with the height of the receiving antenna against the receiving capacity, which gave the maximum deflection thus points A, B, C, D and E of Fig.
;

141 are shown in Fig. 142 as A'

It will

B'

C'
if

D'

E'

be seen from these curves,

empirical methods

Capacity

in

Receiving Circuit.

Fig. 142.

are used,

how easy
of the

it is

to set the receiving circuit in tune

of the transmitter
;

with one
it

weaker oscillations

and

will also

be noticed, in the special case considered, that

with the receiving mast the same height as the sending

mast,

it

required almost infinite capacity in the receiver

circuit to obtain the

maximum

result of the

most powerful

wave.
'

Measurement of Coupling between Two

Circuits.

The

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
coupling

209

between two circuits

may

be defined mathe-

matically by the equation

M2 K= L
LI

'

where LI

L2

is

the self-induotion of each circuit and

is

the mutual induction between

the circuits.
circuit

If

all

the

magnetic

field of force

from each

were embraced by

the other circuit

we should have

and

M = K=
2

L!
1.

L2

This would be the closest imaginable coupling, and cannot

be realised. In the case of close coupling, taking the resonance curve

with

its

two principal wave-lengths, Drude has shown the

is

shorter of the two

given by the equation

A!

\/T^rK

where A

is

the natural wave-length of each of the circuits

taken separately.

The longer
from which

is

given by
A2

Vl + K
A 22

_ "
enabling the coupling
curve.

Ai

2
'

K to be calculated from

the resonance

According

to

Fleming, in the case of

magnetic

coupled circuits, the best results are obtained when the

coupling circuits
is

such that
AJ =r 3 Aj.

R.T.

210

BADIO-TELEGKAPHY.
The damping decrement
8 is

Damping.
equation

given by the

where

Ii,

I2

I 3 ar

1-0

if
5

o
o
-

1
3

MEASUREMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
increases

211

the

resistance

more

in

proportion,

thereby

increasing the damping.

The Damping Curve. Drude has shown that the damping decrement of an oscillatory circuit can be obtained from
the resonance curve.
of

From

this

last-named curve the ratio

maximum
\
)

current squared to any other current squared

-Try (C"

is

plotted against the ratio of

wave-length corre-

sponding with the given current to principal wave-length.

Thus taking the resonance curve

curve Fig. 143
is

of Fig.

140 the damping

obtained.
5 is

The damping decrement

81

obtained from the formula

:

82

^^

x A.
the auxiliary

Generally
circuit

82

the damping decrement of

may

be neglected.
IT

For several convenient values

is

of

y the quotient y
0-95
0-9

given in table below.

A
13'7

.........
......... .........

9-4 7'5

0-85
0-8

6'3
5-5

0-75
0-7

4-8

x is measured from the curve and 8 is thus

Danij>i)i>i <>/ ('////>;/'/
(

easily calculated.

ixrillutnms.

If 8

be the damping

p2

212

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
of a

decrement

primary sending

circuit,

and

82

the decre-

ment

of the aerial circuit,

then according to Drude the two

waves radiated have decrements

_
Si

+ ~~
!

82

-f 6 2

An

~~2~
where
A!,

~A~ 2
the

A 2 are the forced principal wave-length of

to

circuits

due

mutual induction, and A

circuits.

is

the natural

wave-length of each of the

In practice with
is

coupled systems the damping of the closed circuit

made

very small compared with the radiating circuit, and with

the closest coupling

where

is

decrement

of the radiated

waves

that

is,

under
of the

the conditions of greatest

radiating circuit is

damping the decrement

reduced to half the natural decrement.

the

Comparison between
Circuits.

This result of

Damping of Closed and Open Drude is sometimes taken to show

the advantage of coupled over open systems.

What

it

does

show

is

that,
is

when syntonic working

is

employed, and the

receiver

properly arranged so as to require a large

number

of

tuned impulses, the closest coupled system

is far

superior to the open-circuit single aerial.

The formula does not admit

of a

comparison between

coupled circuits and a system using an aerial loaded with

capacity such as advocated by Lodge.
case, the carpet of

To take an extreme
of sufficient area

Lodge might be made

MEASUKEMENTS IN RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
to

213

make

its

capacity equal to that of a good closed circuit

and the radiation of the two systems could be

same.

made

the

The

theoretical advantage would then be with the

carpet aerial, as the

damping would be

less,

due

to the

absence of transformation losses.

Lord Rayleigh has shown that for high frequencies the resistance of a wire of diameter d can be calculated from formula

Ohmic Resistance of Wires.

B.==ECW V
.

TT

Ea current, R
where
meter

is
c

resistance

of

the wire for the alternating

the resistance for constant currents, d the dia-

of the wire in centimetres,

;

and n the frequency

is

of the

oscillations

but this formula

only applicable to high

frequencies and for large wires. X umber of Oscillations in a Train of Waves. It has been shown how to obtain the damping decrement from the

resonance curve

the

damping decrement
~* ^B

is

also given

by the formula
5

log

^=
v-'S

log

log

^ ^4

etc.,

where CiCaCs are successive maximum amplitudes of current

which, however, cannot be directly measured.

For the number

of

complete oscillations N, in the case

are

of natural vibrations, before they

reduced to

per

cent, of their initial amplitude,

Fleming gives the following

useful formula

4-606

5
'

26

214

RADIO-TELEGBAPHY.

In the following table the ratio of

a few decrements.

and

are given for

s.

CHAPTER XL
THE EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT ELMERS END
LODGE-

MUIBHEAD SYSTEM.

THE Lodge-Muirhead method

the oscillator
is

energy from gradually becoming more and more near

of radiating

to the ideal of Sir Oliver

Lodge,

as formulated in his patents of

1897

(see Fig. 144),

and has thus

developed on completely different

lines
coni,

from the methods

Braun,
in

of

Mar-

De

Forest,

and

Fessenden
respects.

two

important
in-

Whilst the latter

ventors have
ing
(1)

aimed

at obtain-

good radiating
a
slightly

circuit

coupled to

damped
connexion of the radiating

condenser
(2)

circuit,

and

As

efficient as possible a

circuit to the earth

It
(1)

by conduction or induction,
oscillatory transmitting circuit of

has been the object of Lodge

To use only one

an intermediate character, and

216

EADIO-TELEGEAPHT.
To remove
this oscillatory circuit as far as possible
of the earth.

(2)

from the influence

To obtain the most

perfect syntony, Dr. Alexander Muir-

aerial is

head has recently found that the best position for the lower such that its capacity is a minimum, and that if it be

raised higher the radiating

power

is

diminished.

Using

this

method the Lodge-Muirhead Syndicate have found it possible to maintain communication up to a distance of 60 miles
over hilly country with the two capacity areas at each
station only 30 feet apart,

and the transmitting energy not

indicated
for

exceeding 400 watts.

The sharpness of tuning which can be obtained

purposes of demonstration.
is

is

by the following experiment, which was carried out

In this experiment the author

informed that recorded communication could be main-

tained with complete success between the Lodge-Muirhead

radio-telegraph station at Elmers
of

End and Hythe,

a distance
fact
of

58 miles

over

land,

notwithstanding the
within 9| miles
all

that

the

powerful Dover

station

Hythe
also

was trying
of the

to interfere,

and

the usual signalling work

It

shipping in the channel was going on.

was

shown that the instruments at Hythe might be adjusted to

within about 6 per cent, of the wave-length at the Dover
station before

the tape.
feet

any disturbing indications were received on The aerial at Elmers End was 10,000 square
feet high,

and 62

with the lower capacity raised 12 feet

feet

above the ground.

At Hythe the aerial was 78

square
feet,

and 82

feet high,

with the lower capacity raised 20

THE EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT ELMERS END.

and the transmitting energy was not allowed 500 watts. The Dover station had an aerial 180

217

to exceed
feet high.

To ohtain these

results the receiver

to

thermo-galvanometer

was tuned by a Duddell give the largest reading on the

Fig. 145.

instrument

then the receiving circuits being

still

kept in

tune with the sender, the detector was gradually

made more
to

and more

insensitive, until

it

would only respond

waves

within about 5 per cent, of the principal wave.

The apparatus

is

manufactured by Messrs. Muirhead

& Co.

218

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

THE EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT ELMERS END.

Alternators of the type

219

shown

in Fig. 145 are

made

in various

sizes, with outputs of from 250 to 2,000 watts respectively.

The

periodicity used is

200
or

this is

higher than in most

per second are

systems, in
generally

which

fifty

sixty cycles

employed, but
is is

it

must

be

remembered

the

capacity to be charged

smaller than in the case of a

coupled system, so
large

it

more advantageous

to

employ a

number

of

discharges with oscillations of smaller

maximum

amplitude.
are

The transformers

now made

of the

open magnetic

The type, giving them the appearance of induction-coils. secondaries. are wound in units of 250 watts; thus the
secondary of a transformer taking 750 watts in the primary
is

made up of three small units in series placed end -on. The primary of a 500 watt transformer is wound to take 8
12 amperes at 120
volts, the

to

power

factor

being about 0'3.

Fig. 146 shows the arrangement of apparatus at Elmers

End.

The ammeter and voltmeter

are at the top of the

switchboard.

At the bottom are the main switch and two

switches for regulating the current through the field coils

of exciter
coils

In the centre are two chokingto regulate the current given to the primary of the
alternator.
is

and

transformer, which

at the

back of the table.

Above the
felt

transformer
1

is

the multiple spark-gap enclosed in a

-

amperes X volts current this ratio is always unity. In case of alternating currents it is always less than unity, due to difference of phase between pressure ami current.

The power

factor is the ratio

For constant

220

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
and having
the table
is

lined box,

artificially cooled

spark-knobs.

To

the

left of

the plugging arrangement for altering

;

the inductance in the oscillatory circuit

next to

it is

the

THE EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT ELMERS END.

221

transmitting key with receiving arrangements to the right.

Behind the receiver

is

the plug-board

for
;

altering the

inductance in the secondary receiving circuit

but in the

Fig. 148.

latest practice

the receiving transformer with adjustable

is

coupling (Fig. 150)

used.

The receiving apparatus is shown in greater detail in Fig. 147. To the left is the syphon recorder to the right is
;

the clockwork which drives the coherer wheel, and an interrupter in the telephone circuit
;

it

at the

same time moves

forward the recording tape.

The coherer may be seen with

222

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

cover removed, but the interrupter

at the far side of the

clockwork.

In front of the recorder are the buzzer for

testing the coherer

and the potentiometer switch. " " " send to right are the change-over switch from

To the
receive,"

Fig. 149.

Fig. 150.

THE EXPERIMENTAL STATION AT ELMERS END.

and a small adjustable condenser with a
of

223

maximum

capacity

about 2 centimetres placed in parallel with the coherer.

Two

types of receiving transformer are used.

Fig. 148

illustrates

one form which has considerable inductance in

In front are a number

the secondary and a fixed coupling.

of plug connexions arranged as

Fig. 149.

shown diagrammatically in These enable the inductance to be altered and

Fig. 151.

the idle turns short-circuited.

The other type

is

depicted

in Fig. 150; this has only a few turns of inductance,

circuit
is

and the

brought into tune by means

left, this

of the adjustable con-

denser to the

condenser being placed as a shunt to the

coherer and in parallel with the small condenser already mentioned.

The coupling can be

altered

by sliding the primary

winding nearer to

or further from the secondary winding.

in Fig. 151.

The complete connexions of the station are shown

To the

left

are the low tension power circuits, which supply

the transformer

for

charging the

oscillator, consisting of

224

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

the aerial and lower capacities

and

in series with the

I.

multiple spark-gap
receive, a plug is

and the variable inductance

To
of

removed from

to E,

and the primary

the receiving transformer takes the place of the spark-gaps.

The adjustable secondary S with coherer C and

KI

capacities
is

K2

form the subsidiary receiving

circuit.

K2

suffi-

compared with KI so as not to decrease the and is solely for the purpose of preventing oscillatory currents from flowing through the recorder R and the telephone with its interrupter B. The
ciently large

capacity of the circuit,

Fig

152.

buzzer circuit for testing the coherer

is

shown

to

the

extreme right.

The author

is

informed that with this arrangement,

it is

using 350 watts at the transmitter,

possible to maintain
to

communication up
and that

to distances of

from 300

350 miles

over sea, with a space of 110 feet between the capacity

areas,
it

is

also possible to

accomplish diplex

signalling

from one

set of
differ

masts radiating waves whose

only 2 per cent., the signals

principal wave-length

being received simultaneously by means of a single aerial.

Specimens
'Fig. 152.

of

two sets

of tape thus received are

shown

in

CHAPTER

XII.

RADIO-TELEGRAPH STATION AT NAUEN

TELEFUNKEN SYSTEM.

DIE Gesellschaft

fiir

drahtlose Telegraphie have kindly

furnished particulars of their radio-telegraph station completed in 1906

Berlin.
at

Nauen, about 12 miles north-west

to

of

This station can communicate either

St. Petersburg,

Eigi

Scheidegg, in Switzerland, or

845 miles

away, and messages have been received by ships 2,300 miles off. It is worked by two men, a stoker and a telegraph
operator.

The
is

aerial

arrangements are very complete.

The antenna

supported by a steel lattice tower (Fig. 153) of triangular

;

section

the

girders join at the

bottom in a cast

steel

sphere which rests on a socket.

The pressure
is

is

taken

through a layer of marble which insulates the tower from

the concrete foundation.

This tower

300

feet in height,
is

with 12 feet sides.

steps,

platform at the top

reached by

and there

is

a second platform 225 feet up, from

which the guys

radiate.

These are three in number

they

consist of steel bars several yards long, connected together

by

links,

and anchored about 600

feet

from the

foot of the

tower.
oil

The guys are insulated from the tower and anchors,

Q

insulators being used at the top, as the surgings in the

R.T.

m**
-

Fig. 153.

RADIO-TELEGBAPH STATION AT NAUEN.

guys sometimes enable sparks of 40 inches from them.
to

227

be taken

The umbrella form

Fig. 154.

of the

antenna

is

clearly

shown

in

It consists of six

segments arranged so that those

;

opposite counterbalance each other

is

the raising and lowering

performed from the top platform

over pulleys.

The

surface covered by the

feet.

antenna

is

about 650,000 square

wires

From

the tower radiate six phosphor-bronze

to

which gradually increase

162 in number towards the

circumference.

The outer edge

is

held in position by

hemp

cords connected through porcelain insulators.

is

The antenna

not insulated from the tower, which thus forms part of

the oscillatory circuit, but

in the

form

of six

supplemented by 154 wires grids held together by wooden battens.

it is

From

the tower radiate 108 iron wires arranged fanwise,

which gradually branch into 824 wires. These wires are buried and form the earth connexion, covering an area of
rather more than 80 acres.

The

station buildings, not including engine room, cover

feet; the room,

about 1,000 square

containing the condensers,

spark-gap, and other high tension

mechanism

is

on the

Q2

228

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
the other apparatus and sleeping accommodafloor.

first floor; all

tion is

on the ground

For power equipment a 36

h.p.

steam engine

drives

BADIO-TELEGRAPH STATION AT NAUEN.

a

229

25

k.w.

50-periodicity
circuit

alternator

for

charging

the

primary

oscillatory

through

four

transformers,

AfHr

230

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
series

whose primary windings are in

windings in parallel.

and the secondary

Fig. 157.

RADIO-TELEGEAPII STATION AT NAUEN.

231

is

The apparatus comprising the primary oscillatory circuit shown in Fig. 155. The battery of three sets of 120 jars
The inductance placed
between the condensers as shown in the illustration cona spiral of silver-plated tubing.

has a capacity of 400 microfarads.

in

sists of

To the

right of the

condensers

may

be seen the spark-gaps; these are ring-

shaped, and four are placed in series.

Two

spare gaps are

right

ready

in case of need.

To the extreme

are

two

choking

coils, placed to protect the

secondary winding of
is

the transformer.

In front of the battery of condensers

the operator measuring the wave-length of the circuit, and

on the wall may be seen a portion

over from transmitting to

of the gear for switching

receiving.

This switch either

connects the antenna to the transmitting circuits at

to the receiving circuits at

or

(Fig. 156).

Changing from

"

send

"

" " to also operates the cut-out C, which receive

prevents the condensers being charged by mistake.

transmitting
table,
is

The

done by a Morse key K on the operating which works a relay R. It will further be seen from

the figure that the aerial wires are earthed through chokingcoils

D, where they enter both the high tension and the

it

receiving rooms with a spark bye-pass, and

will

be also

noticed that both the alternator and exciter, besides the

usual condenser to earth protection, are shunted by small

spark-gaps.

The receiving apparatus

is

shown

in Fig. 157-

CHAPTER

XIII.

THE RADIO -TELEGKAPH STATION AT LYNGBY

POULSEN SYSTEM.
1

REFERENCE

has

been made in previous

chapters

to

Poulsen's application of the musical arc to obtain

undamped

waves.

This system

is

being worked in England by the

Amalgamated Radio-Telegraph Company (formerly the De

Forest Company),

who have

kindly furnished the informa-

tion in this chapter.

The

essential difference as far as practical results go is

is

that with the Poulsen arc a signal of a single dot

at the receiving

obtained

end by about 5,000 small oscillations at the transmitter, with a working pressure of from 400 to 500
volts,

instead

of

from

1
of

to

100

vibrations

of

larger

amplitude, and a pressure

from 10,000

to 100,000 volts.

The company claim

only
is

that by this

means a 10

k.w. generator

necessary for signalling 1,000 miles, and up to the

present, utilising the

same

aerial, three separate

messages

can be received at the same time with wave-lengths differing

1 per cent.,

thus

showing the undoubted advantage

of

being able to eliminate all outside disturbances.

Masts

of

impregnated wood, made of 10

for
1

feet lengths, are

;

recommended

the aerial, and two separate antennae

See pages. 88, 141 and 160.

RADIO-TELEGKAPH STATION AT LYNGBY.

one of these
is

233

made

suitable

for

receiving

waves

of

from 600
miles
;

to 2,000

metres over distances more than 300

of

and the other, waves

;

800 to 1,000 metres over

shorter distances

whilst the shape of the antenna depends

on
130

local conditions.
feet,

For a 300 mile

circuit

two masts

of

or one of 180 feet, are used.

The earth connexion

generally consists of about 20 rays 160 to 330 feet in length,

buried about one foot below the surface; but in permanently

damp
used.

soil

earth plates of from 100 to 200 square feet are

Poulsen described the progress made up

1906, in the following words
"
:

till

November,
facts illus-

The following

trate the quick progress of the experiments.

In June, 1905,

our first sending station at

Lyngby, near Copenhagen, was

station at a distance of about
to receive signals

ready for use.

After

some small preliminary experiments,

there after

we established a receiving nine miles, and were able

having experimented

for a couple of days.

After that a

somewhat larger receiving

of

station
this

was

built at a distance

about

27

miles

with

we had communication
was
finished.

the

same day the

installation

Then, in

order to experiment across the whole width of Denmark,

we established a

station at Esbjerg.

There we also obtained

communication the same day the installation was completed. The distance is here nearly 180 miles, and the waves chiefly
travel across dry land. in the
is

The

signals are plainly intelligible

telephone, even

when

the consumption of energy

only about 800 watts, and the energy radiated about 100

234

KADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
;

watts earth

the difference of potential between the antenna and

is

then only a few thousand

volts.

The wave-lengths
field of the arc,

for these

experiments lay between 700 and 1,000 metres.

Later on, by strengthening the magnetic

we

have, with a wave-length of 882 metres, obtained a radiating

power

of

about 400 watts

effect at

which, of course, produced a

powerful

Esbjerg.
fitted

"On

one occasion the Esbjerg station was

up

to

receive signals transmitted

by spark-telegraphy.

The

result

was most

instructive.

Instead of the uninterrupted com-

munication formerly obtained, the receiver gave out an

inextricable jumble of English

and German signals from

land and ship stations

and, in addition to that hopeless

entanglement, the situation was complicated by the constant

interposition of atmospheric discharges.

On

reverting to

our own methods, the conditions became entirely changed.

Our communication with Lyngby was instantly

"

restored,

without the slightest disturbance from extraneous sources.

Eecently, with a power of about 1 k.w., perfect communication during day and night has been established between Copenhagen and North Shields, a distance of 530
miles, 150 of

which are overland, with a height

of

mast

of

only 100 feet."

More

recently a station has been erected in North Devon,

which can communicate with Lyngby 860 miles away.

A
Two

brief description of the

Lyngby

station

is of interest.

100-feet masts are employed.

The generating plant

consists of a 5 b.h.p. gas engine, driving two 2 k.w.

dynamos

RADIO-TELEGRAPH STATION AT LYNGBY.

each giving 16 amps, at 100

235

130

volts, or

4 amps, at 400

600

volts.

At the lower voltage the dynamo charges a battery of accumulators which are joined in groups in parallel, and
can be discharged
all in series

through the

arc.

Fig. 158.

In Fig.

1,58 to

the

left of

the table are the switchboards

circuits.

controlling the

dynamo and accumulator

is

On

the

table to the extreme left

the arc, which consumes about

100

litres of coal

gas per hour.

With the electro-magnets

to right

and
440

left

of the arc in circuit, the length of arc is

3mm.

at

volts.

In the apparatus illustrated the carbon

1

which forms the cathode is

inch in diameter and

is

changed

236

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
is

every hour, whilst the anode

a copper ring which lasts

about two months.

In the centre of the picture

in this case
is

is

an auto-transformer, which

close coupled, the total

number

of turns of

wire being 30, of which 12 turns are in the closed arc

circuit.

close coupling is in fact nearly always employed,

as

it

has been found that tuning can be made equally sharp

with either close or loose coupling. In front of the transformer

is

the transmitting key.

At

Lyngby

the

key does not make and break the current

arc, but connects

through the

and disconnects the antennae

from the transmitter.

To the extreme
consists of a

right

is

the adjustable condenser, which

number

of semi-circular plates fixed

one above

the other, horizontally and

similar ones are

in parallel.

An

equal

number

of

mounted on a rotating

centre-piece in such
is

a way that

when

the milled head of the centre-piece

turned, these plates are carried in between the fixed ones,

which are mounted with

allow

sufficient

space between each to

room

for the

movable
is

plates.

On

the same table 1

is

the receiving apparatus.

To the

extreme right

the receiving transformer.

The primary,
from

which consists

of 24 turns of copper wire, is separated

the secondary 33 inches, for permanent signalling from 200

miles away; but the distance between the coils can be

The adjustable condenser and fixed condenser are on the wall. The secondary winding consists
shortened
if

required.

Fig. 159

is

a continuation of Fig. 158.

RADIO-TELEGRAPH STATION AT LYNGBY.

of

237

connected to the adjustable air condenser To the left is the " ticker," which is in of about O'OOl mf.
is

10 turns, and

this instance of the vibrator type,

and

in front is a 0'2 mf.

block condenser in parallel with the telephone.

No

special detector is used in this station,

except for

Fig. 159.

experimental work, the breaking of the currents in the

oscillating circuit causing the tick in the telephone receiver.

The

size of the

apparatus

may

be judged from the operating

feet.

table,

which

is

about 8

feet 6

inches by 3

The permanent inductance

and
is

in circuit is below the table

not shown.

238

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
at this

The connexions used

Figs. 160, 161.

station

are

shown

in

The dynamo
circuit

supplies current through the resistance

and distributing
capacity C.

coils

to the arc P, the closed oscillatory

being coupled by auto-transformers and variable

The primary

receiver has fixed condenser K,

and transformer winding in parallel. In the secondary circuit the block condenser B is in parallel
variable condenser C,

with the telephone receiver and in series with the ticker T.

Fig. 161.

Several special features of the system might be mentioned.

The same inductances can be used both

receiving, and the primary windings

for

sending and

of the receiving transto the aerial.

former

may

be

left

permanently connected
one

The

variable

inductances consist of two coils of wire,

centre
;

having a

common

is

fixed,

and the other

is

capable of rotation, so that the self-induction can be altered

without adding to the resistance of the

circuit,

and

it

is

claimed that the normal wave-length can thus be increased

fivefold.

RADIO-TELEGEAPH STATION AT LYNGBY.

239

In the latest apparatus instead of changing the carbon or

cutting
it

whilst rotating, the arc

If

is

made

to revolve

round

the carhon.

coal gas

is

not available a special steel

Ibs.

generator
hydride.
of

may
The

be used which holds 2

of

calcium

addition of water produces about 1,000 litres

is sufficient for

hydrogen gas, which

latest
its

the arc for ten hours.

The
with
of

mechanism

of the receiver consists of the ticker,

two fine-crossed metal wires, vibrating by means

first to

clockwork so as

accumulate energy in the

is

oscillaIf

tory circuit before the telephone circuit

preferred

completed.

the energy

may

be shunted through a special

recorder, said to be capable of taking one

hundred words

a minute.

More

recently

Electrical

Engineering
Tralee.

has

described

the latest

Poulsen station near

Three wooden

masts, each 360 feet high, form a triangle round which nine

more masts each 70

feet high, are

feet.

arranged, the diameter of

to radiate

the circle being 2,000

The plant is arranged

10 to 15 kilowatts with a wave-length of about 3,000 metres.

The transmitting key

breaking the current.

directs the energy

to

from the power

plant from a non-oscillating

an

oscillating circuit without

The damping decrement

densers are two in
separated by air
;

of the closed

condenser induct;

ance circuit has been measured as 0'003 inches

the con-

number and formed

of

metal sheets

each condenser has a capacity of 24,000

feet.

centimetres and occupies a space of 30 cubic

ticker receiver is used.

The

CHAPTER

XIV.

PORTABLE STATIONS.

THE
the

liability of the field

telegraph being cut in time of

war has

led to considerable experimenting

army

authorities of

on the part of the leading Powers to obtain a

few miles.

portable and reliable radio-telegraph station, suitable for

working over a distance

of a

Several of the

systems are here briefly described.

The

Lodge-Muirhead

System.

The

Lodge-Muirhead

Syndicate use a collapsible steel mast 50 feet high and

The umbrella- shaped aerial and insulated lower capacity are clearly shown in Fig. 162. The station can be erected in 20 minutes by four men, and it covers a
weighing 62
Ibs.

space of 60 yards square.

bicycle arrangement, gives

The dynamo, which is driven by a

from 60
;

to

80 watts at 15

volts,

when worked by one man it weighs with 72 Ibs. The sending and receiving apparatus
are

driving bicycle
(Figs. 163, 164)

mounted
the

in

two teak boxes.

In Fig. 163 the induction

coil to

left,

Lodge valves

in the centre,

spark-gap

to the right in the lower box, with

and multiple key fitted on

weigh

the door, are clearly shown.

Each

of these boxes
Ibs.,

72

Ibs.,

making a

total

weight of 268

which can be

carried by three mules.

The nominal range is 100 miles over

POETABLE STATIONS.

241

sea or 80 to 40 miles over land.

To reduce the weight

is

of the

induction
that
it

coil,

the Lodge-Muirhead valve

employed, so

takes several breaks of the secondary to fully charge

B.T.

242

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.

the aerial, thus slightly decreasing the rate of transmission

to

about twenty words a minute.

is

coherer

The notched type of wheelused with a telephone in the receiver circuit.

Fig. 163.
[Reproduced from
Electrical Engineering of

May

23, 1907,

by permission of the

Proprietors.]

Another transport the Horse Guards,

set for shorter distances, as supplied to

is

aerial post is fixed to

shown in Fig. 165. It will be seen the The two masts behind are the cart.

those of a fixed station.

The Marconi System.

The Marconi Company make three

PORTABLE STATIONS.
standard
sets.

243

packing cases
is

The smallest weighs complete with tent, and saddles, 425 Ibs. for mule transport, and The next
size

suitable for a range of 15 miles over land.

Fig. Kil.
[Reproduced from Electrical A
:

May,
1

_::,

l'.K)7,

by permission of

tip-

Proprii-t"r-v

station weighs

350

Ibs., to

be carried in a two-wheeled cart,

five

and covers 21 miles.

minutes by
six

These stations can be erected in

men and one non-commissioned

and
for the other are

officer.

Two masts

are required, which for the smaller range are

feet,

15 feet and 25

each 30

feet high.

R'2

244

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.

Fig. 165.

PORTABLE STATIONS.
All are

245

made

in 5 feet sections for transport.

The

aerial

consists of two horizontal wires

400

feet long, kept 5 feet

apart
tive

when not
is

in use

it

is

rolled

on a drum.
of

An

induc-

earth

employed consisting

copper gauze about

3 feet wide and 25 feet long.

set the alternator gives

In the case of the smaller

is

150 watts, and

driven by three

men, whilst the next

size is fitted with

to six

300 watts, and requires four

an alternator giving men to drive it. Both

stations are for directive working.

station, to be

When

first

erected the

communicated with, may have

first

to

be located.

This

is

done by

temporarily fixing one mast.

it,

A man

holds a guy wire to support

whilst a second

man moves
is

round the

pole, carrying the far end of the aerial wire at

the top of a short pole, and the direction of the station

known when

the signals received are loudest.

can be covered.
carried
aerial

With the most powerful set a distance of 60 miles The apparatus weighs 1,350 Ibs., to be
The by a two-wheeled and four-wheeled cart. consists of four horizontal wires, each 450 feet long,
five

supported on

masts 50

feet high.

Power

is

supplied

by a 2 h.p. petrol engine driving a 1 k.w. alternator.

greatest

For

speed fifteen

men and two non-commissioned

ready for workIn
all

officers are required, so as to get the station

ing within half-an-hour.

detector
is

the stations the magnetic

used for receiving.

Si/stem.

Teli'j'iiiiL-i'it

Die

Gesellschaft

fiir

drahtlose
into

Telegraphie use a mast 45 feet high divided

parts.

eight

The

six aerial wires are in the

form

of

an umbrella,

246

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.

each being 75 feet long, whilst the

six earth wires, placed

3 feet from the ground, are each 120 feet long.

drives the

One man
45
volts.

dynamo, which gives one ampere

at

PORTABLE STATIONS.

<>

tc

The ordinary distance of signalling is from 15 to 20 miles, but when the wind is sufficiently high kites may be used,
increasing the distance to about 80 miles.

An

auto-trans-

248

BADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
is

former

used to couple the closed circuit to the

of spark is
is

aerial.

The length
wave-length
detector
is

from 4

to 5 millimetres,

and the

364 metres.

For

receiving, the electrolytic

employed, and waves 5 per cent, different from

the principal can be shut out.

is

The weight of
cart,

the apparatus

about 440

Ibs.

It

can be carried in a

on four mules,
station takes

or over very rough ground by ten

fifteen

men.

minutes

to erect with five

men.

Fig. 166 shows the

arrangement

of the tent

and apparatus.

The method

of

insulating the mast and earth capacity are clearly shown.

Just by the mast on two sticks

is

the variable inductance.

is

One man

is

seen working the dynamo, whilst a second

Fig. 167 illustrates

signalling.

method

of

packing the mast

at the side of the transport cart.

Poulsen System.

This differs essentially from the three

it

others described in that

uses the musical arc in hydrogen

in place of the spark-gap.

The Amalgamated Kadio-Teleset

graph Company makes a

miles over
drives a
flat

on

this principle for

40 to 50

land.

4 h.p. four-cylinder benzine motor

dynamo
it.

giving seven to eight amperes at 250 volts, requiring six to eight

feet high,

but a hand
to drive

dynamo may be used

The
aerial

men

mast

is

80

and

is

made

of eight steel tubes plate.

It
is

10

feet long, resting

on an insulated

guyed by

steel

wires,

and takes about ten

are

minutes

to erect.

Bamboo masts

recommended
the spot.

for

the tropics

when they can be obtained on

Ibs.,

The

apparatus weighs about 410

and requires eight men or

three pack animals for transport.

CHAPTER

XV.

RADIO-TELEPHONY.
Ruluner's Discovery.

The problem

of

communication

by means

of radio-telephony bears the

same

relation to

radio-telegraphy that telephony bears to telegraphy.

Waves
;

have to be emitted in the same way with this difference

Transmitting End

Receiving End

Fig. 168.
[Reproduced from
Klectrical

Fig. 169.
Engineering of

May

30, 1907,

by permission of the

Proprietors.]

the strength of the waves must be capable of fluctuation

caused by a
over,

human

voice or other varying sound.

More-

the fluctuations must be considerable,

they must

immediately follow the variations of sound,

vary in a corresponding
that

and they must

discovered

manner.

Ruhmer
telephone

the

ordinary

microphonic

transmitter

250

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
of

answered the purpose

required manner.
of loose contacts circuit

varying the vibrations in the

consists of a

The microphone

number

between carbon granules and metal, in

with a primary battery.

voice causes varying

vibrations of the air on the carbons, which correspondingly

alters the resistance of the contacts
circuit.

and the current in the

Euhmer

placed the

microphone as shown in
slight variations of current,

Fig. 168, and he found that the

caused by speaking into the transmitter, produced large

variations of
circuit.

current in the arc

He

used

the

receiver

connexion shown in Fig. 169.

n

W\n

Fessenden' s
telephony.

System of RadioProfessor Fessenden

has been working on the solution

Transmitter.

Receiver,

problem since 1903, and had actually spoken over 25 miles in

of this

1905. His latest stations have been

recently described in The Electrician.

These are

at

Brant

Eock, near Boston, and

New York

City, a distance apart of

200 miles, mostly over land.

The working connexions

are

shown diagrammatically
periods per second.

in Fig. 170.

Sustained oscillations

are produced by an alternator

A having a frequency of 81,700

is of

This alternator

the type described

on

p. 92.

The sound transmitter

and

T,

is

placed directly in
is

series with the alternator

aerial,

which

200

feet in

height.
5

The

alternator sets

up an

oscillatory current of

amperes

in this aerial

when

sending.

What Fessenden

RADIO-TELEPHONY.
calls the radiation resistance is 6 to

251

8 ohms.

This radia-

tion resistance appears to be the equivalent of the constant

56 in Duddell and Taylor's experiments.

There

is

a local

telephone exchange with wires both at Brant Eock and

New
tion

York, and the radio-telephone

is

brought into opera-

by a relay R, the same type being used for both sending and receiving. This relay is claimed to amplify
speech 15 times without loss of
distinctness.

In the

words

of Fessenden,
circuit

"it consists of a double differential

to

magnetic

with a pivoted armature

of

which

is

attached a spade

thin platinum iridium,

which dips

into a trough containing carbon powder, the sides of the

troughs being formed of platinum iridium sheet."

Professor

Fessenden has great

faith

in the future of

this latest technical development,

and he considers that

10 k.w. only

is

necessary, with 600 feet masts at either

end, for transatlantic radio-telephony.

The Tclefunken System of Radio-telephony.

Die Gesell-

schaft fur drahtlose Telegraphic have kindly furnished the

author with the following particulars of their system, which

is

working between Berlin and Nauen, a distance

Continuous vibrations are produced by

of

12 miles.
of

means

the

direct-current
oscillatory

arc

arranged

in

conjunction
parallel

with

an
arc,

system,

connected in

with the

and containing capacity and inductance. These vibrations have a frequency corresponding to the oscillation period of
the circuit, and continue uninterruptedly and with constant
strength for any length of time, varying only by a fraction

252

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
The antenna
is

of 1 per cent.

coupled ^magnetically with the

;

inductance

coil of the oscillating circuit

the energy supplied

is

through the coupling

of

the antenna

controlled

by a

specially constructed microphone, which reproduces speech.

The words

are

received

or

heard

by means

of

the

Schlomilch detector and telephone.

The connexion

of the

receiver is similar to that in radio-telegraphy.

Fig. 171

shows a complete radio-telephone apparatus.

The connexion

to the direct-current supply is

made by
switch,

means
table.

of the switchboard at the right of

the apparatus

The dynamo
edge

leads are taken to the

main

placed at the
side,

of the table at the back,

on the left-hand

then to the regulating resistance mounted at the side

of the table,

and from this

to the

choking

coils

arranged

under the

table, with and without iron core, and thence to

a direct-current ammeter, fastened to the wall at the back

of the table,

and from this

to the arc.

Six arcs are connected

of

in series,

which require a working pressure

4 amperes.

220 volts

and a

direct current of

The

arcs are formed

between a carbon electrode 30

copper tube 45
fine

mm.

diameter and a cooled

is

mm.

diameter.

Their length

controlled by

threaded screws.

Each

pair of electrodes

can be brought

together independently, but the whole series can be separated

simultaneously by the action of a single lever.

are

The carbons

consumed very slowly,

so that

it is

only occasionally neces-

sary to reduce the length of the arc

by means

of the screw

adjustment.

The bottoms

of the cylinder-shaped vessels,

which hold water

for cooling,

form the copper electrodes.

RADIO-TELEPHONY.

253

Pig. 171.

254

EADIO-TELEGEAPHY.
oscillating circuit contains a condenser to the left of

The

the lamps, a hot-wire

ammeter over the condenser, the

to the right

arcs,

and an inductance

coil

under the

table.

The

wave lengths can be varied, by altering the condenser, from 300 to 800 metres.

By the side of the inductance coil in the oscillating circuit may be seen another coil with a few windings, which serves
to

couple the closed circuit to the antenna.

table the

Above the

microphone and the

circuit also con-

speaking funnel are arranged.

The antenna

tains a hot-wire

ammeter on
which

the

left

of

the table,

shows the changes in the current from the antenna under

Fig. 172.
[Reproduced from Electrical Engineering of Jan. 31, 1907, by perm'ssion of the
Proprietors.]

the

influence

of

the microin

phone.
"

The switch

the

middle of the table is used for

to

" changing from speaking with the hand is sufficient

oscillating
circuit,

"

hearing."

A movement
high-frequency

to interrupt the

to

switch

the antenna from "trans-

mitting" to "receiving," and to switch on the receiving

apparatus.

Whilst working the station the telephone

ear, so that between question

is

held to the

and answer
left.

it is

only neces-

sary to

move the

switch from right to

By
'

the side of the revolving condenser in the middle of

is

the table

the receiving apparatus, resting on an ebonite

RADIO-TELEPHONY.
plate

255

on four porcelain insulators

for the telephone.

it

contains the Schlo-

milch detector with adjusting apparatus and accessories

and plugs

To the

left of

the receiving

an apparatus with two inductance coils placed one inside the other, whose relative The antenna and the position may be varied by rotation.
apparatus stands a
variometer,
receiving circuit are tuned to the in-

coming

oscillations

by means

of the

variometer.

Other Systems.

Vreeland has used

a modification of the Cooper-Hewitt

mercury

rectifier for

producing susbe seen from

is

tained waves.

It will

Fig. 172 that the aerial

separated
circuit

from the closed oscillatory

a third

by
Fig. 173.

circuit containing a micro-

phone.

The

alterations of resistance

due

to

speaking into this telephone transmitter varies. the

current, thus causing varied strength of oscillations in the

aerial.

patented by De Forest. In one an alternator having a periodicity of at (Fig. 173) he uses

Two methods have been

750 cycles a second. In the closed circuit is placed a spark-gap, and in the aerial is a resistance device easily
least

varied by the action of the voice.

For

this device

De Forest
on

uses

(1)

the microphone
salts
;

(2)

a flame

made conducting by

sodium

or (8) a jet of compressed air impinging

a spark-gap with a megaphone, acting on a valve to alter

256

KADIO-TELEGBAPHY.
air.

the flow of

In the second method

De

Forest uses

direct current with a Duddell arc in the aerial circuit, the

current through

the

arc

being directly affected

of

by a
States

megaphone. Navy have been

the

All

the men-of-war
fitted

the

United

with radio-telephone apparatus on

De

Forest system.
are experi-

The Amalgamated Kadio-Telegraph Company

menting with the Poulsen arc between Oxford and Cambridge, having succeeded in their first trials over
miles, but

a few

no technical information

is available.

APPENDIX

A.

THE MOESE ALPHABET.

A
B
C
-

N
O P
-

D
E
F
-

Q E
S

T
-

H
I

W
X
Y
Z
6
_

K
L

M
1
-

2
o

i o

4
5

...

ABBREVIATIONS USED BY THE ANGLO-AMERICAN TELEGRATH COMPANY, LIMITED.

Full stop
(.)
-

Comma
Hyphen

(,)

(-)
-

After conclusion of message Signal between address and text

Repeat

Engaged on other
Parenthesis

circuit

Inverted

commas
-

Zero (0) Underline

Clear
R.T.
-

LV>s

KADIO-TELEGRAPIIY.
ABBEEVIATIONS ADOPTED AT THE INTERNATIONAL RADIOTELEGRAPHIC CONFERENCE OF BERLIN, 1906.

Ships in distress signal

wish to communicate by
national code of signals the call-signal signal
.

inter-

\
; -

after
.
.

For a ship

station to call a coast

j
. . .
.

station signal

(call signal of coast station 3 times) ; (call signal of transmitting

-

station 3 times)
>.

(call signal of
;

ship

mi

The

coast station called answers

/
' .

station 3 times)
(call signal 3 times)
-

of

coast

station

Invitation to transmit

The commencement
telegram
mi
i

of

a radio-

j
,P

Ine completion

01 a radio-telegram

j-ii

(j
.

(call signal of trans-

mitting station)
After signalling
20 words of
.

a
.

radio-telegram signal

The

transmitting station then awaits the last word from the

.

\
'
-

J receiving station, followed by At the completion of work each

~\

station signals

APPENDIX

B.

ELECTRICAL UNITS USED IN THIS BOOK.

The
The The The The The The The The The
volt

The unit

of

electro-motive

force or

potential

difference.

millivolt

microvolt

One thousandth (10 One millionth (10 ~ 6 )

The unit

:i

of a volt.

of a volt.

= microampere =
inilliampere

ampere

of electric current.
:t

ohm megohm
microfarad
centimetre

= =

One thousandth (10 ~ ) of an ampere. One millionth (10 - e ) of an ampere. The unit of resistance. One million (106 ) ohms.
The unit of capacity. The electrostatic unit of capacity. The electro-magnetic unit of inductance. The practical unit of inductance. One thousand million (10 ) centimetres.

The henry The millihenry The watt The kilowatt

NOTE.
All

One thousandth (10 The unit of power.

:t

of a henry.

T B th of a horse-power. One thousand watts.

the units mentioned are

electro-magnetic with

the

exception of the electrostatic unit of capacity.

s2

APPENDIX

C.

INTERNATIONAL CONTROL OF RADIOTELEGRAPHY.

IN 1903 a Preliminary Wireless Telegraph Conference

was held

at Berlin,

and

this

was followed in 1906 by the

International Radio-telegraphic Conference of Berlin, whilst

a third
that
it

is

arranged to be held in London during 1911, so

appears likely that they will become quintennial, as

in the case of the Telegraphic Conferences.

The necessity for international arrangement was ably put forward by H. G. M. Kraetke, Secretary of State for the
Postal Department of the

address at the last

German Empire, in his opening Conference, when he pointed out that

producing them
even when the
State.

the electromagnetic waves were not confined within the

frontiers
of

the

State

receiving station

was situated within the

for

The principal question The majority

cation
'

discussion at Berlin

was

compulsory communication between ship and coast

of the

stations.

Powers wished

to

make intercommuniBabington

compulsory without reserve, but Mr.

Secretary of the

Smith,

General Post Office of Great Britain,

APPENDIX

C.

261

pointed out the confusion that was likely to arise.

stations

Some

have been erected especially to keep in touch with passenger steamers making short passages, such as across the
English Channel
;

at other points,

where numerous ships

meet, great congestion must take place with unrestricted communication, and division of traffic is indispensable. Again,

a system

may

be invented which could only communicate

with stations

employing the

same system.

On

these

grounds Great Britain held that certain stations should be

permitted which gave a service of a restricted character.

Great Britain also held that other coast stations might be erected which were exempt from intercommunicating with
others, though, in this case, extra stations

would be pro-

vided.

Great Britain finally won her contention, though,

in the final protocol, eighteen countries declared that they

would not reserve the power

stations.

of erecting specially

exempted
be

Thus, according to the convention, coast stations

divided as follows
(1)
:

may

Those used
ships
;

for general public

correspondence with

(2)

Those with a

restricted service
;

(8)

Specially exempted stations

(4)
(5)

Military and naval stations

Coast to coast stations.

last

by the Conference, whilst military and naval stations were exempted from the
terms of the convention, except in that they must interfere

The

named were not

dealt with

262

EADIO-TELEGRAPHY.
little

as

as possible with other stations, and give priority to

calls of ships in distress.

Though not
providing for

in the original draft, the question of ship to

ship stations also

and an additional undertaking, compulsory intercommunication, was signed

up,

came

by twenty-one countries, Great Britain not being amongst them.

To make intercommunication
wave-lengths had
to
to be decided.

possible between stations

Every coast

station has

employ one

of

two waves

300 or 600 metres

and

it

must always be
wave
for

in a position to receive calls

;

made with
its

its

own wave-length

must always make use of For general public correspondence.

also
it

own

special

purposes waves not exceeding 600 metres or exceeding 1,600 metres may be used between these limits the wave;

lengths are reserved for naval and military stations.

Every

ship station, with the exception of those of small tonnage,

has to use a normal wave-length of 300 metres, but other

waves

may

be also used provided they do not exceed 600

metres.

To avoid

interference ships under normal circumstances

kilowatt,

must not use power plant exceeding one

efficient

and

for

working the speed of signalling is fixed at twelve words a minute telegraphists must hold Government
;

certificates as to their

competency, and be capable of trans-

mitting and receiving by sound at the rate of twenty words

a minute.

The Service Regulations

nlso

deal with

the hours of

APPENDIX
service, the

C.

_';.;

maximum

charges to he levied with method of

collection, the

transmission and delivery of radiograms,

records to

be kept, refunds, accounts, the functions of

the International Bureau, as well as miscellaneous provisions.

INDEX.
A.
Aether, 56
Air, ionisation of, 72, 133

AERIAL, capacity

of,

96
119

closed circuit, 116

Algermissen, J., 133 Alternate current transformers,

126,

construction,

83
Alternators, 83, 84

225227
coupled to a closed
cuit, 95, 99, 101
cir-

high frequency, 92, 255

114,

147153,207,211.212

De

Forest, 104, 120, 153

disadvantages of a single, 96
earthing the, 61, 123 127, 227
horizontal, 115

Amalgamated Radio-Telegraph Company, 104, 121, 232. 256 Ammeter, 186, 192 Ampere, 15, 42, 259
Amplitude,
electric vibrations, of, 32,
in receiver, 152,

40

158

in transmitter, 105
'."),

loaded with capacity, 98, 215, 241

Marconi's, 123, 243
61,
94,

vibrations, of, 25

27
.~>~

waves,
!'.".

of, 4(5. 47.

1

Anchor spark,
Antenna, 100

L's

material used in, 119,

20

Antinod.'. 27. 32, K

Nauen,
Poldhu,
portable

at. 22<>
C,\

Pierce's experiments,
at. lol

Apparatus, arrangement of, 141 charging the o^cil la93 tor, for, 76
protection of, s7. 127.
L'.'Jl

stations,

for,

240248
receiving.
1

K>.

!.">;;

Scheveningen,
>hips, for, 101

at,

!_''{

sending, 95, 98, 100

Tralee, at,
trees as, 71
_':!!
i

Arc, compressed air, in, musical, 87, 141144,232 239

'..'!

Telefunken, 252

Arcing

at spark-gJip. S2. 136

A.-chkin:i.-s. A.. 174

266

INDEX.
Carborundum
Charges,
electric, 1,
5,
7,

Audion, 172
Austin, L. W., 93, 177 Auto- coherer, 171

detector, 177

Castelli, Signer, 163, 171

Auto- transformer, receiving, 149

sending, 112 Auto-transmitter, 140

12, 23, 31,

33
definition of,
1

moving, 37, 63
properties of, 3

B.

Choking
Circuits,

coils, 104, 143, 155,

231

BARRETTER,

176, 197

for

Bellini, E., 95, 116

charging 84,86

oscillator,

78,

Bjerknes, V., 59 Bolometer, 196 Brandes, H., 177

Branly, E., 60, 145, 163

oscillatory, Hertz's, 48

open and closed,

59, 109

Braun,

F.,

coupled systems, 94, 113

directive

secondary, 39 potentiometer, 180

receiver,

wave

sysof

transmitter,

145162, 203, 204 94118, 186

tem, 115
screening
action
obstructions, 71

192
Coherers, 165, 166, 168

Brown, A.

C.,

175

Compliancy, 30 Condenser, definition

of,

field of force,

6
10,

Leyden
0.

jar,

59,

137, 141

Nauen,

at, 228,

231
in,

CALLING-UP arrangement, 180

Capacity,
aerial, of,

receiver circuits,

153, 157, 161, 236

96

definition of, 9

sending circuits, 103, 104

in,

mechanical analogue, 33
oscillatory circuits, of, 32, 98,
100, 103, 114, 204, 210 shunt to a battery, 155

wavemeter
198, 204

circuit, in,

Conductors,

2,

Coupled
of,

circuits,

resonance curves

a detector, 152 an induction cord, 78 a transmitting key, 78, 139

variation of spark with, 130

207
close

Coupling, best, 191, 209

and loose defined,

1 1

101
directive circuits, of,
S

INDKX.
(

267

'iMipling,

Duddell and Taylor's experiments on 191

,

Damping,

factor,

59
oscillator, in,
circuits,
in,

Hertz

59
97,

high power station,

of,

open
104

86, 113 limitation of close, 108,

receiving circuits, in,

ir>2

137

measurement
209

of,

208,

Daylight, 72

De
of, 103,

Forest, aerial,

1.33

methods
receiving

137
of,

alternator, use of, 76

circuits,

147, 160

anchor spark, 128 audion, 172

apparatus, 141
electrolytic

sending
Currents, electric

circuits, of,

99

detector,

conduction, 15, 18
defined, 14, 15, 37, 38

175
radio-telephone
sys-

density, 191
detectors, 172

tem,

'2-~>~>

De Laval
187,

displacement, 14, 17

measurements,
192

turbine, 92 Detector, audion, 172 barretter, 176

carborundum, 177
instruelectrolytic, 174

measuring

ments, 192 19S mechanical analogy,

33
penetration
of, 18,

lead peroxide, 175 magnetic, 172

191

microphonic, 177 telephone as a, 178

thermo-electric, 177

production

of, 17,

22

properties of,
vibratory, 31

15

Detectors, compared. IT!' current, 172

potential, 1(55
testing, 180 '-', .'>, 10, 11
>.

Curvature of the earth, Cymometer, 200

<is

Dielectric.

D.
I I

iiuensions of electric quantiti24

>.\MriN(i, closed circuits, of, 34,

59
of,

coupled
curve, 21

circuits,

108, 211
1

Diplex working. Directed waves,

Bellini

W. 221

decrement..-)! i. 210,239

and Tossi, 116 Brauu, 115

Gaivia.
1

denned,
30,

2(5
<>!'.

electric vibration*.
:{.-,,

Marconi, 114,
Displacement.

1 1-~>

:,7

11. 12. 11

26S

INDEX.
Electric intensity,
5, 6, 9, 11

J., wavemeter, 198 Drude, P., damping, on, 98, 211 wave-length, on, 209

Donitz,

Duddell, W., arc, 88

thermometer, 193 units, 23, 259 Electricity, 1, 13, 20, 21, 52

-

thermo

galvano

meter, 194

Electrolytic detector, 174 Electro-magnetics, 14

Duddell and Taylor, experiments

on,

Electromotive force, 19
Electro-statics, 14

best coupling, 191

Elmers End

station, 215

224

earthing arrangements, 126 energy received, 73

radiation of received vibrations, 152

Elster, Professor, 72

Energy, 22, 28, 72, 73 Evans, Lieut. LI., 126

Ewing,
measuring in239

J. A., 79

resistance of

Electrical Engineering,
Electrician, The, 55

117, 122,

struments, 189

Dun woody,

screening action, 70 General, 178

Duration of vibrations, 56, 91

F.

Dynamometer,
198

high frequency,

FARADAY, M., 42
Feddersen, B. W., 31, 43, 59

Dissipation of energy, 72

Fessenden,
E.

B,.,

alternator, 92
barretter, 176, 197

EARTH

connexion,
best, 126

earthing arrangements, 126

electrolytic detector, 175

experiments on
first

used, 60
-

Lodge

Muirhead

arrange-

radio-telephone system, 250 spark-gap, 135

ment, 62, 127, 216, 241 Marconi and Fessenden, 1 26

use of long waves, 72

Nauen,

at,

227

Telefunken portable stations, for, 246 Earthed Hertzian waves, 63, 66

Eccles,

Fleming, J. A., audion detector, 172 best coupling, 209 cymometer, 200 electric vibrations, 40

W.

H., 167, 173

Elasticity, 33,

45
7,

high-power apparatus, 86 material of spark-knobs, 135

16, 52,

Electric field, 4, 6,

14,

measurement
waves, 214

of

train

of

54, 56, 62
force, 4, 5, 9, 14,

49

number
Poulsen

of oscillations, 213
arc, ss

inertia, 18,20, 32, 33, 209

INDEX.
G.
f!.\i:

269

L.
1

i\.

M. R,,
To

114,

Hi

Gavey,

J.,

LAMPA, A., Lead peroxide

Leyden
Light, 58,
7U

."is

detector, 175

Geissler tube, 39
Geitel, J. von, 72

jar, 11, 59, 137, 141

Guthe,

K E.,

166, 167

Lightning, protection from, 127 Lines of force, 6, 7

H.

Lodge, Sir Oliver,

capacity aerial, 94, 153, 212,

HAMMER

interrupter, NO
27,

215
earthing aerial, 66 energy received, 74
overflow receiving circuit, 158
receiving transformer, 147
spark, 131, 133
valve, 83
145,

Harmonics,

40

Heaviside, Oliver, .'53 Hertz, H., discoverer of radiotelegraphy, 43 experiments, 48

56

lengths ployed, 58 waves, 59, 65

wave

em-

Lodge-Muirhead,
aerial,

velocity of waves, 47

98

Heydweiller, A., 133

auto-transmitter, 140

High-power apparatus, 85
History, 42, 60, 76, 94, 145, 163

calling-up arrangement, ISO coherer, 168

Hughes microphone, Hydrogen arc, 141

I.

177

earthing arrangements, 98 leading-in insulator, 123

portable station, 240 spark-gaps, 134

syphon recorder, 157

system, 215 224 transformer, 84

INDUCTANCE, 33
Induction, 3
coil,

7683
self,

Lyngby
20
119

station, 2:i2

239

mutual and
Insulators.

2, 10, 11,

Interference, 28

M.
MAGNETIC,
detector, IT .'
".1.
1

J.

field, 13, 14, IT.

M,

JACKSON, Eear Admiral Sir H. B.,

69
Jervis-Smith, Rev. F., 135

56
induction, 13

Magnetism,

12.

'21

270

INDEX.
Neugschwender, 174
Nodes, 27, 32, 40
O.

Marconi, G.,
action of daylight, on, 72
aerial, 61,

94

coherer, 167

directed waves, 114

earthing arrangements, 126

Ley den jars, 11 magnetic detector, 172

oscillator,

OBSTRUCTIONS to waves, Oerstedt, H. C., 42

68, 70

Ohm,
Open
145,

18,

259

60

Ondameter, 198
oscillation circuit, 95

portable stations, 242

receiving transformer, 147, 148

Oscillation constant, 36, 148, 205

Oscillator,
electric

vibrations

spark-gap, 133
transatlantic stations, 144

along, 31

forms

of,

59
of

transmitting key, 139

Hertz, 48

Maskelyne, N., 122 Maxwell, Clerk, 43, 47

Measuring, coupling, 190, 208
current
circuit,

methods
ment,
144

arrange-

94118

practical details, 119

in

sending

186

Oscillatory discharge, 2, 31

damping, 211
instruments, 192

Overflow arrangement of Lodge, 158

P.

wave-length, 192, 198

Mercury

interrupter, 89, 91

PERIOD, 25
Pedersen, P. O., 160

Microampere, 259 Microfarad, 9, 259

Microphonic detector, 177
Millihenry, 259

Pendulum, 25
Permeability, 13, 20, 24 Phase, 29
Pierce,

Morse alphabet, 257

inker, 155

George W.,

action of earthing aerial, 64

Muirhead, Alexander, 66
Multiple coupled circuits, Multiplicator, 202
1
1

Cooper Hewitt mercury dis4

charger, on, 89

Munk

af Bosenschoold, 163

couplings, on, 108, 206208 distance of signalling, 61

Murray, Erskine, 64 Mutual induction, 20, 209

high

frequency meter, 198

113

dynamo-

N.

oscillatory transformers, on,

NAUEN
Neon

station, 215

Polarisation, 13

gas, 41

Poldhu

station, 72

271

Popoff, Professor,
Potential,

(JO

Portable stations, 240

7, 19, 31, 32,

24 s

33

detectors, 165

Receiving circuits compared, l.'is Receiving transformer, 145, 147 Recorder, 157 Relay circuits, 155
Resistance, 18, 33, 213

Potentiometer, 180

Poulsen, V., arc, 88,

141144

Rempp,

G., 130

radio-telephone system, 2.1fi

Resonance, 48, 52 curve, 205

Righi, A., 133 Ross, O. C., 55

system, 248

232238,
cir-

Poulseu-Pedersen receiving
cuit,

160162
'-'I!)

K'uhmer, E., 249 Rutherford, E., 172

S.

Power-factor,

Preet-f, Sir AYilliam,

60

Propagation of waves, 50, 63 Protection of apparatus, 87, 127

SCHLO MILCH
Secondary

detector, 175,

_'.">

Screening, 70
circuits,

R.

99

114, 147,

BADTATIXO

circuit,

100

151, 192

Radiation, 35,

4759,

63

vibrations, 37
Self induction, 18, 20, 32, 33, 209

resistances, 190 Radio-telephony, 249

Simon, H. Th., 89
Slaby, A., 133, 149, 202

Rayk-igh, Lord, 79, 213

Receiving

circuit,
in,

damping

152

Spark, 31, 90, 128, 130, 131, 133, 135

Specific inductive capacity, 10, 11,

De

Forest arrangement, 153 Hertz's, 48

Lodge's, 147, 158

24
Squier, S. O., 71

Lodge-Muirhead,
Marconi's, 147

157,

22-'

Subsidiary
Sullivan,

circiiits, 1,31

H. W.,

measurements, 203 measuring instruments

194, l!Mi

interrupter, 80
relay, 182
for,

Switches,

l.v.t

necessity of syutony in,

VJ.
.-.:!.

Syntony,
-17,

2s,

IT,

.12,

5:5,

!M.

148,

150
T.

148, 150
I.',

PopolT,

Poulsen-Pedersen, 160, 238

secondary, 147, 151 Slal>y. 149

TAYLOR,

J. E.,

70,

73, 126, 152,

189, 190

Telefunken,
aerial, 123, 22-1

Telefunken,

22!

>

272

INDEX.
contin tied.

Telef unken

Velocity, waves of, 47, 56

apparatus, 231 auto-transformer, 149

coherer, 175

Vibrating receiver, 47 string, 27, 30

Vibrations,

damping

of,

26

condenser, 228

definition of, 25
electric, 31,

earthing arrangements, 227 induction coil, 80

portable stations, 245
radio-telephone system, 251 receiving apparatus, 157

33

energy of, 28, 47 examination of, 39

principal, 28

secondary, 37, 39
Volt, 8, 259

spark-gap, 134
station at

Nauen, 225

231

Vreeland, F.

Iv., 91,

255

transmitting key, 139 wave-meter, 198, 202

W.
WAVE-LENGTH,
45, 55, 58

Telephone, 162 Tesla transformer, 112 Thermo-electric detectors, 177

Wave measurement,
Waves, advantage
amplitude
of,

198

205

Thermo-galvanometer, 194

of long, 72

Thomson, Elihu, 87 Thomson, J. J.,

Ticker, 161, 237
Tissot, C., 73, 152, 189, 196

46

definition of, 44

directed, 114

earthed, 62, 66

Tosi, A., 95, 116

electro-magnetic, 47, 52,

Tralee Station, 239 Transformers, 83

60
principal, 106 stationary, in wires, 36

Transmitting, 95 key, 137

velocity of propagation of,

Trees as aerials, 71 Trowbridge, J., 167

4547
Wildman, L.
63
Z.
D., 72

Tubes

of force, 6, 12, 14

radiated,

4956,
U.

UNITS,

23, 259

ZENNECK, J., damping of secondary vibraV.

tions, 105

VARIOMETER, 255
Velocity, charges along wires, of,

41
BRADBURY, AONEW,

of single aerial, 97 coupling, 137 wave measurement, 198

damping

&

CO. LD., PRINTERS,

LONDON AND TONBR1JX3K.

CONSTABLE'S
"Westminster
Bound
in

Series
Price 6/- net each.

uniform

style.

Fully Illustrated.

Westminster" Series have been designed to meet the growing demand for books on practical subjects to bring within the ken of the non-technical reader an accurate knowledge of
in the
;

The Volumes

"

manufacturing processes and the practical application

of
is

modern
written

science

to

industries.

Each

volume

practical

by an expert to the end that readers and all who are engaged in the

numerous allied branches of the engineering and technical trades may have reliable works of reference. The series provides for a class not The hitherto reached in published works. volumes can be easily read by the general public, and make excellent handbooks at a moderate price for the student. The series is well suited to public libraries and
be found valuable for libraries in engineering shops and factories.
will

ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE &

CO. LTD.

10 Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C.

THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES

Coal. By JAMES TONGE, M.I.M.E., F.G.S., etc. (Lecturer on Mining at Victoria University, Manchester). With 46 Illustrations, many of them showing the Fossils found
in the Coal Measures.

LIST OF CONTENTS Occurrence. Mode of Formation History. of Coal Seams. Fossils of the Coal Measures. Botany of the Coal-Measure Plants. Coalfields of the British Isles. Foreign The Classification of Coals. The Valuation of Coal. Coalfields. Foreign Coals and their Values. Uses of Coal. The Production Waste of Coal. The Preparation of Coal of Heat from Coal. for the Market. Coaling Stations of the World. Index.
:

This book on a momentous subject is provided for the general reader who wishes accurate knowledge of Coal, its origin, position and extent, and its economical utilization and application.

Iron and Steel. By J. H. STANSBIE, With 86 Illustrations.

:

B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C.

Iron Ores. Combustible and LIST OF CONTENTS Introductory. Primitive other materials used in Iron and Steel Manufacture. Methods of Iron and Steel Production. Pig Iron and its ManuThe Refining of Pig Iron in Small Charges. Crucible facture.

and Weld
Process.

The Bessemer Process. The Open Hearth Steel. Mechanical Treatment of Iron and Steel. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Iron and Steel. Iron and Steel under the Microscope. Heat Treatment of Iron and Steel. Electric

Smelting.
of this

Special Steels.

Index.

book is to give a comprehensive view of the modern aspects of iron and steel, together with a sufficient account of its history to enable the reader to follow its march of progress. The methods

The aim

of producing varieties of the metal suitable to the requirements of the engineer, foundryman and mechanician are described so that the worker may learn the history of the material he is handling.

Natural Sources of Power.

:

By ROBERT

S.

BALL, B.Sc.,

A.M.Inst.C.E. With 104 Diagrams and Illustrations. Units with Metric Equivalents and AbbrePreface. CONTENTS viations. Length and Distance. Surface and Area. Volumes. Weights or Measures. Pressures. Linear Velocities, Angular
Velocities.

Acceleration.

Energy.

Power.

Introductory

Water Power and Methods of Measuring. Application of Water Power to the Propulsion of Machinery. The Hydraulic Turbine. Various Types of Turbine. Construction of Water Power Plants. Water Power Installations. The Regulation of Turbines. Wind The Application Pressure, Velocity, and Methods of Measuring. The Modern Windmill. Conof Wind Power to Industry. Power of Modern Windmills. Appendices structional Details.
A, B,

Index.
:

departments of Engineering and their applications to industry " " sources of water the natural form the subject of this volume 2 ) (

Two

THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES

and wind power which supply mechanical energy without any intermediate stage of transformation. Most people will be surprised at the extent to which these natural power producers are used. The widespread application of water power is generally known, but it is interesting to learn that the demand for windmills was never so great as it is to-day, and there are signs of abnormal expansion in the direction of their useful application in the great agricultural countries of the world. Though primarily of importance to the engineer, this work will be of great interest to every manufacturer who in economizing his means of power production can take the natural forces that lie to his hand and harness them in his service. The author is the son of Sir Robert Ball, the eminent mathematician and astronomer.

Liquid and Gaseous Fuels, and the Part they play in Modern Power Production. By Professor
VIVIAN B. LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S., Prof, of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. With 54 Illustrations. Lavoisier's Discovery of the Nature of ComLIST OF CONTENTS The Cycle of Animal and Vegetable Life. Method bustion, etc. The Discovery of Petroleum of determining Calorific Value. The History of Coal Gas. Calorific in America. Oil Lamps, etc. Value of Coal Gas and its Constituents. The History of Water
:

Gas. Incomplete Combustion. Comparison of the Thermal Values of our Fuels, etc. Appendix. Bibliography. Index.

The subject

of this
it is

importance that

ment of the use of for the generation of

book has, during the last decade, assumed such hoped this account of the history and developvarious forms of combustible liquids and gases energy may do some service in its advancement.

Electric Power and Traction. By F. H. DAVIES, A.M.I.E.E. With 66 Illustrations. LIST OF CONTENTS Introduction. The Generation and Distribution of Power. The Electric Motor. The Application of
:

Electric Power Electric Power in Collieries. Electric Power. Electric Power in Textile Factories. in Engineering Workshops. Electric Power at Sea. Electric Power in the Printing Trade. The Overhead Electric Traction. Electric Power on Canals.

System and Track Work. The Conduit System. The Surface Contact System. Car Building and Equipment. Electric Railways.
Glossary.

Index.

of the allied trades that cluster round the business of electrical engineering are connected in some way or other with its power and traction branches. To members of such trades and calling t<> whom some knowledge of applied electrical engineering is desirable to appeal. if not strictly essential, the book is particularly intended It deals almost entirely with practical matters, and enters to some extent into those commercial considerations which in the long run must overrule all others.

The majority

THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES

Town Gas
WEBBER,

and
C.E.
:

its

Light, Heat, and

Uses for the Production of Motive Power. By W. H. Y.

Illustrations.

With 71

Gas in all its uses. Town Gas for Power Generation, including Private Electricity Supply. The Legal Relations of Gas SupIndex. pliers, Consumers, and the Public. The " country," as opposed to the " town," has been denned as " the parts beyond the gas lamps." This book provides accurate knowledge regarding the manufacture and supply of town gas and its Few people realize the uses for domestic and industrial purposes. extent to which this great industry can be utilized. The author has produced a volume which will instruct and interest the generally well informed but not technically instructed reader.
of

The Nature and Properties of Town Gas. The LIST OF CONTENTS History and Manufacture of Town Gas. The Bye-Products of Practical Coal Gas Manufacture. Gas Lights and Lighting. Gas Lighting. The Cost of Gas Lighting. Heating and WarmCooking by Gas. The Healthfulness and Safety ing by Gas.

Electro-Metallurgy.
61 Illustrations.

By

J.

B. C.

KERSHAW,

F.I.C.

With

CONTENTS

and Historical Survey. Aluminium. Details of Processes and Works. Costs. Utilization. Future of the Metal. Bullion and Gold. Silver Refining Process. Gold Refining Processes. Gold Extraction Processes. Calcium Carbide and Acetylene Gas. The Carbide Furnace and Process. Production. Utilization. Carborundum. Details of Manufacture. Properties and Uses. Copper. Copper RefinDescriptions of Refineries. Costs. Properties and Utilizaing. tion. The Elmore and similar Processes. Electrolytic Extraction Processes. Electro-Metallurgical Concentration Processes. Descriptions of Works. Utilization. Glass and Ferro-alloys. Quartz Glass. Graphite. Details of Process. Utilization. Iron and Steel. Descriptions of Furnaces and Processes. Yields and Costs. Comparative Costs. Lead. The Salom Process. The Betts Refining Process. The Betts Reduction Process. White Lead Processes. Miscellaneous Products. Calcium. Carbon Bisulphide. Carbon Tetra-Chloride. Diamantine. Magnesium. Phosphorus. Silicon and its Compounds. Nickel. Wet Processes. Dry Processes. Sodium. Descriptions of Cells and Processes. Tin. Alkaline Processes for Tin Stripping. Acid Processes for Tin Salt Processes for Tin Stripping. Zinc. Wet ProStripping. cesses. Dry Processes. Electro-Thermal Processes. ElectroGalvanizing. Glossary. Name Index.
:

Introduction

Production.

The subject of this volume, the branch of metallurgy which deals with the extraction and refining of metals by aid of electricity, is becoming of great importance. The author gives a brief and clear account of the industrial developments of electro-metallurgy, in language that can be understood by those whose acquaintance with either
(

THE "WESTMINSTER' SERIES

chemical or electrical science
practical work descriptive of apparatus and processes, and commends itself to all practical men engaged in metallurgical operations, as well as to business men, financiers, and investors.

may

be but

slight.

It is

a thoroughly

Radio-Telegraphy.
CONTENTS
:

By

C.

C.

F.

MONCKTON, M.I.E.E.
Electric

With 173 Diagrams and

Preface.
Electric

Illustrations.

Phenomena.

Vibrations.

Electro-Magnetic Waves. Modified Hertz Waves used in RadioThe Apparatus used for Charging the Oscillator. Telegraphy.

Methods of Arrangement, Practical Details. Electric Oscillator Methods of Arrangement, The Detecting ApThe Receiver paratus, and other details. Measurements in Radio-Telegraphy. The Experimental Station at Elmers End Lodge-Muirhead Radio - Telegraph Station at Nauen Telefunken System. Poulsen System. The LodgeSystem. Station at Lyngby
: : : :
:

Muirhead System, the Marconi System, Telefunken System, and Poulsen System. Portable Stations. Radio-Telephony. ApThe Morse Alphabet. Electrical Units used in this pendices Book. International Control of Radio-Telegraphy. Index.
:

The startling discovery twelve years ago of what is popularly known as Wireless Telegraphy has received many no less startling additions since then. The official name now given to this branch of electrical The subject has now reached a thorpractice is Radio-Telegraphy.
oughly practicable stage, and
form.

book presents it in clear, concise which Radio-Telegraphy is or may be used are indicated by the author. Every stage of the subject is illustrated by diagrams or photographs of apparatus, so that, while an elementary knowledge of electricity is presupposed, the bearings of the subject can be grasped by every reader. No subject is fraulit with so many possibilities of development for the future relationships
this

The various

services for

of the peoples of the world.

India-Rubber and its Manufacture, with Chapters on Gutta-Percha and Balata. By H. L. TERRY,
F.I.C.,

LIST

OF

Assoc.Inst.M.M. With Illustrations. CONTENTS Preface. Introduction Historical

: :

General.

Raw

Rubber.

Coagulation.

Principal

Raw

Botanical Origin.

and Tapping the Trees. Rubbers of Commerce. Pseudo-

and Physical Properties.

General Considerations. Chemical Vulcanization. India-rubber Plantations. India-rubber Substitutes. Reclaimed Rubber. Washing and Drying of Raw Rubber. Compounding of Rubber. Rubber Solvents and their Recovery. Rubber Solution. Fine Cut Sheet and Articles made therefrom. Elastic Thread. Mechanical Rubber Goods. Sundry Rubber Articles. India-rubber Proofed Textures. Tyres. India-rubber Boots and Shoes. Rubber for Insulated Wires. Vulcanite Contracts for India-rubber Goods.

Rubbers.

Congo

Rubber.

THE "WESTMINSTER" SERIES

The Testing
graphy.
of

Rubber Goods.

Gutta-Percha.

Balata.

Biblio-

Index.

Tells all about a material which has grown immensely in commercial importance in recent years. It has been expressly written for the general reader and for the technologist in other branches of industry.

Glass Manufacture.
Works
tions.

By WALTER ROSENHAIN, Superintendent of the Department of Metallurgy in the National Physical Laboratory, late Scientific Adviser in the Glass
of Messrs.

Chance Bros, and Co.

With

Illustra-

CONTENTS

Preface. Definitions. Physical and Chemical Qualities. Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties. Transparency and Colour. Raw materials of manufacture. Crucibles and Furnaces for Fusion. Process of Fusion. Processes used in Working of Glass. Bottle. Blown and Pressed. Rolled or Plate. Sheet and Crown. Coloured. Optical Glass Nature and Properties, Manufacture. Miscellaneous Products. Appendix. Bibliography of Glass Manufacture. Index.
: :

This volume is for users of glass, and makes no claim to be an adequate guide or help to those engaged in glass manufacture itself. For this reason the account of manufacturing processes has been kept as non-technical as possible. In describing each process the object in view has been to give an insight into the rationale of each step, so far as it is known or understood, from the point of view of principles and methods rather than as mere rule of thumb description of manufacturing manipulations. The processes described are, with the exception of those described as obsolete, to the author's definite knowledge, in commercial use at the present time.

Precious Stones.
42 Illustrations.

Stones.
LIST

By ROBERT DYKES.
:

By W. GOODCHILD, M.B., B.Ch. With With a Chapter on Artificial

Introductory and Historical. Genesis of Precious Stones. Physical Properties. The Cutting and Polishof Gems. Imitation Gems and the Artificial Production of ing Precious Stones. The Diamond. Fluor Spar and the Forms of
Silica.

OF

CONTENTS

Corundum, including Ruby and Sapphire. Spinel and The Carbonates and the Felspars. The Pyroxene and Amphibole Groups. Beryl, Cordierite, Lapis Lazuli and the Garnets. PhosOlivine, Topaz, Tourmaline and other Silicates. phates, Sulphates, and Carbon Compounds.
Chrysoberyl.

An

admirable guide to a fascinating subject.

(

THE 'WESTMINSTER" SERIES

Patents, Designs and

and Commercial Usage.

:

Trade Marks The Law By KENNETH R. SWAN,

:

B.A. (Oxon.), of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. CONTENTS Table of Cases Cited Part I. Letters Patent. IntroHistorical. I., II., III. Invention, Novelty, duction. General. Subject Matter, and Utility the Essentials of Patentable Invention. V. Construction of Specification. VI. \Ylu> IV. Specification. May Apply for a Patent. VII. Application and Grant. VIII. IX. Patent Rights. Commercial Legal Value. Opposition. X. Amendment. XI. Infringement of Patent. XII. Value. Action for Infringement. XIII. Action to Restrain Threats. XIV. Negotiation of Patents by Sale and Licence. XV. LimitaXVI. Revocation. XVII. Prolongations on Patent Right. XIX. Foreign Patents. XVIII. Miscellaneous. XX. tion. United States of America. Germany. Foreign Patent Laws France. Table of Cost, etc., of Foreign Patents. APPENDIX A. 2. Cost of Obtaining a British i. Table of Forms and Fees. Part II. Copyright in Convention Countries. Patent. 3. I. II. RegistraIntroduction. Registrable Designs. Design. APPENDIX B. i. tion. III. IV. Marking. Infringement. Table of Forms and Fees. 2. Classification of Goods. Part Trade Marks. Introduction. I. Meaning of Trade Mark. III. III. Restrictions on RegisII. Qualification for Registration. V. Effect of Registration. IV. Registration. VI. tration. APPENDIX C. Table of Forms and Fees. INDICES. Miscellaneous. 2. Designs. i. Patents. 3. Trade Marks.
:

the first book on the subject since the New Patents Act. not only to present the existing law accurately and as fully as possible, but also to cast it in a form readily comprehensible to the layman unfamiliar with legal phraseology. It will be of value to those engaged in trades and industries where a knowledge of the patenting Full of inventions and the registration of trade marks is important. information is given regarding patents, hi foreign countries.

This

is

Its

aim

is

The Book;
LIST

Its

History

and Development.
With 7
Rolls,

By
and

CYRIL DAVENPORT, V.D., F.S.A.

126 Figures in the text. OF CONTENTS Early Records.
:

Plates

Books and Book

bindings. Leathers.

Gold.

Miscellanea. Illustrations. Printing. The Ornamentation of Leather Bookbindings without The Ornamentation of Leather Bookbindings with Gold.

Paper.

Bibliography.

Index.

The romance tions on stone

its development from the rude inscripmagnificent de Luxe tomes of to-day have never been so excellently discoursed upon as in this volume. The history of the Book is the history of the preservation of human thought. This work should be in the possession of every book lover.

of the

Book and

to the

Constable's "Westminster"
LIST OF
Timber.

Series

NEW AND FORTHCOMING

VOLUMES.
J.

By

R. BATERDEN, A.M.I. C.E.

Steam Engines.
A.M.I.M.E.

ByJ.

T.

ROSSITER, M.I.E.E.,
A. C.G.I.,

Electric

Lamps.

By MAURICE SOLOMON,

A.M.I.E.E.

The Railway Locomotive.

M.I.Mech.E.

By VAUGHAN PENDRED,
W.

Leather.

By H. GARNER BENNETT. and Pumping Machinery. Pumps By JAMES

ROSSITER, A.M.I.M.E.

Workshop
Textiles

Practice. By Professor NOCK, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E.

G. F. CHAR-

and their KER, M.Sc.

Manufacture.

By ALDRED BARK. ROSE,

Gold and Precious Metals.

D.Sc., of the Royal Mint.

By THOMAS

Photography.

By ALFRED WATKINS,
By

Past PresiA. S. JEN-

dent of the Photographic Convention.

Commercial Paints and Painting.

NINGS,

Hon. Consulting Examiner, City and Guilds of

Institute.

London
DUTHIE.

Ornamental

Window

Glass

Work.

By

A.

L.

Brewing and Distilling. By JAMES GRANT, F.C.S. Wood Pulp and Its Applications. By C. F. CROSS,
E. J.

BEVAN and

R.

W. SINDALL.

The Manufacture

of Paper.

By

R.

W.

SINDALL.

ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE &

LONDON.

CO. LTD.

^DOJ
stq}

tuojj
aij}

PJBD

& o H o U)
*

9AOUI9J

O
4*

H
<D

<p

EH
I

}OU

OQ

-H
0)