Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 2 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

2.1 Introduction:
This chapter presents the steady-state analysis of an interconnected power system during normal operation. The power system is assumed to be operating under balanced condition and can be represented by a single line diagram. The power system network contains hundreds of buses and branches with impedance specified in per-unit on a common MVA base. Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load flow, are essential of power system analysis and design. Load flow studies are necessary for planning, economic operation, scheduling and exchange of power between utilizes. Load flow study is also required for many other analysis such transient stability, dynamic stability, contingency and state estimation.[4] The system is assumed to be operating under balance condition and it represented by a single-phase network on per-unit basis. The most common way to represent such a system is to use the node-voltage method. Given the voltages of generators at all generator nodes and knowing all impedances of the machines and loads, one can solve for all the currents in the typical node voltage analysis method using Kirchhoffs current law. First the generators are replaced by equivalent current sources. In fact, since the power is a nonlinear function of the current and voltage, the solution of the resulting equations (while it may exist) is not easy! In fact there is no known analytical method to find the solution. As a result iterative techniques are used to find the solution (voltages, currents, etc.). The nonlinear sets of equations which are generated are called power flow equations. The solution of such equations results in a power flow study or load flow analysis. Such studies are the backbone of power system studies, for analysis, design,
8

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

control, and economic operation of the power system. They are also essential for transient stability and contingency studies. The solution to the power flow problem begins with identifying the known and unknown variables in the system. The known and unknown variables are dependent on the type of bus. [1]

2.2 Importance of Load Flow Analysis:

In power engineering, the power flow analysis (also known as load-flow analysis) is an important tool involving numerical analysis applied to a power system. It analyses the power systems in normal steady-state operation. There exist a number of software implementations of power flow studies. The great importance of power flow or load-flow studies is in the planning of the future expansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principal information obtained from the Power flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line or transformer which provides general information about the network. [1]

2.3 Bus Classifications:

At every bus of the system, two of these four quantities will be specified and the remaining two will be unknowns, there are: Real Power P, Reactive Power Q, Voltage Magnitude V, Voltage Angle Each of the system buses may be classified in accordance with which of the two quantities are specified. The following classifications are typical:

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

2.3.1 Slack bus (swing): The slack bus for the system is a single bus for which the voltage magnitude and angle are specified. The active and reactive powers are unknowns. The bus Selected as the slack bus must have a source of both real and reactive power, since the injected power at this bus must swing to take up the slack in the solution. The best choice for the slack bus requires experience with the particular system under study. 2.3.2 Load bus (p-q bus): A load bus is defined as any bus of the system for which the real and reactive Powers are specified. Load buses may contain generators with specified real and reactive power outputs; however, it is often convenient to designate any bus with specified injected complex power as a load bus. 2.3.3 Voltage controlled bus (p-v bus) or regulated buses: Any bus for which the voltage magnitude and the injected real power are specified is classified as a voltage controlled (or P-V) bus. The injected reactive power is a variable (with specified upper and lower bounds) in the power flow analysis. A P-V bus must have a variable source of reactive power such as a generator. [1]

2.4 Basic Power Flow Equations:

Consider a typical bus of a power system network as shown in Figure 2.1 transmission lines are representing by their equivalent models where impedance have been converted to per unit admittances on a common MVA base application of KCL to this bus result in:

10

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Figure 2.1: Extending the analysis to an n-bus system

Figure 2.2: The model for the n-bus system. I =YV .. (2.1) Where I: is the injected current vector. Y: is the admittance matrix. V: is the node voltage vector. ( ( ( ) ) ( )

.... (2.2) ) ......................................... (2.3) . (2.4)

) .. (2.5)

11

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

General I equation become: . (2.6) .. (2.7) ... (2.8) .. (2.9) (2.10) Where: P : is active power. Q : is reactive power. In the above relation, the mathematical formulation of the power flow problem results in a system of algebraic nonlinear equations whish must be solved by iterative techniques. There are two popular numerical methods for solving the power-flow equations. These are the Gauss-Seidel (G-S) and the Newton-Raphson (N-R) Methods. The N-R method is superior to the G-S method because it exhibits a faster convergence characteristic. However, the N-R method suffers from the disadvantage that a flat start is not always possible since the solution at the beginning can oscillate without converging toward the solution. In order to avoid this problem, the load-flow solution is often started with a G-S algorithm flowed by the N-R algorithm after a few iterations. [1] . (2.11)

12

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

2.5.1Gauss-Seidel method:
In numerical linear algebra, the GaussSeidel method, also known as the Liebmann method or the method of successive displacement, is an iterative method used to solve a linear system of equations. F(X) =0 (2.12) & will be arranged to be X =g(X) .. (2.13) If
( )

is an initial estimate of the variable X, the following iterative sequence is

( )

formed
( )

=g(

A solution is obtained when the different between the absolute value of the successive iteration is less than a specified accuracy i.e. |
( )

( )

|=<E (2.14)

2.5.2Gauss-Seidel power flow solution:

In the power flow study, it is necessary to solve the set of nonlinear equations represented by (2.15) for two unknown variables at each node. In the Gauss-Seidel method is solved for Vi, and the iterative sequence becomes:
h h ( )

. (2.15)
h

Where: yij shown in lowercase letters is the actual admittance in per unit. and
( ( h

are the net real reactive powers expressed in per unit. If it solved for Pi
) )

and Qi we have : = R{Vi*(k)[Vi(k) = -j { Vi*(k)[Vi(k) - - ij Vj(k) ]} ji . (2.16)

ij Vj(k) ]} ji .. (2.17)

13

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

2.5.3 Newton-Raphson method:

The Newton-Raphson method enables us to replace the nonlinear set of power-flow equations of (4.1) with a linear set. We will show this after the basis for the method is explained. The Taylor series expansion of a function f(x) of a single variable, x, around the point (x - a) is given by ( ) Where ( ) ( ) |
( ) ( )

. (2.18)

| = value of the derivative evaluated at x=a .

The series converges if

For a function of n variables, one can expand around the point: (x1 - a1), ( i=1,2,.......,n Let us consider a set of nonlinear equations, each a function of n variables: ( , ( , ( , k = 1, 2. . . n Assume initial values
( ) ( )

), (

) with ( | |

( (

) <<1 and k = 1, 2. . . n. Then, equation. ) (2.19) ) . (2.20)

| || || | || ||

... . .. ...

)= )= )=

... (2.21) . (2.22) .. (2.23)

and some correction,

( )

, which when added , the are small.

to yield )

( )

.When

is close to the solution,

(
(
( ) ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

.. (2.24)

K=1,2,..n Using the approximate Taylors series, we have

14

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

| |

| |

( (
( )

) ] .. (2.25) )

To continue iteration, find

( ) ( )

from

( )

.. (2.26)

Generally
( ) ( ) ( )

... (2.27)

Where (k) is number of iteration.

2.5.4 The Newton-Raphson method applied to power-flow equations:

The N-R method is typically applied on the real form of the power-flow equations: (
(

)
)( ) | ( ) | ( ) |

. (2.28)

The power flow equations can be placed into the NewtonRaphson framework by separating the power flow equations into their real and imaginary parts and taking the voltage magnitudes and phase angles as the unknowns writing equation. [1] Specifically for the power flow problem: [ ] [ | | | | ] [ ( ( ) ) ] .... (2.29)

Where:

the voltage angle.

15

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

2.6 IEEE 14-Bus System:

For this project, IEEE 14-bus system is chosen as the case study. This system consists of two generators, three synchronous compensators, eleven load centers, three transformer , fourteen bus-bar, fifteen line. The system is shown in Figure 2.3:

Figure 2.3: IEEE 14-bus system

2.6.1Bus data and line data: For our study in IEEE 14 bus-bar power system we will use the parameter of bus data as shown in Table 2.1 and line data at Table 2.2 to compute the power flow in each line of the case study. [5]

16

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Table 2.1: Bus data Bus P Q P Load Q Load Bus Type*

No. Generation Generation (MW) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0.00 40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 (MVAR) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

(MW) (MVAR) 22 94 48 8 12 30 0.00 0.00 9 0.00 35 6 14 15 0.00 12.7 19 -3.6 1.6 7.5 0.00 0.00 16.6 5.8 1.8 1.6 5.8 5 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

*Bus Type: (1) slack bus, (2) generator bus (PV bus), and (0) load bus (PQ bus)

17

Chapter 2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Table 2.2: Line Data. From Bus 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 9 9 10 12 13 To Bus 2 5 3 4 5 4 5 7 9 6 11 12 13 8 9 10 14 11 13 14 Resistance (p.u.) 0.01938 0.05403 0.04699 0.05811 0.05695 0.06701 0.01335 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09498 0.12291 0.06615 0.00 0.00 0.03181 0.12711 0.08205 0.22092 0.17093 Reactance (p.u.) 0.05917 0.22304 0.19797 0.17632 0.17388 0.17103 0.04211 0.20912 0.55618 0.25202 0.1989 0.25581 0.13027 0.17615 0.11001 0.08450 0.27038 0.19207 0.19988 0.34802 Line charging admittance (p.u.) 0.0528 0.0492 0.0438 0.0374 0.034 0.0346 0.0128 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Tap ratio 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.978 0.969 0.932 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The analysis for this network is done by using Newton-Raphson method in Matlab software as shown appendix B and the result of load flow analysis is shown in Figure 2.4:

18