T

he first cakes ever made were produced by mixing together flour, eggs, butter, and

sugar. When perfected, these were referred to as pound cake--or the first batter cake type. The next cake type or classification was developed when it was found that a lighter, fluffier product could be made by whipping the eggs and then folding in sugar and flour. This became known as the foam-type cake (i.e., angel food and sponge cakes). A third basic cake type, known as layer cake, was born in the middle 1800s when baking powders were put on the market. Since that time, no basic changes had been made in cake types, although improvements in the technique of making the three basic cakes had been accomplished. Then in the mid 1900s an entirely new type of cake that combines the fine qualities of two basic cake types, foam and layer, was perfected and resulted in the chiffon-type cake. From this cake evolution, the baking industry of today recognizes three types of cakes-- (1) batter, (2) foam (angel food and sponge), and (3) chiffon.

TYPES OF CAKES
Cake formulas can generally be separated into three types, depending upon the differences due to batter appearances or character. They are: 1. Batter Type -- Batter-type cakes depend upon eggs, flour and milk for structure and contain reasonably high percentages of fat. Much of the volume of the finished cake is achieved by the use of baking powder. A. Pound (butter cakes) rely on eggs and fat for leavening, whereas B. Layer cakes rely more on chemical leaveners because of less eggs and fat.

2.

Foam Type-Foam-type cakes depend principally upon the extension and denaturation of egg protein for the bulk of the

structure of finished volume and, with one or two exceptions, can be regarded as

being--"cakes without shortening." Depending upon the egg material used, foam-type cakes are again divided into: A. Angel food-those cakes using the egg white protein of eggs (meringue). B. Sponge-those cakes using either whole eggs or yolks or a combination of both. 3. Chiffon Type-Chiffon-type cakes are a combination of a batter and foam and the resulting cake has a modified "foam-type" grain and texture.

BATTER-TYPE CAKES
Functions of the Ten Basic Ingredients
1. FLOUR Flour furnishes structure due to its starches and proteins, and holds the other ingredients together in making a cake. The cake flour should come from a soft white or soft red winter wheat. Short patent flour produces finer cell walls and finer grain. It should have a protein content of 7 to 9 percent and is chlorine bleached. Treating the flour with chlorine gas helps strengthen the starch during the baking process. This allows the flour to carry more sugar and shortening as well as water. Chlorinated cake flours enabled the baker to produce cakes with sugar levels higher than that of flour, greatly increasing the shelf life and softness of the finished product. The flour will generally range between a pH of 4.5 to 5.2, compared to untreated flour, which will have a pH of about six. This is due to the chlorine's reaction with the

moisture present in the flour, producing hydrochloric acid. The baker checks the pH of incoming cake flour as a quality control measure. However, proper pH is not a guarantee of proper flour treatment. At one time a way to test flour to determine its ability to make a cake, was to use the flour in a rich white cake formula high in sugar, shortening and water levels. The purpose was also to see that the flour was sufficiently white in color. Flours that will not stand this test usually were improperly bleached, causing the cakes to be open grained and to shrink when removed from the oven. The resulting cakes were drier and had poorer eating qualities. This condition may be improved upon by reducing the shortening and sugar in the formula and increasing eggs and acid levels. Today, many agree that flour should be tested for its suitability for a product, by testing it in that formulation. 2. SUGARS Sugars are used as sweeteners and are manipulated more in formulations for their tenderizing effects. They inhibit gluten formation at high usage levels and raise the gelatinization temperature of the starches during baking. This can lead to increased finished cake volumes, grain that is more open and softer textures. Sugars are also , hygroscopic. They help retain the moisture left in the baked cake, thereby keeping the cake more moist and edible longer. Sugars aid in crust color formation. Caramelization is a reaction of sugars exposed to high temperatures, creating brown crust colors and caramelized flavors. So as the sugars are increased in the formulation, crust color is also affected. Another color reaction that happens in baking is the Maillard browning reaction. This reaction requires reducing sugars and proteins in the presents of high temperatures. It is said to happen at slightly lower baking temperatures than caramelization. Sucrose is the only non-reducing sugar added to cakes and therefore cannot react in the browning reaction. This , is why that small amount (5 to 15%) of a reducing sugar added to chemically leavened bakery products has so large an impact on a cakes crust color. Syrups such as invert sugar, corn syrup, malt, molasses, or honey are used either for the particular flavor they furnish or as moisture-retaining agents. Any type of sugar when used in cakes has a tendency to lubricate the batter, making it more fluid. A properly balanced formula means that liquids are generally increased when the sugars are increased. Otherwise, the centers of the cakes may dip (collapse) upon removal from the oven due to increased gelatinization temperatures of the starches. 3. SHORTENING/OIL Shortening is credited with carrying the air incorporated in the finished cake batter. Air cells (nucleation sites) created at mixing, produce more tenderizing action on the cake than the shortening itself. However, shortening makes the baked product more tender and must be considered a tenderizing agent. If it is an emulsified shortening it helps

form an emulsion, especially at lower temperatures than is possible to obtain with nonemulsified shortenings. The emulsified cake shortenings allows more water to be carried in the batter without separation (curdling), and in this way improves finished cake volume and eating qualities. The amount of water left in the baked cake is also very important to shelf life and softness. Shortening acts as a barrier to retain moisture in the finished cake. Hydrogenated-emulsified cake shortenings are manufactured to have a working temperature range from 60 to 85F (16-29C), giving satisfactory results within this range. The optimum working range is generally considered to be between 65-75F (1824C). At these temperatures, the ability of the plastic shortening and batter to take on and hold air is greatest. However, it should be remembered that the type of emulsifier and usage levels makes it possible to use oils or shortenings for cake batters. Fluid cake type shortenings are made of oils with hard fats and emulsifiers. They are pumpable at room temperature and lend a softer finished crumb to the product. Most solid cake type shortenings can not be melted for pumping and still retain their aeration qualities during mixing. This is because melting the fat will alter its crystalline structure, reducing air incorporation of the batter. Likewise, improper storage, exposure to high temperatures and/or too long of storage time, will likewise reduce the cake shortenings aeration qualities. Today, the baker can even use oil and blends of added emulsifiers to produce acceptable cake products. 4. EGGS Whole eggs furnish structure, water, color and flavor-good or bad, depending upon the flavor quality of the eggs. If poor flour is used, then more eggs are required and vice versa. It is important to know the moisture, fat and solid content of the eggs, not only from the standpoint of using with them, but also for purchasing specifications. The solid content of eggs control the results of the finished product and egg solids vary with the type of egg component utilized. When formulating with liquid (refrigerated or frozen) whole eggs, they average 24% solids, 76% water, dried whole egg powder averages 95% solids, and 5% moisture. Egg whites used for whipping to produce foam style cakes must be free from grease or traces of egg yolk. As little as, one-tenth of one percent will decrease their whipping ability. Egg whites provide structure to cakes due to its protein and moisture content. They are sometimes found in formulations, such as chocolate cakes. This is to help boost the structure, which is generally diluted by the levels of cocoa and water needed in the formulations. Liquid egg Whites contain on average 11.5% solids and 88.5% water. Dried egg white powder averages about 92% solids and 8% moisture. Egg yolks are primarily used as a tenderizer in cake formulations. Because of their high fat content and the presents of a natural emulsifier called lecithin. Average solids content of egg yolks is 43% and 57% water.

Sugared yolks are pure high quality egg yolks stabilized with 10% of sucrose or corn syrup solids to keep the yolks soft and easy to blend in at mixing. When egg yolks have been frozen and thawed, they become thick and difficult to smooth out in batters. The addition of sugar to the egg by the processor eliminates this problem for the baker. Liquid sugared egg yolks average 50% solids and 50% water. Dried egg yolk powder averages 95% solids and 5% moisture. Fortified eggs are whole eggs to which additional yolks have been added to raise the solid's content to between 25 and 27%, higher than that of whole eggs. These are used to improve cake quality. The production of sponge cakes often called for addition egg yolks with already high levels of whole eggs. This would improve finished product tenderness, eating qualities, and shelf life. When handling frozen egg products, proper care must be taken when thawing. There are two methods used that are considered acceptable by most health organizations. The first is to thaw the eggs while under refrigeration. This could take days, so planning your needs is important. In addition, the logistics of large quantities of egg use for the larger bakery adds to the difficulties for proper handling. The second method is to place the containers of egg products into a cold running tap water bath. Storage temperatures for thawed egg products should not exceed 40F (4C). There is also "extended shelf life" eggs available to the baker that will hold up to 8 to 12 weeks under refrigeration. These eggs are used as any other whole egg product. Then there is the "shelf stable whole egg", which need no refrigeration until opened. These contain added sugar and reduced moisture, but equal amount of egg solids compared to liquid whole eggs. Shelf stable eggs are used on a one-to-one replacement for the whole eggs, however, 50% of the weight of the eggs is sugar. This sugar must be compensated for in calculating the formulation, along with the missing water which is also 50% of the egg weight. 5. MILK Milk should be considered in two parts: The milk solids add structure and richness to the cake. They perform as tougheners and, to some extent, dryers. Milk proteins have a binding effect on the flour protein, creating a toughening effect. They also contain lactose, which helps create crust color. Lactose also improves flavor and is affective as moisture-retaining agents. If liquid forms of milk are used, the water content must be considered when adjusting a formula. The water in liquid milk, which may be approximately 121/2% to 90%, depending on the type of milk, has a number of functions. When present in proper quantities, the water itself contributes to the eating quality. Naturally, it is a moistener, combining with the other ingredients to help develop structure, like flour. In order for sugar to be a tenderizer, moisture must be present. By itself, the moisture of the milk is neither a toughener nor a tenderizer, but when combined with other ingredients may contribute to both toughness and tenderness.

Nonfat dry milk is one the most common milk product used by the baker for cake products. Unlike for yeast leavened doughs, the milk products for cakes do not have to be high-heat treated. There are a number of milk substitutes available to the baker today. Combinations of soy flour and sweet whey are not as functional as some other blends, which contain casein proteins. 6. WATER Water adds moisture to the finished cake, thus regulating the eating qualities and shelf life. It also regulates the viscosity (consistency) of the batter, which helps retain the CO2 gas from the baking powders. This will influence the volume, size of the cells and texture of the finished cake. During baking the water forms vapor pressure because the internal cake temperatures reach between 208-210F (98-99C).

It is possible to carefully regulate the water content in cake work by figuring the water content of any material used in the cake batter. Liquid eggs, milk, sugars, butter or margarine, honey or molasses are all sources of water besides tap water. 7. SALT Salt is a taste that everyone can identify. Salt levels used in formulating cakes, is to help bring out the flavor of the other ingredients. It can be used to adjust sweetness. If a cake is too sweet, a slight increase in the percentage of salt will tone down the sweetness. This will have far less impact on other product qualities, than say reducing the sugar, which is needed to retain moisture and tenderness not to mention its affect on volume.

8.

LEAVENING Cakes are leavened (raised/expanded) in three ways: A. Incorporation of air - during mixing B. Chemically leavening - released during mixing & baking C. Vapor pressure - created within the cake during baking The manner of leavening depends upon the type of cake being made in regard to richness of formula, consistency of batter, baking temperature and altitude. Cakes low in water or high in shortening or eggs will obtain a larger portion of leavening from the mixing

operation and require less chemical leaveners. Cakes made from formulas lower in shortening or eggs or higher in water content will require higher levels of baking powder.

Low Ratio Formula A. B. C. D. Less chemical leavening. Lower oven temperature. More air is incorporated during mixing. Lower specific gravity. A. B. C. D.

High Ratio Formula More chemical leavening. Higher oven temperature. Less air is incorporated during mixing. Higher specific gravity.

Cakes baked as large units, require less water and baking powder than those baked as smaller units. Baking powders create leavening in cakes by the release of carbon dioxide gas. This gas then migrates to the air cells (nucleation sites) that were created during the mixing of the batter. Baking powder cannot create gas cells; it can only expand the already existing air cells. Hence, the reason why chemical leavening has the effects on cake volume, grain, texture and mouth feel. Baking powers are generally made up of three principle components. A. B. C. Baking soda-Sodium bicarbonate Acid salts Starch

Baking powders are also divided into types, such as, fast acting, slow acting and double acting. The fast acting acid salt primarily reacts during mixing of the batter. Whereas the late acting acid salts, react mainly during the baking process. A double acting baking powder has a combination of both the fast and slow acting acid salts. Thus, increasing aeration of the batter during mixing (more nucleation sites established) and still giving lift to the batter during exposure to high temperatures of baking. Baking soda is readily soluble in water, whereas the leavening acid salts are solubility reacted. This is why the CO2 is released from the soda at different times in the processing. Double acting baking powders add tolerance to shop schedule disruptions. This is because time, temperature, and agitation are the primary influences responsible for the solubility of the leavening acid salts, as it is waiting on the shop floor. Commercial baking powders have been balanced to assure neutralization of the acids present. This will result in proper gas generation (CO 2 release) and proper finished product pH. Below is a list of cake ingredients with there pH values.

pH of CAKE INGREDIENTS
INGREDIENTS.................................................. Flour.................................................................. Sugar................................................................. Shortening......................................................... Milk.................................................................... Eggs, whole....................................................... Egg white .......................................................... Egg yolk............................................................ Baking powder.................................................. Baking soda ...................................................... Chocolate.......................................................... Cocoa, natural................................................... Cocoa, heavily Dutched .................................... Cocoa, light Dutched......................................... Cocoa, medium Dutched................................... pH 4.5-5.2 7.0 6.2-6.4 7.0 6.5-7.5 7.6-8.4 5.8-6.5 7.2-8.0 8.9 5.4-5.7 5.3-5.8 7.0-8.0 6.0-6.5 6.5-7.0

pH OF FINISHED CAKES Yellow layer....................................................... 7.0-7.6 White layer........................................................ 6.7-7.4 Chocolate/Devils Food...................................... 7.5-9.0 Pound................................................................ 6.6-7.1 Angel Cakes...................................................... 5.0-6.0 Sponge.............................................................. 7.3-7.6
9. EMULSFIERS Emulsifiers used in cakes reduce surface tensions between the water and fat phases of the batter by bonding to both of them. This allows better fat distribution in the water phase and promotes the incorporation of air at mixing. Mono & diglycerides were the first and are still the most popular emulsifiers used in battercakes. They allow more water to be carried in a batter without the fat and water phases separating (curdling). If too much water or not enough emulsifier is add to a batter or the liquids are

added too fast, curdling will occur. This results in low volume ^ cakes; light crust color, very tender crumb and sugar crusted top. Some of the more popular emulsifiers found in cakes are polysorbates, sorbitan monostearate, propylene glycol monoesters, sodium stearoyl 2 lactate, and lecithin. Many of these are found in combinations to have increased capabilities. The baker can buy these ingredients separate, in blends or find them in various the emulsified cake shortenings. 10. FLAVOR The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) categorizes flavors as Natural, Artificial and Natural and Artificial. Vanilla is the most widely used flavoring agent in the production of cakes. However, due to the variations in strength of flavors, it is not possible to set any given amount to be used. It is much better to use a small amount of good flavor in the icing and none in the cake, than to load up the cake with a poor flavor as well as the icing. Combinations of flavors and spices should blend well and complement each other. This can help give distinct flavor differences between various cake products. Such as; vanilla & lemon for yellow cakes and vanilla, lemon & almond for white cakes. Possibly, the addition of nutmeg for yellow snack cakes. The flavor combinations could be endless.

MIXING METHODS BATTER TYPE CAKES

It is possible to achieve wide differences in the finished product by manipulating the formula and/or the mixing methods by which the batter is assembled. The purposes of mixing are to: 1. Hydrate the ingredients 2. Evenly disperse the ingredients 3. Properly aerate the batter

The following is a list of the different mixing methods usually employed. 1. Single-stage Method 2. 3. 4.
6.

Creaming Method Blending Method Multi-Stage Method

Continuous Mixing Method.

Single Stage Method 1. Ail ingredients introduced into mixing bowl together. 2. Mixing time is the chief means controlling characteristic of the mix. 3. Advantages are labor and time saved. the

Since the batch size used differs widely from step-to-step, it is impossible to set up a chart setting forth the proper mixing speeds and times to be used. However a good example of time and speeds required would be as follows; based upon a 20-qt./20# (9Kg.) batch.

YELLOW LAYER CAKE - Using a 3-Speed Mixer

1st Speed = 1/2 minute - to wet ingredients 3rd Speed = 2 minutes =to get a fast break-up and incorporation of the ingredients. 2nd Speed - 2 minutes - distribution of air-increasingly fine throughout the mass. 1 st Speed - 1 minute - elimination of large air pockets and breaking down of air cells still finer.

In the single-stage mixing method, a wire whip is used to secure the fastest break-up tend blending of the ingredients. The use of a whip, with it's large surface area, greatly increases aeration, and therefore, baking powder may have to be reduced from the amount usually used if the original formula was based on the creaming or blending mixing methods. This method is sometimes used in research to reduce the variables encountered due to scraping the mixing bowl evenly between stages of liquid additions. This is not a popular production method due to reduced bowl capacity caused by the higher speed requirements. Creaming Method 1. Shortening and sugar are aerated (creamed) to varying degrees of lightness or fluffiness. 2. Egg products gradually added-creaming until light. 3. Water added alternately with flour and remaining dry ingredients (carefully) and mixed until smooth without toughening. This method is still used today, although it is not as popular for batter style cakes as it once was. The use of emulsifiers has improved the baker's ability to aerate the batter without relying on sugar granules to help intrain air into the batter. The term creaming is used in bakeries all the time. It usually will mean the blending and aerating of fat and sugar. Other ingredients may be combined. We see this not just in cakes but in some fillings to make them more spreadable and cake icings to expand them to create greater coverage. Blending Method 1. Flour and shortening are introduced into the mixing bowl and blended together until the flour is coated. 2. Add the dry ingredients and a portion of liquids. Mix smooth (no lumps) and continue adding the rest of the liquids in stages.

This procedure is especially well suited with strong flours (unchlorinated), as the fat coats the flour, limiting its hydration and restricting gluten development. A very tender cake is the result. Again this is an old mixing method that is not used very often when good cake flours are available. Scraping of the mixing bowl and proper addition of the liquids is most important to avoiding lumps. Labor intensity is also higher than other methods.

Multi-Stage Method 1. All dry ingredients are placed into the mixing bowl with the sugar and shortening first and the flour last. __ 2. The liquid ingredients are added in stages, with mixing times applied between each addition. Scraping after each addition is needed. Multi-stage mixing methods are where the dry ingredients are placed into the mixing bowl first, followed by 2 or 3 stages of liquid addition over the length of the mixing period. Using the three stage mixing procedure, usually requires the addition of about 40% Of the total liquids in the first stage. This will help produce a stiff enough paste so as to eliminate any shortening lumps. If the batter becomes too fluid at this stage, it will be almost impossible to properly disperse the shortening evenly. To the second stage about 25% more of the liquids are added. This will soften the batter and improve its aeration properties. If liquids are in excess at this stage then too little air will be entrained into the batter, causing low volume and poor crumb. Likewise, if too little liquids are added, then the air will not go into the batter as easily. The third stage receives the remainder of the liquids and is mixed to an evenly blended batter. Remember that scraping the bowl after each liquid addition is necessary to obtain even Distribution of all ingredients and optimum mixing qualities. Some mixers are equipped with built-in scrapers to help eliminate this manual task. When liquid cake shortenings came to the market, a 2-stage method was used because there was no need to break- up stiff-lumpy shortening. It has been shown that by adding the eggs in the first or second stage that this will produce a slightly tougher, more resilient cake crumb than if the eggs were added in the last stage. This method of mixing batter style cakes is the most popular in the retail bakeries and when using prepared dry mixes. The creaming and blending mixing methods are truly the conventional methods of making batter-style cake. Usually if volume is the prime requisite, the creaming method should be used, and if tenderness is the prime requisite, the blending method would be better, as while the batter specific gravity is heavier, volume generated is excellent due to limited protein development. The successful use of either of these mixing methods is dependent upon: a. The introduction of air into the mix. b. The proper distribution of this air throughout the mass. c. The breaking down of large air cells into finer and finer cells for the achievement of good grain and texture.

However, both of these methods are being used less and less, because it is now possible to produce cakes of at least equal or better quality by using a multi-stage mixing method.

Sugar/Water Method :

There had been increasing use of liquid sugar by the large cake bakers because the use of it results in the production of better quality products. It also offers a convenient means of transporting to and measuring at the mixer one of the major ingredients of the cake formula. The sugar/water method does not overcome the disadvantage of weighing the sugar, but it does offer the advantage of improved quality of products produced through the use of liquid sugar. The sugar/water method may be used by bakers who do not have the facilities to handle liquid sugar, however it would require extra step in mixing, the blending of sugar and water. In each instance where the sugar/water methods have been employed, it has been noted that:

a. Better emulsification is obtained. b. Mixing produces more aeration. c. Less scraping down of the bowl is required during the mixing process than is true for creaming or blending. Because this method of mixing produces greater aeration, a reduction in the amount of leavening agent or an increase in moisture content is required. This reduction is usually about 10% less than the normal amount of baking powder. E.g.-Blending Method - Baking Powder 5% Sugar/Water Method -- Baking Powder 4-1/2%
(5%-0.5%)

Utilizing this method of sugar & water incorporation: 1. Agitate in 1st speed formula sugar with half as much water, mixing only until sugar is dissolved (this phase can of course be eliminated if pre-liquefied syrups are used exclusively). Add all other ingredients (reserving the balance of the formula water, and whole eggs and flavor); mixing in second speed to full desired aeration, note reduce baking powder by 1/2 of 1% due to high air incorporation potential.

2.

3. 4.

Add balance of water, mixing in 2nd speed to achieve desired specific gravity. Add whole eggs and flavor gradually (during 30 second); incorporate in 1st speed, smoothing batter out to target specific gravity.

This method is hardly used today in the production of batter-style cakes. Possibly because of the more popular use of the continuous mixing method of production in the large wholesale bakeries.

LAYER CAKE BAKING AND COOLING

CAKE PANS AND PREPERATION

Cake pans are made from many different materials and can be molded into almost any shape. Pans made from tin-coated steel, aluminum, aluminum-coated steel, aluminum foil, cardboard, formed paper, bake-able plastic and silicone molds are all used today. Each has type has its advantages and disadvantages. Thing to consider when choosing the proper pan material are: initial capital cost, renewable replacement costs, weight in handling and wear on equipment, energy cost of heating the pan material, greasing and cleaning cost just to name some. Pan preparation precedes batter depositing. Unlike bread pans, cake pans are washed between each bake to remove any cake residue. The pans must then be dried and greased before the depositing of batter. Any water left in the pan will prevent proper coating with a pan release agent, causing the sticking of cakes to the pans after baking. Also, sometimes pits or cavities are formed along the outer crust of the cake from steam generation. Cake depanning compounds are simply a fat coating applied to the inner pan surface to prevent the cakes from sticking, allowing easier removal and reduced cake breakage. Depanning materials can be as simple as butter or all-purpose shortening wiped on the inside of the pan.

Dusting cling of holding baking.

the greased, coated pan with flour will aid in the the fat to the high sides of the cake pan, thus grease in place while the cake rises during Many bakeries to day buy a commercial pan

release compound instead of making it themselves. Cake depanning compounds are primarily made up of a blend of vegetable oil, lecithin and flour or starch as a particulate. The lecithin helps reduce fat build-up on the baking pan surface. Newer developed pan release agents do not contain particulate. If excess pan release agents were applied to the pans, the edges of the top crust of the cake will have a tendency to curl towards the center. In addition, there will be an increase cost of materials, along with related carbon buit-up on the pans, which after a while will slow product bake. If too little pan release agent is applied, the cakes will stick upon removal, causing breakage of the cakes. There are various ways to apply pan release agents. From as simple as a cloth or brush for hand application, to sprayers and spin disk applicators for larger volume or high-speed production. Some smaller bakeries use flat or fluted paper liners in their cake pans. This reduces or even eliminates the need for any pan release agent. Pan liners also guarantee product release from the pans by not having to worry about un-coated pan surfaces. The fluted liners also delay the setting of the cake during baking, producing a flatter top surface and more even symmetry. The cost of the liners, are somewhat off set by better volume yield (reduced scaling weights = same volume) and elimination of a pan release agent. However, there is the cost of the manual removal of the liner and its disposal.

BAKING BATTER CAKES

Typical baking temperatures for most batter style cakes range from 350-400F (177204C). The cake unit size and type of oven used will be most influential in determining the bake temperature and time. It is best to understand product characteristics resulting from when baking temperatures are too high and too low. Due to the variety of cake products (formulation and unit sizes) baking profiles generated by different types of ovens (heat transfer), the spacing in the oven, etc., there is no one best temperature for all products. Though it is generally recognized that the larger the cake, the lower the baking temperature and longer the baking time, and vice versa. Too high of a baking temperature will cause the cake to crown or peak in the top center by setting the structure around the outer edges too soon before the batter has a chance to expand. Since the last place a cake bakes (structure is set) is the top center, all of the internal pressures will be forced to the middle and top of the cake. Hence, peeking or a more pronounced crown is seen, even a crack on the top of the cake is sometimes formed. Reduced cake volumes will also result. Bakers have used this technique of higher baking temperatures for such products as cupcakes and cake muffins to enhance the crown or peeking for proper symmetry. Faster crust color formation will occur along with lower moisture bake out. When too low of a baking temperature is used, the baker will see a higher than normal rise due to delayed crust formation. The crumb of the cake will become more open and a weaker more crumbly structure will be produced. The cake top will have a flatter, and

lighter in color. Bake losses will also be higher if baking time was extended to set the structure. If the cake was baked to time and not firmness or internal temperature, then the cake may actually collapse in the center. There are a number of causes for collapse in the center of a cake; however, an under baked cake will always have a wet line just under the top center crust. An over baked cake will be dryer, more crumbly, have increased shrinkage and usually a darker crust color. The baker will use sight and feel and/or internal product temperature to help establish optimum baking times. Observing proper crust color alone is generally not enough. In the past and still today, the baker will touch the top center of the cake and judge the product firmness. Another way to judge the bake is to insert a thin probe such as a toothpick into the top center of the cake. If it comes out with sticky batter on it, then the cake needs more time. If it comes out dry and clean, and has the proper crust color then it is done. Internal temperatures can be established for cakes and will generally range around 200-206F (93-97C) for high ratio cakes.

DEPANNING AND COOLING

It has been found that shocking the cakes upon removal from the oven will reduce the product shrinkage during cooling. Dropping the cakes, while in their pans approximately 2 to 4 inches (5.1 to 10.2 cm) above a flat surface will be sufficient. Some bakers depan cakes immediately upon removal from the oven while still very hot. While others partially cool the cakes in the pans before depanning. Cakes are not generally completely cooled in the pans because they will stick, making removal very difficult without breakage; they will also show greater shrinkage. After depanning the cakes, they are cooled to room temperature before finishing. If freezing is to be done to un-iced layers, then wrapping the product while still warm is preferred, to obtained maximum moisture retention.

BAKING AND COOLING LOSS

The amount of batter scaled into a given size cake pan are very important in determining whether the cake is moist or dry. For example; a cake pan, which is 8 inches (20.3 cm) in diameter and VA inches (3.8 cm) deep, should be scaled with batter between 12 to 14 ounces (340-397 gm). This will produce cakes with a combined baking and cooling loss of not more than 12 percent. If 8 ounces of batter were put into this same size pan, then the baking and cooling loss will run as high as 18 to 19 percent. This means having 6 to 7 pounds less cake per hundred pounds of batter, and not as good a quality cake. Sometimes it is better to make a thick single layer cake than 4 or 5 thin layers, which will be dry and have poor eating qualities.

LAYER CAKE CHART

SCALING WEIGHT 1 6-18oz 454-510gm 14-16 oz 397- 454 gm 12-14oz 340 - 397 gm 9-11 oz 255 -31 2 gm 7-8 oz 198-227gm 6 -7 Ib. 2.722 -3.175 Kg PAN SIZE Dia. x Height 10"x11/2" 25.4.x 3.8 cm 9"x11/2" 22. 9x3. 8 cm i 8"x11/2" 20. 3x3.8 cm 7"x11/2" 17. 8x3. 8 cm 6" X 1 1/2 " 15. 2x3.8 cm Sheet Cake 18"x24" BAKING TEMPERATURE 350F-375F (177Cto191C) 355F-380F (179Cto 193C) 360F-385F (182Cto196C) 370F-390F (187Cto199C) 380F-400F (193Cto204C) 375F-400F {191Cto204C) BAKING TIME 28 -35 26 -30 20 -24 15-18 12-16 30-40 BAKING & COOLING LOSS 10-11% 11 -12% 12-14% 13-15% 15-17% 6 -8%

FORMULA MODIFICATIONS AND SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGH ALTITUDE BAKING OF LAYER CAKES
ALTITUDE FACTOR
Altitude Sea Level 500 1,000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 12000 Reduce Banking Powder 1.000 1.000 1.000 .950 .905 .856 .812 .772 .732 .696 .660 .628 .595 .567 .536 .510 .483 .459 .435 .413 .392 .373 .353 .336 .319 Reduce Sugar 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .980 .9702 .9604 .9508 .9412 .9318 .9224 .9132 .9040 .8946 .8852 .8764 .8675 .8538 .8402 .8318 .8234 .8152 .8069 .7989 .7909 Increase Water 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.010 1.015 1.0201 1.0252 1.0303 1.0355 1.0406 1.0458 1.0510 1.0563 1.0615 1.0668 1.0721 1.0775 1.0828 1.0882 1.0936 1.0991 1.1045 1.1100 1.1155

Factors used with emulsified-type cake shortening.

ICINGS & GLAZES

The taste and eye appeal of icings and glazes cannot be overestimated since these coatings represent the first point of contact between the consumer and the bakery food. The preparation of glazes and icings that are visually appealing, good tasting and possess good stability requires knowledge of their physical and chemical properties. A basic

understanding of these factors and of formulation techniques is essential to reducing production and storage problems of fried bakery foods. A good glaze or icing should have these qualities: 1. It should apply evenly and easily at the recommended application temperature. 2. It should adhere to the bakery food without thinning out and running off. 3. It should set firmly (dry) within the desired time limit. 4. It should not dry out rapidly or crack during storage. Neither, should it pick up too much moisture or becoming sticky or melt. The purpose of this discussion is to review some of the theories behind glaze and icing manufacturing processes. Also to review formulation and processing techniques for the manufacture of top-quality glazes and icings for products to be stored at room temperature and also for frozen storage.

INGREDIENTS
SUGAR AND WA TER A glaze or icing is a sugar coating which, in its simplest form, is a two-phase system consisting of small sugar crystals (powdered sugar) dispersed in sugar syrup or saturated sugar solution. A sugar-water icing will usually contain 10-13% water and 87-90% sugar and a sugar-water glaze will contain 18-22% water and 78-82% sugar. All other materials added to this basic combination are added to improve the flavor, taste, and/or shelf stability of a finished glaze or icing. Therefore, in order to understand some of the processing techniques to be reviewed later, a few basic relationships between these two major ingredients should be reviewed. As mentioned above, glazes and icings are alike in that they consist of syrup which surrounds sugar crystals. Therefore, by controlling the size of the sugar crystals and the way in which the syrup acts during production on the finished product, the physical quality and properties of the icing can be controlled. Sugars (sweeteners) are among the most essential basic ingredients of glazes and icings. The principal sugars used in glaze preparation are sucrose (beet or cane sugar), dextrose (corn sugar), invert sugar (product of the acid hydrolysis of sucrose contains levulose, glucose, dextrin and water) and corn syrup. What factors determine which combinations of these sugars are used? Table 1 shows the relative solubility of the various types of sweeteners, the percentage being the percent solids of a sweetener-water blend at a given temperature. For example, at 68F (20C), a sucrose blend would be 67% sucrose and 33% water.

Since a low level of dissolved solids is desirable, dextrose would be the best sugar if only solubility at room temperature is considered. However, icing made with all dextrose would be very grainy due to the high solubility of dextrose at icing preparation temperature (140F/60C) and its low solubility at room temperature. That is, dextrose in the hot syrup would crystallize out as large coarse crystals when the icing cooled. Sucrose, on the other hand, increases only 7% in solubility with an increase from 68 to 140F (20 to 60C). This is very important. If a sweetener varies greatly in solubility with temperature, it will produce unstable gritty icing. Thus, the reason sucrose is used to make an icing is because it is not extremely soluble and because the solubility does not change extremely with a variation in temperature. Another factor to consider in selection of sweeteners is the ability of the sweeteners to pick up or lose moisture at various relative humidity (hygroscopic property of sugar). Table 2 demonstrates the relative amounts of water, which will be picked up by the various sweeteners. Invert syrup and dextrose will absorb considerably more moisture than either the corn syrup or sucrose. As will be noted later, the less dissolved sugar or sweetener in a glaze, the more desirable and stable the glaze. Therefore, a sweetener that will absorb large quantities of moisture from the air or from the baked goods, will produce a less stable icing than the sweetener that absorbs very little moisture. Many glazes and icings contain sugars other than sucrose. For example, some formulas include corn syrup, invert sugar or dextrose. While small amounts of these sugars can be beneficial in controlling certain icing properties, such as sugar crystallization or icing texture, excessive amounts decrease the solubility of the sucrose and cause icing instability. Therefore, use of these sweeteners should be limited. What effect does moisture content have on icings? A certain amount of water is essential to produce a fluid product for easy application. However, it should be noted again that the, higher the sugar solids to sugar syrup ratio, the greater the icing or glazed stability. Water should be controlled very closely, and should be used in the least amount possible for production of fluid icings. The following information demonstrates the importance of this statement. Table 3 shows the effect of a 5% increase in water in icing on the syrup to undissolved sugar ratio. At 10% moisture, the ratio of undissolved sugar to syrup is over 2 to 1. By increasing the moisture content only 5%, the ratio decreases to 1 to 1. Consider the resulting stability problems. Remember that the greater the percent syrup, the faster the icing breaks down. Also, the use of other types of sugars as additives causes even more sugar to dissolve, thus making the icing more unstable. Thus, the importance of sweeteners, both type and amount and moisture becomes very evident. GRANULATED SUGAR AND POWDERED SUGAR Granulated sugar is generally used in the boiling syrup phase where it is all dissolved and brought to a boil. Powdered sugar (either 6x or 10x) is the type used in the second phase,

since much of this sugar remains undissolved in the final icing and a granulated sugar would produce a gritty taste. Other sweeteners have a definite place in glaze and icing formulation. These sweeteners include: Dextrose-Small amounts of dextrose, generally added at the syrup phase, will help to improve gloss and shine on the finished products. Excessive amounts reduce icing stability. Corn Syrup-Corn syrup is added for control of crystal sizethe corn syrup prevents grittiness by preventing the growth of large sucrose crystals. Excessive amounts will cause icing instability. Also, corn syrup helps to improve shine and gloss on the finished icing. Invert Sugar, Dry or Wet- Invert sugar is sucrose, which has been partially converted to dextrose and levulose. Invert sugars function as humectants-they hold water and improve the gloss of the icing. However, drying rate of the icing is retarded by large amounts of invert sugar. Also, excessive amounts can cause instability. Fondant Sugar, Dry or Wet--Fondants are made up of small sugar crystals, and are used in some icings and glazes, particularly retail type. Most fondant icings have a duller finish than other types. FAT SYSTEMS Two basic types of fat systems are generally used, depending on the temperatures to which the glazes are exposed during storage, the type of glaze or icing to be made, and the general characteristics desired. The fat types are: Hard Fat Flakes--Hard fat flakes are high-melting point fully hydrogenated fats 115 to 124F (46-51C). Hard fat flakes are utilized in icings and glazes to be stored at room temperature. This ingredient improves stability and produces improved gloss. Excessive amounts produce brittle icings, and hard fat flakes should not be used in glazes or icings, which are to be frozen. Under these conditions, the icings will be brittle and chipped from the product. In glazes, hard fat flakes help with the adhesion of the glaze to the fried product. ShorteningShortening is used to improve texture and pliability of icings and glazes, particularly products to be stored under frozen conditions. Emulsified shortening should not be used in this application, since many shortening products will tend to entrap air during mixing, causing a dull finish on the icing or glaze. Shortening should not be used in icings in high temperature climates; hard fat flakes should be used under these conditions.

EMULSIFIERS

The addition of an emulsifier, especially molecularly distilled monoglycerides of high melting point, increases the stability and gloss of icings and glazes. Excessive use of emulsifiers will produce dull icings or glazes through entrapment of air during mixing. In commercial practice, emulsifiers are seldom used except as an ingredient in the stabilizer systems to be reviewed later. FLAVOR Flavors of various types are added, depending upon the consumer preference. Most commonly used are combinations of butter, lemon, and vanilla flavors. For chocolate-type icings, either chocolate liquor or cocoa may be used. If the finished product is to be called a chocolate-iced doughnut, at least 51% of the flavoring product must be chocolate liquor. If all cocoa is used, the product should be labeled "chocolate flavoring" icing. Salt is used only to emphasize the flavor notes of the other flavoring ingredients. A very low level of salt is used in this application.

STABILIZERS As previously noted, icings and glazes are delicate balances of dissolved sugar in which sugar solids are suspended. There are many factors, which can affect this delicate balance, causing instability and breakdown of the coating. The primary function of a stabilizing agent is to regulate the overall water content of the icing or glaze. The stabilizer will absorb and hold tenaciously free water, which may be picked up from the atmosphere or freed up by a change in temperature of the product. Stabilizers should also prevent the transfer of water from the baked item to the icing or vice versa. Most stabilizing systems have one or more gums as the basic ingredient in combination with several other materials performing some stabilizing function. These stabilizers normally contain a diluent for scaling convenience and dispersion, since only minute quantities of the gum systems are needed for stabilization. Some of these basic ingredients in stabilizers systems are: Gums-Gums are generally classified as hydrophilic colloids and have one or more of the following properties: viscosity control, gelation characteristics (involved with viscosity control), water binding and sugar crystallization control. Although many types of gums are available, the primary ingredients used at this time are: Agar--Agar is a purified extract from seaweed. It is insoluble in cold water, slowly soluble in hot water, and soluble in boiling water. Agar has the ability to form a strong gel with a sharp transition temperature. Agar has the ability to bind relatively high levels of free water which may appear during icing storage, and for this reason, is generally the basis for most icing

and glaze stabilizers. A very low level of agar is needed for functioning, as low as 0.2% sugar basis in the finished icing. The sharp solubility/temperature ratio of the agar contributes to quick drying of the icing.

Locust Bean Gum--This gum is only slightly soluble in cold water, but if heated to approximately 180F/ 82C, the gum will disperse well and hydrate easily to form a translucent sol. Locust beam gum solutions do not gel but can impart a synergistic effect when combined with agar. Guar Gum--Guar is also an excellent water binder and produces a very high viscosity under low concentration. It is used primarily as a supplement to agar. Gum Arabic--This gum tends to control sugar crystallization and is a fairly efficient stabilizer. One application for this gum is in combination with agar in a glaze stabilizer for frozen glazes. CMC--Sodium carboxymethy! Cellulose may be used in combination with other stabilizers to improve stability somewhat. However, CMC increases viscosity substantially when heated and may be difficult to incorporate. Also, CMC may help to control size of sugar crystal formulation, a desirable effect. Pectin and Gelatin--Gelatin has a somewhat lower stabilizing effect than agar and can cause some aeration of the icing. It does have some stabilization properties. Pectin also is a rather weak stabilizer, but may be used to supplement agar. Sugar--Powdered sugar, when used as a carrier, constitutes the major portion of icing stabilizer systems, as much as 50-75% of a total system. Powdered sugar is used primarily to maintain a better suspension of the other ingredients. Dextrose is sometimes added at lower levels to provide a small amount of dextrose in the finished glaze to improve gloss. Calcium SuIfate--Calcium sulfate is used primarily as a carrier for other ingredients, but does perform some drying action, resulting in faster drying icing. Also, calcium sulfate contributes whiteness to the finished icing. Calcium Carbonate--This ingredient provides a buffering system to overcome acidity of the fatty acids in the frying fat. Calcium carbonate also makes a minor contribution to icing and glaze stability. Whitening Agent-- In some areas of the country, chalky-white icing is desirable, and this degree of whiteness cannot be obtained through the use of sugars or calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate. The whitening agent most generally used is titanium dioxide. If a clear or semi-clear glaze or icing is desired, it should be certain that the stabilizer does not contain this whitening agent. Also, stabilizers containing titanium dioxide should not be used in chocolate or other colored icings. This whitening agent will bleach out the other colors and cause an undesirable appearance.

Nonfat Dry Milk--Nonfat dry milk is used at fairly low levels in some icing stabilizer systems. There is some indication that a lower level of nonfat dry milk will improve adherence of the icing to the fried product and will reduce or eliminate peeling of the icing from the product. Salt--Sail may be considered an incidental additive to stabilizers, and is not in sufficient quantity to provide flavoring or other function other than filler. Flavors--Some stabilizers contain small amounts of flavor, usually vanilla, to impart a very slight flavor to the finished icing. The small amount in the stabilizer is usually incidental when considering the flavors used in the icing formulation in much larger quantities. Stearic Acid-- Stearic acid is a hard fat having a melting point of about 150F/ 66C. This small amount of hard fat tends to provide a good surface finish and prevent cracking. When stearic acid is present in the stabilizer system, the hard fat flakes in the finished system should be reduced. Also, caution should be taken on using this type system in products, which are to be frozen-there, may be a chance for chipping or flaking. Sodium Hexametaphosphate--A few stabilizers contain sodium Hexametaphosphate that acts as a sequesterant or water conditioner. Shortening and Emulsifiers--Some stabilizers contain small amounts of shortening and emulsifiers of the type discussed previously, and perform the same functions when used in the icing or glaze.