UNIT 13 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

Structure
1 3.1 13.2

Introduction Objectives Tools of Data Collection 13.3.1 Questionnaire 13.3.2 Rating Scale 13.3.3 Attitude Scales 13.3.4 Check List 13.3.5 Tests 13.3.6 Inventory Techniques of Data Collection 13.4.1 Interview 13.4.2 Observation Documents Characteristics and Criteria for Selection of a Good Tool 13.6.1 13.6.2 13.6.3 13.6.4 13.65 13.6.6 13.6.7 Validity Reliability Objectivity Adequacy Usability Discriminating Power Interest

13.3

13.4

13.5 13.6

13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.1 1 13.1 2

Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Activities Point for Discussion Suggested Readings Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary

13.1

INTRODUCTION

In order to get relevant and adequate data it is necessary to use appropriate data collection device(s). The data-gathering devices that have proven useful in educational research include tools e.g. psychological tests and inventories, questionnaires, opinionnaires, checklists, rating scales and techniques, namely, observation, interview, sociogram, content analysis and guess-who techn.+e. A researcher dspending upon a the nature of the research may select one of these devices or may e~hploy number of them in combination. But before selecting the devices, it is also necessary for a researcher to develop skill in constructing the required devices and using them effectively. In this Unit we have made an effort to familiarize you with some of the datacollection devices.

43

Research Design

On the completion of the study of this Unit, it is expected that you will be able to:
state the meaning of a Questionnaire; describe the types of a Questionnaire; explain the characteristics of a good questionnaire; identify the advantages and limitations of a questionnaire; state the meaning of a Rating Scale; describe the types of a rating scale; explain the requirements of a good rating scale; identify the advantages and limitations of a rating scale; define an Attitude scale; describe the types of attitude scale; explain the characteristics of a good attitude scale; identify uses and limitations of an attitude scale;
,

state the meaning of a Check List; describe types of check list; identify uses and limitations of a check list; define a test; describe various types of a test; explain basic characteristics of a standardized test; state the meaning of Interview technique; explain the types of interview; describe the process of interview; identify the advantages and limitations of interview; state the meaning of Observation technique; explain the types of observation; describe the process of observation; identify the advantages and limitations of observation; and decide the criteria for selection of a good tool of data collection.

133

TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

For acquisition of the Fequireddata ~nany pmmhes have been developed to construct difkr&t types of tools. Depending upon the nature of the required data the researcher has to decide which tool will be appropriateunder the circtumtams. Some tools help in getting descriptivdqualitative data and some in getting quantitative data. Let us get i n f o d o n about some of the tools one by one.

1 3 1 Questionnaire 3.
A questionnaire is an important instrmnent in normative-sorvey research, being used to gather information from widely scattered sources and also used when factual i n f o d m is desired,

Meaning

-1s

m d Techniques n of Data Collection

Barr, et.al(1953), define questionnaire as "a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired". Its scope is very vast. It has been used for studying a wide range of problems.
Qpes or Forms of Questionnaire

1. Structured Vs. Non-structured Questionnaire

A structured questionnaire contains definite, concrete and directed questions, whereas non-structured one may consist of partially completed questions or statements. A non-structured questionnaire is often used as the interview guide, which is nondirective.
2. Closed fonn Vs. Open form The questions that call for short check responses are known as restricted or closed form type. They provide for marking a ' yes or no' short response. It restricts the choice of response for the respondent. The open form including open end or unrestricted type of questions calls for a free response in the respondent's own words. No clues areprovided. It probably provides for greater depth of response.

Example of Open-ended Questionnaire. Question :

What should be the role of Open and Learning System to promote access of the people to educational opportunities? Should performance of the teachers be evaluated by their students? a) Yes b) No

Example of Close-ended Questionnaire. Question : Answer:

c ) Undecided.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

1.

A good questionnaire deals with a significant topic so that it enthuses respondent to give response. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports and records. It is as short as possible, though comprehensiveand clear enough for securing all the essential information. It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed. It contains directions which are clear and complete. Important terms are clarified and each question deals with a single idea in unambiguous terms, so that it is valid and reliable. Items are arranged in categories to ensure easy and accurate responses. Heading questions are carefully avoided. Questions are presented in good psychological order proceeding from general to more specific responses. Double negatives and putting two questions in one question are also avoided.

2.
3.
4. 5.

6.

7 The questions are objective, with no clues, hints as to the responses desired. .
8.

9.

10. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives. 11. It is easy to tabulate and interpret, based on a preconstructed tabulation sheet and a visualized final analysis of data.

Research Dcsipn

Advantages
1.

As an instrument of data collection the questionnaire has great potentialities when it is properly used. It is economical both for the sender and for the respondent in time, effort and cost. It is easy to plan, construct and administer. When the subjects of the study are scattered far and wide, it will be a better tool as compared to the tools like interview. It permits nationwide or even international coverage. It permits group administration and is adaptable to any objectives. It is generally regarded as dependable when used to obtain statement of fact. Information of a personal nature often may be obtained more readily by means of questionnaires. It places less pressure on the subject for immediate response. It helps in focusing the respondent's attention on all the significant items. It does not permit much of variation.

2. 3.
4.

5.
6.

7. 8.

9.

10. It may be used as a preliminary tool for conducting indepth study later on by any other method. 11. The responses given by the subjects are available in their own language and version.

Limitations
1. 2.
3.
4.

Its reliability and validity is low. It seeks secondary information concerning facts when primary evidence is not at hand. Frequently questionnaireresearch constitutes simply a pooling of ignorance. It is compilation of the opinions of many persons who may not know the answer. It gives a biased sample. The matter of non-response is always a big question mark. The respondents who return the questionnaires may not constitute a representative section of the entire group. If the subject misinterprets a question or gives an incomplete or indefinite response, nothing can be done. A questionnaire is more or less rigid in its structure about complex emotional subjects. Some respondents may not like to put their views on controversial issues in writing. The behaviours, gestures, reactions, emotions of the respondent remain unnoticed. Some of the research areas are so delicate, sensitive and confidential in nature that it becomes difficult to frame questions on them.

5.

6.

7.
8.

9.

10. The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterate subjects and children.

1 . . Rating Scale 332

Meaning
"Rating is a term applied to expression of opinion or judgement regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values. Rating techniques are devices by which such judgements may be quantified - Barr, et. al (1953), Rating scale is a device for obtaining judgements of the degree to which an individual posseses certain behaviour traits and attributes not readily detectable by
46

objective tests. A rating scale consists of a set of characteristics or qualities to be judged and some type of scale for indicating the degree to which each attribute is present. Descriptions of different degrees of quality are arranged along a line from high to low and this line is the scale.

Tools and Techniques of Data Collection

mpes of Rating Scale

1. Numerical Rating Scale
One of the simplest type of rating scales is that where the rater checks a number to indicate the degree to which a characteristic is present. Typically, each of a series of numbers is given a verbal description which remains constant from one characteristic to another. This type of scale is useful when the characteristic to rate can be classified into a limited number of categories.

2. Descriptive Rating Scale

This rating form uses descriptive phrases to identify the points on a graphic scale. The descriptions convey in behavioural terms what the individualsare like at different step along the scale. It is also called 'Behavioural Statement Scale'.

3. Graphic Rating Scale

The distinguishing feature of the graphic rating scale is that each characteristic is followed by a horizontal line. The rater's evaluation is indicated by placing a check or cross on a line to indicate presence or absence of a given trait.

4. Ranking Methods
Some rating procedures do not require a printed scale. Probably the most applicable and best known of these is the simple rank order method. With this approach, the pupils (or products) being rated are merely ranked in the order in which the rater estimates they possess the characteristics being judged.

5. Standard Scales
In standard scales a set of standards is presented to the rater. The standards are usually objects of the same kind to be rated with pre-established scale values. For example, in case of rating the drawing skill in science, a set specimen can be provided for comparison.

a)

The percentage of group scale

Here the rater is asked to give the percentage of the group that possesses the trait on which the individual is rated.

b)

Man to Man scale

The rater is asked to rate the ratee by comparing him to the person mentioned on the scale and assign the ratee his position.

6. Forced Choice Scales In forced choice rating method the rater is asked to only mention whether the ratee has one or more traits. Instead of deciding whether particular quality of a person1 object is above average, average, or below average certain observable characteristics are stated for rating. These statements differ in the degree of that quality, e.g.

1.

the student is very much regular in attending the fitness programme. the student is not regular in attending the fitness programme. the student rarely attends the fitness programme. Traits must be clearly defined. The specific mode of behaviour must be defined
47

* Requirements of a good rating Scale

Researcl~Design

2.

Number of divisions on the scale should be neither too numerous nor too few. Optimum number of divisions is perhaps five to seven. The rater may be asked to quote instances in support of his judgement. Rater should be instructed to omit ratings of characteristics, if he had no opportunity to observe the traits. The rater should be instructed to avoid the generosity and the logical error and the error due to halo effect. Rating from several observers should be combined wherever possible. Items may be arranged in ascending or descending order from left to right. Well informed and experienced persons should be selected for rating.

3.
4.

5.
6.

7. The directions should be clear and comprehensive.

8.
9.

10. The number of characteristics to be rated should be limited.

I 1. In the rating scale card, some space may be provided for the rater to write some
supplementary material.

Advantages of Rating Scale

1. 2.

A simple form of rating scale is commonly employed in judging contests of various kinds such as speaking and music competitions. Rating Scales have been put to extensive uses in the field of rating teaching and teachers. This process extends to the selection of teachers and the prediction of teaching success. Rating Scales are also used for testing the validity of many objective instruments like paper-pencil inventories of personality. These scales are also employed for school appraisal including appraisal of courses, practices and programmes. The rating scales are advantageous in several other ways. They are -

3.
4.

5.

i)
ii) iii)
iv) v) vi) 1.
2.

helpful in writing reports to parents. helpful in filling out admission blanks for colleges. helpful in filling out student needs. helpful in recommendations to employers. the helpful in supplementing other sources of ~nderstanding~about child. helpful in their stimulating effect upon the individuals who are rated.

Limitations of Rating Scale

People differ markedly in their ability to make ratings. People differ in their reliability as subjects for ratings. Immediate emotional reactions affect ratings. Self-ratings tend to be too high on desirable traits and too low on undesirable traits. Raters are frequently unable to justify ratings or are apt to give absurd rationalizations. Generosity Error -The raters would not like to run down their own people by giving them low ratings. The result is that high ratings are given in almost all cases. The raters are also inclined to be unduly generous in rating aspects which they have had no opportunity to observe. him to carry qualitativejudgement from one aspect to another. Halo effect appears
48

3.
4.

5.
6.

7. The Halo Error -It is difficult for rater to get rid of the halo effect which causes

frequently when the rater has to rate a number of factors on some of which he has no evidence for judgement.

Tools and Techniques of Data Collection

8.
9.

The Error of Central Tendency -There is a tendency in some observers to rate most of the ratees near the mid points of the scale. Stringency Error -The opposite of generosity error may be called stringency error. Some raters are so cautions and hesitant that they have a tendency to rate all individuals low.

10. The Logical Error -It is difficult to convey to the rater just what quality one wishes him to evaluate. An adjective or adverb may have no universal meaning.

An example of a rating scale Dissection of Rate to expose Arterial System

Stcps ~ o l l o w e d the Dissection in

Weightage Rating Weighted

03% 05% 07% 5 0.15 0.20 0.21

a) Keeping the animal ventrally in the dissection tray filled with 113 level of water b) Fixing the pins on the arms and legs of the rat C) Giving deep incision from the center of thoracic region thereby removing the fat bodies and exposing the internal organs d) Puncturing the veins e ) Exposing the arteries (Note: Here it is important to see the number of arteries, e.g., internal and external carotid)

4
3

15% 35%

0.45 1.40

f) Display of arterial system by putting blackpaper-strips or photographic film strips

g) Diagram of arterial system

25 % 10%

0.75 0.30 3.46

Source: IGNOU (2004): Evaluation Perspectives in Higher Education, Instruction in Higher Education. New Delhi: School of Education, IGNOU.

Validity and Reliability of a Rating Scale

Rating for intelligence and for special aptitudes can be validated against objective test scores, but rating of personality traits cannot be so validated, since no objective test scores are available for personality traits. In general reliability and validity increase with the number of agreements when ratings are made independently.

Check Your Progress Notes: a ) Space is given below for writing your answers. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1.

Write the definition of a questionnaire and a rating scale.

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................

49

Hesearch Design

2.

State different types of a questionnaire and a rating scale.

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................

3. In case of a questionnaire and a rating scale mention one major advantage and one limitation.

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................

13.3.3 Attitude Scales
Attitude scales have been designed to measure attitudes of a subject or group of subject towards issues, institutions and group of people. Allport referred to attitude as 'the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary American Social Psychology'. Thurstone boldly asserted that 'attitude can be measured'. In view of these two quotes it is no surprise that attitude has become an important concept in the field of education. Meaning Allport attempted to glean from the various definitions and arrived at three common features a) b) preparation or readiness for favourable or unfavourable responses. which is activated in the presence of all objects and situations with which the attitude is related.

As per Barr, et. a1 (1953) - "An attitude may be defined as a learned emotional response set for or against something". Thrustone (1929) defines attitude as the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some psychological objects. By a psychological object, he means any institution,ideal, symbol, phrase, slogan, job or idea towards which people can differ with respect to positive or negative affect. The attitude is a personal disposition which impels an individual to react to an object, situation or proposition in favourable or unfavourable ways. For an attitude, there is continuous extending from favourableness through neutral to unfavourableness. Qpes of Attitude Scales The most prevalent means of measuring attitudes is providing individuals with a list of sentences or adjectives and asking them to respond to each sentence or adjective in accordance with their true feelings. These lists are called as 'Scales'. Various 'scaling techniques' have led to the development of different types of attidues scales. The most frequently used scales are Linkert scale, Guttman scale, Thrustone scale and Semantic Differential scale.

1) Likert Scale
Likert scale consists of a series of statements all of which are related to a person's attitude towards a single object (e.g. -attitude toward school). Two types of statements appear on Likert scales.
50

i)

The first type of statements whose endorsement indicates a positive or favourable attitude toward the object under consideration (called as favourable statements). The second type includes statements whose endorsement indicates a negative or unfavourable attitude toward the object (called as unfavourable statements).

Tools and Techniques

of Data Collectiun

ii)

Equal number of favourable and unfavourable statements are included in a Likert scale.

Modifications of Likert Scale

i) Modification of the response options - the original Likert scale included five response options. In the use of odd number of options the respondent tends to choose the 'not sure' option to avoid making real choice. With an even number of option the respondent is forced to choose between favourable and unfavourable respolises to the attitude object. Modification of the statement format has also been made. Incomplete statements rather than complete statements have been used.

ii)

Advantages of Likert Scale

i)

easy to construct. adaptability to a wide variety of attitude objects, situations, settings ability to assess both -directions and intensity of attitude

ii) iii)

Disadvantages of Likert Scale

Different respolise patterns can produce the same total score, hence not as sensitive as Guttnian and Thurstone scales.

Example of an Attitude Scale

Directions: Indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the appropriate letter(s). Key SA Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Science classes are interesting. Science laboratory is dull and boring. It is fun working on science problems. Class activities are good. Reading the textbook is a waste of time. The laboratory experiments are interesting. 7. Most class activities are monotonous. 8. I enjoy reading the textbook. 9. The problems we are studying are unimportant. W 10. I am not very enthuslm.,t about science.

SA A U D SD SA A U D SD SAAUDSD SAAUDSD SAAUDSD SAAUDSD SAAUDSD SAAUDSD

Figure 13.1: Likert-type attitude scale for measuring attitude towards a science course.
Source: N.E. Gronlund (1 981): Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. 4th 4. New Delhi: MacMillan.

Research Design

2) Guttman Scale
Guttman scale includes a set of statements which relate to a person's attitude towards a single object. Guttman scale possesses two characteristics i) the statements included on such a scale represent increasingly positive feelings with respect to the attitude toward an object.

ii) the endorsement of any statement implies the endorsement of each less positive statement.

3) Thurstone Scale
Thurstone's technique is also known as the technique of equal appearing intervals. If attitude is accepted as a uni-dimensional linear continuum, then Thurstone's proposal to measure it by statements scaled by the method of equal-appearing intervals would apply.

4) Semantic Differential Scale

It is a method for measuring aspects of the meaning of various concepts. It is widely used as an attitude measurement technique. It consists of a set of seven-point-bipolar scales and a set of concepts. Each concept is rated on each scale.

Uses of Attitude Scale

1) Attitude scales are used in educational research, especially for finding the attitudes of persons on issues like co-education, religious education,international cooperation etc. depending upon the need of the situation. To obtain the measure of the belief of an individual or a group of individuals towards some phenomenon the inquiry form attitude scale is used.

2)

Limitations of Attitude Scales

1.

As already stated, an individual may express socially acceptable opinions and conceal his real attitude. An individual may not be a good judge of himself and may not be clearly aware of his real attitude. He may not have confronted with a real situation to discover what his real attitude towards a specific phenomenon was. There is no basis for believing that the five positions indicated in the Likert Scale are equally spaced. It is unlikely that the statements are of equal value in 'far' or 'against' a proposition. It is doubtful whether equal scores obtained by several individuals would indicate equal favourableness towards a given position. Inspite of anonymity of response, individuals tend to respond according to what they should feel rather than what they really feel.

2.

3.
4.

5.

6.

7. It is unlikely that a respondent can validly react to a short life-qualifying situation.

8.

Characteristics of a Good Attitude Scale

1)

It provides for quantitative measure on a uni-dimensional scale of continuum. It uses statements from the extreme positive position to extreme negative position. It generally uses a four point scalt-. I S Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD). Tht .ndividual gets the score as the sum of items credits.

2)

3)

4)
5)

It is usually standardized and norms are worked out.

Tools and Techniques of Data Collection

It disguises the attitude object rather than directly asking about the attitude on the subject. It may require the judges to pile up the given statements and compute the scale values according to the per$entage of judges who place each statement in the score on the basis of the median scale values of the statements he has endorsed.

Validity of Attitude Scales

The attitude as denoted by the test score is compared with observable behaviour in a corresponding situation, and the extent to which they agree is taken as a measure of the validity of the scale.

Reliability of Attitude Scale

Most attitude scales have quite high reliability often between +0.75 and +0.90. The more varied the items included in a scale, the greater is likely to be its reliability, because variations in opinions about individual items are more likely to cancel out in this case than when the items are all very similar. The reliability of a test also depends on the heterogeneity of opinions expressed by the individuals being tested, for greater the range of scores obtained, the higher will be the correlation between sets of scores obtained on different occasions.

13.3.4 Check List

The check lists consist of a list of items or behaviours with aplace to check or to mark 'yes or no'. The chief purpose of the check list is to call attention to various aspects of an object or situation, to see that nothing of importance is overlooked. It is a simple laundry-list type of device, consisting of a prepared list of items. It is a type of questionnaire in the form of a set of categories for the respondent to check. It is used to record the presence or absence of the phenomena under study.

Four Common Styles of Constructing Check Lists

Types of Check Lists 1. In one of the arrangements, all items found in a situation are to be checked, for example, a subject may be asked to check by putting (P) in the blank beside each activity undertaken in a school e. g.

2.
3.

Games and sports Mass drill Dramatics

( )
( )

( )

In the second form, the respondent is asked to check with a yes or no and is asked to encircle or underline the response to the given item. In the third form all the items are positive statements with checks (P) to be marked in a column on the right. In the fourth form, the items are presented in sentences and the appropriate response out of the supplied responses is checked, underlined or encircled.

4.

Hints on Constructing and using a Check List

1.

The list of items in the check list may be continued or divided into groups of related items. These lists are fomulated on the basis of the judgement of experts and then each item is evaluated in respect of the number of favourable and unfavourable responses.
53

2.

Research Design

3.
4.

5.
6.

7.

The items are arranged in categories and the categories are in a logical or psychological order. Related items are grouped together. Terms used in the items are clearly defined. An intensive survey of the literature is made to determine the type of check list to be used in an investigation. Items are arranged in such a way that they are discriminative in quality to secure the required information and details. Check lists have the quality of completeness and comprehensiveness. A pilot study is quite helpful in this direction.

Uses of Check Lists

The check list is an important tool in gathering facts for educational surveys. It may also be used as a form for recording in observational studies of behaviour. When used as a sort of scale to yield a score, it is an instrument often used in educational appraisal studies of - school buildings, property, plan, textbooks, instrumental procedures etc. There are check lists designed for possible economies in a school, in the purchase of school supplies, appraising of the superintendent's report and the organization of high schools. Check lists are also applied to classroom instructional activities, the studying of the working habits of students, the supervision of classroom instruction and teacher -pupil relationships. The check lists which were built up in the Commonwealth Teacher Training Study may be used in a number of ways both for analysis and for evaluation. Another use of the check list is the checking of textbooks which deal with topics related to teaching. Personality is also sometimes rated by means of a check lists. Many have made use of check lists in the Character Education Inquiry. Check list is used for knowing the interest of the subject also, Kuder's Interest Inventory and Strong's Interest Blank are essentially Check Lists.

Example of a Check List

Y Measurement of '' by the Method of Flexture

Check List
(Put a tick against those steps enumerated below, which the student performed correctly). 1. a) Determine : The vernier constant of the calipers b) Measure The breadth of the beam
2.

a) b)

Determine Measure

:
:

The least count of the gauge The depth of the beam

3.
4.

Set the beam properly between the knife-edges to have the desired length under study. Measure the vernier constant of the trowelling microscope(Tm). Place the frame containing the indicator (pin) properly on the beam (i.e. it should be at the center perpendicular to the beam). Focus the pin at the TM. a) Measure the height of the tip of the pins from the surface of the table and bring the operating part of the TM at the same height.

5.
6.

b)

C)

Use the hand to place the paper (or anything easily identitifiable) a little away from the outer end of the objective lens of the TM.See through the microscope and use the other hand to rotate the knob till the object is sharply focused. Now measure the approximate distance of this object from the objective lens. Let this distance be 'X' Adjust the knob of the microscope so that the front side of the operating tube is approximately as a distance 'X' from the pin. The pin should get focused by this arrangement. If not, then give slight movement to the operating tube in the possible directions and you will get the sharply focused image of the pin. Make sure that there is no parallax between the tip pf the pin and the horizontal cross-wire.

Tools and Techniques of Data Collection

7.
8.

Take load vs. depression data Draw load vs. depression graph Take any one point on the graph, other the experimental point to calculate 'Y' Point out the source of errors.

9. 10.

Source: IGNOU (2004): Evaluation Perspectives in Higher Education, Instruction: A Higher Education. New Delhi: School of Education, IGNOU.
The above check list is an example of assess a particular instructional process. It aims to find out whether a particular itemlobject exists or not but not its extent/proportion or quality.

1 . . Tests 335
With the help of tests we can collect quantitative data in research. There are different type of tests. It was the English biologist, Sir Francis Galton, who was primarily responsible for launching the testing movement. In an article written by Cattell in 1890 ,the term 'mental test' was used for the f m t time. Psychologicaltesting is arelatively young bfanch of one of the youngest of the sciences.

What is a Test ?
A Test is a systematic procedure for observing a per~on'sbehaviour and describing it with aid of a numerical scale or a category system. A PsychologicalTest is essentially an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour.

'Qpes of Tests
Tests are classified in different ways.
Classificationof Tests

By function

By nature

Procedure of Administration

BY

(achievement & diagnostic) ii) Personality tests iii) Aptitude tests

Power tests Verbal tests iv) Non-verbal tests v) Performance tests vi) Standardized tests vi Criterion-referenced tests i) viii) Culture fair tests i) Adapted tests x
ii) iii)

i) ii)

Group tests Individual tests

55

Research Design

Let us now understand the meaning of this classification. We will also get information about various tests in details.

1. Classification of the Tests as per their Nature

Depending upon what a test aims to measure the tests are classified into one group. (i)

Educational Tests - Certain types of tests are developed for use in educational context. They include achievement tests and diagnostic tests.
Achievement tests are designed to measure the effects of a specific programme of instruction or training. An achievement test measures the effects of relatively standardized sets of learning experiences. It generally represents a terminal evaluation of the individual's status on the completion of an instructional programme or training. An achievement test measures developed abilities/skills. Diagnostic tests are designed to analyze individual specific strengths and weaknesses in a subject and to suggest causes of hislher difficulties. In connection with the use of all diagnostic tests , one point deserves special emphasis . The diagnosis of the learning disabilities is the prerequisite for a programme of remedial teaching.

(ii) Personality Tests -These most often refer to measures of affective aspects of behaviours such as emotional states, interpersonal relations, motivation, interests and attitudes. A personality test could be a self report inventory, a situational test or the third approach could be the application of projective technique. (iii) Aptitude Tests -These measure the effects of learning under relatively (in comparison with achievement tests) uncontrolled and unknown conditions. They include general intelligence tests, multiple aptitude batteries, special aptitude tests (e.g. creativity tests) etc. Intelligence tests are designed to measure the intelligence of an individual. Here, we must bear in mind that intelligence is not a single, unitary ability but a composite of several abilities. The term is commonly used to cover a combination of abilities required for survival and advancement within a peculiar culture. (e.g. Stanford Binet test of intelligence) Multiple Aptitude batteries yield a profile of test scores in set of relatively independent abilities identified through factor-analysis. One of the most widely used multiple Aptitude batteries is Differential Aptitude Test. This DAT yields scores on eight abilities Verbal reasoning, Numerical ability, Abstract reasoning, Clerical speed and accuracy, Mechanical Reasoning, Space relations, Spelling and language Usage. Creative Aptitude Batteries have been produced at University of Southern California by J.P. Guilford & his colleagues, and 'Tests of Creative Thinking' by Paul Torrance.
2. Classification of the Tests as per their Nature (i) Speed Tests are those tests which contain such items which are of somewhat equal difficulty value. To solve the tests the time limits are very much fixed. e.g. our usual school/college tests.

(ii)

Power tests are those tests which contain items of different difficulty value arranged in increasing order of difficulty value . For such tests time limit is not fixed, it is flexible.

(iu) Verbal Tests include question answer pattern in the form of 'words'. Such verbal tests can be either paper pencil (written) tests or oral tests. (iv) Non-verbal Tests necessarily contain items in the figural or symbolic form i.e. other than 'words'. Raven's Progressive Matrices Test is a non-verbal test. (v) Performance Tests require some action on part of the respondent as histher response. Bhatia's Intelligence test is a performance test.
56

(vi) Standardized Tests imply uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring the tests. Another important aspect of standardized tests is the establishment of norms, reliability and the validity of the tests.

T o s and Tkchniqucs ol
of Data Collection

(vii) Criterion referenced Tests have been contrasted with the usual norm-referenced tests in which an individual's score is interpreted by comparing it with the scores obtained by others in the group on the same test. Unlike in a norm-referenced test, in a criterion referenced test an individual's score is interpreted by comparing it with an external criterion e.g. '80x80 mastery level'. (viii) Culture fair Tests presuppose only such experiences that are common to different cultures. The terms 'culture-fair', 'culture-common', and 'cross-cultural' are used synonymously and have replaced the term 'culture-free'. (ix) Adapted Tests are the versions of the tests standardized in other countries in dissimilar cultures and modified to suit the culture under consideration.
3. Classification of Tests as per the Procedure of Administration

(i)

Group Tests are designed as mass testing instruments. They permit the simultaneous testinglexamination of large groups. The instruction and administration procedures are simplified so as to demand a minimum of training on the part of the test administratorlexaminer .

(ii) Individual Tests are those which can be administered to one individual at a time. In view of the testing situation including response in the form of actual performance, the observer can record the entries in the performance sheet for one candidate at a time.

4. Basic Characteristic of a Standardized Test

i)

Norms - Norms represent the test performance of the standardization sample. The norms are empirically established by determining what persons in a representative group actually do on the test. The norms, by converting raw scores into derived scores are expressed in one of the two major ways (a) (b) developmental level attained and relative position within a specified group. Age Norms, Grade Norms are the examples of developmental Norms , whereas Percentiles ,Standardscores are the examples of within Group Norms.

ii)

Reliability of a Test - As used in psychometrics, the term reliability means consistency. Test reliability is the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when retested with identical or equivalent form of the test.
(a)

Test-retest Reliability - a test is administered to a sample at two different occasions with some interval in between. The correlation between the two sets of scores is the reliability coefficient. It is the extent to which scores on a test can be generalized over different occasions. Split-half Reliability - The procedure to establish the split-half reliability involves one-time administration of the test. The scores obtained by the sample are grouped into two sets. This grouping is done mostly by separating the even items in one group and odd items in another for every candidate. one. Thus we get a pair of total scores fcr ,-.I Correiatioa !:.tween those two scores is the reliability coefficient. It is the measure of internal consistency of the test. Alternate Form Reliability - Pertaining to the objectives, two parallel tests are constructed and they are administered to the sample with some interval in between. The correlation between these two scores is the reliability coefficient. It is the measure of both temporal stability and consistency of response to different item samples.

(b)

(c)

57

Research Design

Validity of a Ts et
The validity of a test concerns what the test measures and how well it does it. All procedures for determining test validity are concerned with the relationship between performance on the test and other independent observable facts about the behaviour characteristics under consideration. The specific methods employed for investigating these relationships are classified under three principal categories - content, criterion-related and construct validity. (a) Content Validity - Content validation involves essentially the systematic examination of the test context to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behaviour domain to be measured. It is commonly used in case of achievement tests. Criterion related Validity - It refers to two types of validity under different time frames.

(b)

Predictive validity - I a test is designed to pickup good candidates for appointment f as teachers, and test scores show a high positive correlation with actual performance on the job, the test has a high degree of predictive 'validity. Thus predictive validity refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting some future performance. It is important particularly for aptitude tests. Concurrent validity - The coefficient of correlation between the test scores and scores on another test or measure of known validity is the concurrent validity of the test. If both the tests are similar (e.g. creativity tests) then in that case it is known as convergent validity and contrasted with this if the tests are of different type in that case it is known as discriminant validity. Construct validity - It is the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory. If one were to study such a construct as 'originality' one would hypothesize that people who have this characteristics will perform differently from those who do not. Theories can be built describing how people with 'originality' behave in a distinctive way. If this is done, such people can be identified by observation, rating them in terms of the theory. A device could then be designed to have construct validity to the extent that the scores on this device are systematically related to the judgement made by observation of behaviour identified by the theory as possessing 'originality'.

Check Your Progress Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answers. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
4.

State the definition of the following Attitude Scale, Check List, Test.

.............................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................. ..............................................................................................................

5. What are the different types of Attitude Scale?

.............................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................. ..............................................................................................................

58

6. Elaborate the classification of tests, with one example each.

Tools and Techniques af Data Collection

.............................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................. ..............................................................................................................

13.3.6 Inventory
An inventory is a kind of self-report instrument. The individual checks responses to certain questions or statements. Inventories yield scores which are assumed or have been shown to measure certain tendencies or traits. Interest inventories attempt to yield a measure of the types of activities that an individual has a tendency to like and to choose. In 1907, Hall, a psychologist, standardized Recreational Interest Inventory and in 1934, Kuder, another psychologist, standardized Occupational Interest Inventory. Q p e s of Interest Measurement 1. Direct Questioning - It presents questions like - 'Do you like to play cricket?'

2.
3.

Direct Observation - Behaviour of the individual is observed and it is found out in which activities the individual is more interested. Tested Interest - The individual is exposed to various experiences related to different types of interests and it is observed in which area the individual is showing more interest. Interest Inventory - This is most preferred way of measuring interest. It consists of various statements and the individual is asked to arrange them in order of preference. Mostly interest inventories are of verbal type. A Personality Inventory attempts to measure certain personality traits such as individual need, adjustment, etc. It consists of questions of 'Yes /No' type.

4.

5.

Advantages 1) Interest inventories are useful in educational and vocational guidance.

2)

They are helpful to the teachers to provide educational facilities to the students as per their interests.
, -

3) 4) 5)

Individual as well as group administration is possible. Personality inventories have been proved valuable in diagnosisin clinical situations for the psychiatrists. An inventory is not very much time-bound. For administering the inventory trained person is not required.

6)

Limitations 1) Because of individuals' inability or unwillingness to report their own reactions accurately or objectively these instruments may be of limited value. Part of this limitation may be due to the inadequate theories of personality upon which some of these inventories have been based.

13.4

TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

We can collect the requisite data for the research in hand employing some techniques. Following particular techniques, interview schedules and observation schedules can be prepared for the purpose of data collection. Let us get information about these in details.

59

Research Design

13.4.1 Interview
Interview is a two-way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information. As a research technique, the interview is a conversation carried out with the definite purpose of obtaining certain information by means of the spoken word.

Types of Interviews
1)

In structured interviews the same questions are presented in the same manner and order to each subject and the choice of alternative answers is restricted to a predetermined list. These interviews are rigidly standardized and formal, but they are more scientific in nature than unstructured ones. unstructured interviews are flexible, few restrictions are placed in respondent's answers. In this interview, one can penetrate behind initial answers, follow up unexpected clues.

2)

Procedure of Interview
As a technique of data collection good interview requires i) Preparing for interview The following factors need to be determined in advance of the actual interview. clear conception of the purpose and of what information is needed. e kind of interview - individual or group. A clear outline or schedule of the best sequence of questions. A well thought plan for recording responses. Conduct of interview (execution) The initial task of securing the confidence and co-operation of the subject what is called - rapport -requires an expertness and sensitivity almost amounting to art. securing desired information through asking questionsin the planned sequence should be done in not too rigid a manner but with stimulatingand encouraging comments and necessary explanations and recordings. The recording device selected should be used without distracting the interviewee. Before an interview study is undertaken, the interviewer should undergo rigorous training.

ii)

iii)

Recording and Interpreting Responses it is best to employ, if possible, a device of recording which would retain the actual wording of the responses. Tape-recording is convenient and not too expensive if tape-recorder is available.

If the responses to questions in the interview have to be noted down, it can be done either simultaneously with the interview or immediately after it.
Sometimes, instead of recording responses, the interviewers tend to record their evaluations of them as the interview goes on.

Advantages of Interview
i)
ii)
60

The interview, with skillful interviewers, is much superior to other data gathering devices. It is specially appropriate when dealing with young children, illiterates and in an abnormal state of mind.

iii)

It is used for practical purposes rather than for gathering data for research. It is used for student counseling, selection of candidates for education etc.

Tooh and TKbniques

of Data Collection

iv) In interview the investigatorcan create a right type of friendly atmosphere which is very conducive for obtaining desired data. V) If necessary the interviewer can give assurance to the interviewee that the facts wi 11 be properly used.

vi) It permits even exchange of ideas and information. It provides opportunity for give and take.
i

The respondent's difficultieslike bad handwriting, poor expression are also avoided as every schedule is filled by the interviewer.

viii) The personal contact with the respondent enables the interviewer to probe more deeply into the character of the respondent.

ix) The data gathefed through interviews have been found to be fairly reliable. X) There is possibility of crossquestioning and putting supplementary questions.
Litations of Interview

i)

This technique is time-consuming and one of the most difficult ones to employ successfuIly. There is constant danger of interviewer bias. The objectivity, sensitivity and insight of the interviewer is crucial. This pmcedum requires a level of expertness not ordinarily possessed by an average research worker.

ii)
iio

iv) A busy person may prefer to fill out a questionnaireat leisure rather than submit to a long interview. V) The respondent suffers from four limitationsa) his experience as an interviewee. b) his judgement about himself. C) his accessibility and readiness to divulge the information. d) his ability to express himself clearly. The recording of data from an interview is full of dficulties.

vi) vii) Tape recording of the entire interview is likely to be expensive of time and money.

viii) It does not work well with infants, shy people, deaf people and mad people.

1 . . Observation 342
Observation is a more natural way of gathering data. It seeks to ascertain what people think and do. By watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations and activities.
'Qpes of Observation 1. Participant and Non-participant Observation - In participant observation; the observer becomes more or less one of the group under observation. In such situations, the observer will be in sight of the person being observed and may actually take part in some activity with the individual or group. The observer may play as one of several roles in observation, with varying degree of participation, as a visiting stranger, an attentive listener, an eager learner, or a more complete role as participant observer.

In Non-participant observation, the observer remains aloof from the group. He keeps his observation as inconspicuous as possible. It is used with such groups as those of infants, children or abnormal persons.

61

Research Design

2. Structured and Non-structured Observation - In structured observation the

investigator must be ready to shift from his original plans to the study of aspects which he sees as more significant. The observation is wide and unstructured in the early stages, it gets restricted and structured as the investigation proceeds.

Stages in the process of Observation

As a good data collection technique observation needs -

1. Planning for Observation

The factors one must consider in detail while planning to employ observation as a research tool includes: Definition of specific activities.

An appropriate group of subject to observe. Scope of observation - individual or group.

Determination of length of each observation period. Deciding about the instruments and the form of recording and physical position of the observer. Determining the special conditions required for subjects. Preparation of proper tools for recording observation. Gettirig oneself trained in terms of expertness of an observer.

2. Execution of Observation
An expert execution demands : Proper arrangement of special conditions for the subjects. Assuming the proper physical position for observing. Focusing attention on the specificactivitiesor units of behaviour under observation.
a

Observing directly, the length and number of periods and intervals decided upon. Handling well the recording instruments to be used. Utilizing the training received in terms of expertness.

'

3. Recording and Interpreting Observations

The two common procedures for recording observation are Simultaneous- when the observer goes on recording his observations simultaneously with the occurrence of the phenomena observed, as in time sampling. Soon after the observation - when the observer undertakes to record his observations not simultaneously with his actual observation process, but immediately after he has observed for a unit of time, while the details are still fresh in his mind.

Advantages of Observ'ation
1.

Observation as a research technique is being refined and made exact to an extent that it is likely to make an important contribution in descriptive research. Significant aspects of personality which express themselves in behaviour can be best studied directly through observation rather than indirectly through questionnaire and interview.

2.

3.

Simple observation of physical aspects of school buildings or students and teachers, etc. is made through physical examination, measurement, assessment and comparison with fixed standards. Observation of physical activities as in games and in the workshop is made directly very often for coaching purposes. Observation in the classroom is made to analyse learning behaviour which is a more complex phenomenon, and to improve classroom performance.

Tools and Techniques

of Data Collection

4.

. 5.

Limitations of Observation
1. 2. Establishing the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the items of observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision. 'The problem of subjectivity is also involved. A person tends to see what he knows. There is also the danger of concentrating in an observation on the aspects of limited significance simply because they can be recorded objectively and accurately. There is the possibility of distortion of the phenomena through the very act of observing. Also the observer tends to see only those things which he wants to see. Usually when an observer goes to the scene, the situation is new to him. The incidents described may be samples of rarely occurring behaviour. The observer fails to obtain an adequate sample of data on the basis of which conclusions can be drawn. The lack of competence of the'observer may hamper validity and reliability of observation. The people being observed become conscious and begin to behave in an unnatural manner.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

8. 9.

10. It is a slow and laborious process. A particular-situation which is desired to be observed might not occur for a very long time.
11. The data may be unmanageable. It would be difficult to arrange the behaviours along a continuum. 12. It is going to be a costly affair. It involves expenses on traveling, staying at the place of phenomena.

1. 35
.

DOCUMENTS

Documents are the ready-made records which provide data to the researcher in relation to the research problem under consideration .They contain the dataof remote periods and places for scientific analysis. Since the content of the document is itself the data, it does not depend upon a specific investigator. The system of recording the data is already determined by the person(s) other than the researcher .

Types of Documents - Documents are categorized in three ways

1. Expressive Documents These specify the process of social interaction and include personal letters ,diaries , biographies, autobiographies . Such types of documents are more used and useful for data collection in historical researches and in case studies .
2. Official Records These documents provide useful information about the time and frequency of the occurrence of an event. Such data cover a wide range of events e.g. birthdate,

63

Research Design

attendance and progress records of the students; data related to particular courses, result sheet etc. They also include the records of the minutes of the school committee meetings, minutes of various university meetings such as the meetings of academic council, board of studies etc. The annual reports, budgets and the pictorial records (e.g. photographs, videos) also comprise the official records. The official records are useful in knowing and understanding past events and trends so as to gain perspective on the present and the future. They are helpful in studying the administrative pattern of the institution. They yield the data useful in historical and survey type researches and also in case studies .

13.6

CHARACTERISTICS AND CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF A GOOD TOOL

13.6.1 Validity
A good research tool must actually measure what it is supposed to measure. A test is valid, if it meets the purpose for which it was designed. Validity is basic, we may consider validity in terms of categories such as high, moderate or low validity. Furthermore validity is specific, a test may be valid for one purpose but not valid for another. A data collection tool must be a valid one.

13.6.2 Reliability
The second important quality of a measuring instrument is its reliability or consistency. A reliable test is one which measures accurately and consistently. If a reliable test is given two or three times to the same group, each person in the group should ge't approximately the same score on all occasions. Reliability is a statistical concept. To determine the reliability of a test, it must be administered to a group of individuals under appropriate circumstances. Reliability can be expressed by a correlation coefficient.

13.6.3 Objectivity
A test is objective when the examiner's personal judgement does not affect the scoring. An objective test is one for which the items can readily be scored as right or wrong. Such item types as multiple choice, matching, true-false are objective. Objectivity is a prerequisite to reliability in a test. Objective judgements are accurate and hence tend to be reliable. Hence data collection tool must be objective.

13.6.4 Adequacy
The careful test maker never assumes that the instrument he has constructed is capable of measuring all of the factual knowledge or skills that apupil has acquired in a school course .Adequacy is a prerequisite to the reliability as well as to validity of a test. Hence the data collection tool must be adequate.

13.6.5 Usability
The most valid test in the world will do nothing to improve the school programme if it is not used. Usability or practicality is an important criterion for assessing the value of a test. Usability of a test depends upon a number of factors. i) ii) Ease of Administration - Directions for administering the test should be simple and clear, and the timing of the test should not be too difficult for adjustment. Ease of Scoring - If algebraic manipulations are required to get the scores or if the original raw scores require to be converted into complicated derived scores, teachers will avoid to use such a test.

iii)

Ease of Interpretation - In the final analysis, the success or failure of a testing programme is determined by the use made of test results.

Tobh and Techniques of Data Coiieetion

iv) Economy - Economy is certainly one of the major criteria of a good test. Real economy in testing will not be achieved by the indiscriminateuse of cheap tests, but it is equally true that users will avoid buying costly instruments and tests. Economy also refers to the time required for administering and scoring the test. V) Availability of Equivalent Forms - Equivalent forms of a test measure the same aspects of behaviour by using test items which are alike in content, level of difficulty and other characteristics. Thus one form of the test can substitute the other. Equivalent forms are especially valuable when these are used for research purposes. The data collection tool must be a usable one.

13.6.6 Discriminating Power

A test discriminates well when it is constructed in such a manner that it will detect or measure small differences in achievement and when it picks out the good from the poor. This quality of a test directly affects its validity, so this also becomes an essential criterion of selecting the data collection tool.

13.6.7 Interest
Tests that are interesting and enjoyable help to gain the cooperation of the subject. Under unfavourable conditions, the test is not likely to yield useful results. Hence, from amongst the available the one satisfying all other criteria, the interesting tool should be selected for data collection.

Check Your Progress Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answers. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

7. Define the terms - Interview and Observation.

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................
8.

State different types of Interview and Observation.

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................
9. Give one major advantage and one limitation of interview and observation as techniques of data collection.

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................
10. List different criteria of selecting a good tool of data collection.

................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................
1 1 . State the importance of Document in data collection .

................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................

Research Design

13.7

LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have provided information about data gathering tools and techniques. Questionnaire, rating scales, attitude scale, checklist, tests are the major tools and interview and observation are the major data gathering techniques. We discussed the meaning of questionnaire, rating scale, attitude scale, test, interview and observation. Along with the meaning of each one of these, we also explained their advantageduses and limitations. Because each data-gathering device has its own particular limitations, it is advisable to use multiple methods, supplementingone with others to counteract bias and generate more adequate data. Many wiiters have argued the superiority of the interview over the questionnaire, or the use of the psychological test over the interview. The late Arvil S. Ban,University of Wisconsin, a teacher and a researcher, resolved discussions of this sort by asking, 'Which is better, a hammer or a handsaw?' Like the tools in the carpenter's chest, each is apl;roPriate in a given situation.

13.8
1.

UNIT-ENDACTIVITIES
---

Refer to the dissertations/theses available in the local universities/post graduate colleges. List the tools used for data collection, along with the objectives and type of the tool. Go through the various psychological tests and read the manuals as well.

2.

13.9
1.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

What are the different phases of standardizing a test? How to frame a good question?

2.

13.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ban; A.S., Robert, A. Davis and Plainer, 0. Johnson (1953): Mutational Research and Appraisal. Chicago: J.B. Lippincott. Best, John. W. and Kahn, James. V. (1995): Research in Education. 7"' edition, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. ' Borg, Walter R. (1989): Applying Educational Research, A Practical Guide for Teachers. 2" edition, New York: Longman. Dandekar, W.N. (1986): Evaluation in Schools. Poona: Vidya Prakashan. Kerlinger, Fred. N. (1993): Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Holt, ~ i i e h a rand Winston. t Sukhia, S.P., Mehrotra, P.V., Mehrora, R.N. (1996): Elements of ~ a z i oResearch. ~ l 2" edition, New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Keeves, John. P. (ed.) (1998): Educational Research. Methodology and Measurement, An International Handbook. London: Pergarnon Press. Evans, K. M. (1972): Attitudes and Interest in Education. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Edwards, Allen. A. (1969): Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. New York: Appleton Centrurt Crofts.

Groundlund, N.E. (1981): Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. 4"'ed., New Delhi: McMillan Publishing Co. Koul, Lokesh (1997): Methodology of Educational Researrh. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Thrustone, L.L. & E.J. Chave (1 929): The Measurement of Attitude. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Tuckman, B .W. ( 1972): Conducting Educational Research. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Tools and Tecbnlqucs of Data Collection

13.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

I.
Questionnaire - A set of questions prepared to obtain factual information with regard to the topic under study. Rating Scale - It is the qualitative description of some aspects of a thing or of traits of a person, classified into five to seven categories. 2. Types,of Questionnaire i) Structured Vs. Non-Structured - Where the former includes directed questions and the latter non-directed. Closed form Vs. Open form - The first one calls for fixed responses and the second one calls for free responses. Numerical rating scale - where the ratee checks a number to indicate the degree of presence of a characteristic. Descriptive - Graphic rating scale - uses descriptive phrases to identify the points on a graphic scale.

ii)

Types of Rating Scale i) ii)

iii) Graphic rating scale - the rater marks a cross or a check on a horizontal line representing a characteristic, to indicate the presencdabsence of a given chancteristicttrait.
iv) Ranking method - in terms of possessing the characteristic being judged, the rater simply ranks in order.
V)

Standad scale - against a standard provided to the rater, rating is done.

vi) Forced Choice scale - the rater is supposed to only mention whether or not the rater has one or more traits.

3.

Advimtage of Questionnaire - Most preferred tool when the respondents are scattered far and wide. Rating Scale - Useful in the field of rating teaching and teachers. Limitation of Questionnaire - Respondents who return the questionnaire may not constitute a representative sample. Rating Scale - Dominated by subjectivity.

4.

Attitude scale - is a list of sentences or adJ:, ives to obtain responses from an individual, to each sentence or adjective as per hisher true feelings.
a

Check list - is a list of items or behaviours to indicate the presence or absence of that item behaviour.

5.

Types of Attitude scale Likert scale, Guttman scale, Thurstone scale and Semantic Differential scale are the four types of Attitude Scale.

Research Dcsign

6.

Classification of Tests As per the Functioni) ii) Educational tests. Personality tests. (Allport - Vernon) Aptitude Tests (DAT) Speed Tests (usual school/college tests) Power Tests (Raven's Progressive Matrices Test) Verbal Tests (usual school tests) Non-verbal Test (Raven's Progressive Matrices Test) Performance Test (Koha's Blocks Tests) Standardized Test (Raven's Progressive Matrices Test) Criterion - referenced Tests. Adapted Tests (Kulhman's Test of Intelligence adapted by Gnyan Prabodhini, Pune) Group tests (Cattel's personality test)

i) u
i)

As per the Nature -

ii) iii)
iv) V) vi) vii) ix)

viii) Culture fair Test (Raven's Progressive Matrices Test)

As per the mode of Administration i) ii) Individual test (A Performance Test) Interview - is a technique of asking questions and getting responses orally and face-to-face. Observation - is a technique of collecting data directly by attending activities of an individual in different settings.

7.

8.

Types of Interview i) ii) Structured interview - same questions are asked in same order. Unstructured interview -has flexibility in framing and deciding the order of the questions. Participant Vs Non-participant Observation - In the first one, observer is one of the members of the group being observed whereas in the other one observer is outsider to the group. Structured Vs Non-Structured Observation - Observer plans as per the significant aspects of situation in structured observation whereas in nonstructured one, initially it is wide.

n p e s of Observation i)

ii)

9.

Advantage of Interview ObservationLimitation of Interview

Useful in case of young children, illiterates and in an abnormal state of mind. Significant aspects of behaviour can be studied directly.

lime consuming, very much dependent on the interviewer.

All the significant aspects can not be observed simultaneously.

Observation

10. Criteria of selecting a good tool of data collection The tool to be selected should be -

i) ii) iii) iv)

reliable valid objective adequate V) usable vi) possessing satisfactory discriminatingpower and vii) of interest to the respondents.

Tools and Techniques of Data CoIIectLon

1 1. The documents are very important tools of data collection. Expressive documents specify the process of social interaction. The official records provide information regarding the time and frequency of occurrence of past events and trends. Hence the documents are useful in historical and survey researches and in case studies.

13.12 GLOSSARY
Attitude A moderately intense emotion that prepares or predisposes, an individual to respond consistently in a favourable or unfavourable manner when confronted with a particular psychological object. It is the most prevalent means of measuring attitude which provides individuals with a list of statements and asks them to respond to each statement in accordance with their true feelings. A technique of collecting data by directly examining the activities of an individual in different settings. Descriptive narrations, responses to open ended questions, quotations, field notes etc are qualitative data. Numerical figures or ratings are quantitative data. A set of questions dealing with psychological, social, educational or any other topic sent to an individual or a group with the purpose of obtaining factual information with regard to the topic under study. It is the qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or of traits of a person. The classifications may be set up in five to seven categories. It is the extent to which a tool is consistent in measuring whatever it may measure. A psychological test is an instrument designed to describe and measure a sample of certain aspects of human behaviour. A Check List is a prepared list of behaviours or items to indicate the presence or absence of the bahaviours or the item. All relevant materials, past and present, serving as basis for research study and analysis is the data. It is a technique of asking questions and getting responses orally in face-to-face situation. The extent to which adevice does the job for which it is designed is its validity.

Attitude Scale

Observation Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data Questionnaire

Rating Scale

Reliability Test

Check List

Data Interview Validity

69

NOTES