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HERBART
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Edited by
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
HERBART
AND THE HERBARTIANS
BT
CHARLES DE GARjMO,
Ph.D.
PRESIDENT OF SWAKTHJIOEE COLLEGE, PENNSYLVANIA
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1895
COPYRIGHT,
1895,
BY
SONS.
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S
PKEFACE
The purpose of this volume is to give a bird's-eye view of Herbart and his doctrines of education, both as presented by himself, and as developed by his sucIn English-speaking countries his system of cessors. educational thought is for most teachers still in the
stage of exposition
;
furthermore, the beginner in every
well-organized, far-reaching system is always in need To the teacher, therefore, who of an introduction.
inquires for the leading purposes of this school, and the methods whereby it is sought to realize them, this book attempts an intelligible answer. It concerns
itself
but
little
with
Herbart's
metaphysics, and
refine-
rigorously refrains ments of doctrine.

to essentials.
from introducing confusing
It confines its attention strictly
Only epoch-making men and

are considered at
all.
their chief
contributions
so
If, therefore, of mention, so few are among treated, and even with these the discussion confined to essentials, the reason must be sought in the pur-
many men worthy
pose to make clear to the inquiring teacher what the Herbartians are trying to do and how they are trying to do it.
The ultimate purpose
of the Herbartians
may
be
said to be the development of character, not in a nar-
vi
PREFACE
sense, but in a broad social one.
row subjective
seek to
fit
They
the child for every important phase of
to family, social, civil, religious, and economic life, in short, the whole boy or girl. In this broad develop,
aim they
certainly
are,
made some
perhaps, not peculiar; but they have contributions as to the means for
accomplishing this end, so devoutly to be desired for
The strength of their position is, public education. that they show how under favorable circumstances
this result
at the
command
can be achieved with the agencies already of the school namely, the common;
be taught, together with the ordinary discipline of the school. They believe that, properly selected, articulated, and taught, the
school studies as they
may
common branches of an elementary education are potent influences in training the child's moral insight
and disposition. But this training must be
in full
harmony with the
nature of the child's mind, and especially Avith his
moral and intellectual apperception, or assimilative

find, consequently, that the burning questions with this body of teachers pertain, first, to the selection and sifting of suitable subject-matter
power.
We
in the various studies; then to its rational articulation or coordination; and finally, to the truest and
best
teacher will
teaching it to the child. Every recognize that this purpose and these means are the important things in education.
methods of
CHARLES De GARMO.
S\VARTHMORE COLLEGE,
October, 1894.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface
PART
HERBART'S CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION
CHAPTER
What
Pestalozzi left for Herbart to do
CHAPTER
Herbart's Life and
II
Works
12
CHAPTER
Herbart's Psychology
III
23
CHAPTER
Herbart's
Ethics A
IV
.
Guide to Educational Ends
47
CHAPTER V
The Doctrine of Interest Its Bearing upon Knowledge and Volition
.......
.
67
CHAPTER VI
Instruction Its
Materials, Course, and Method

vii
67
vlii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
School Discipline
VII
PAGE
.
Government
and Training
83
PART
II
EXTENSION AND APPLICATION OF HERBART'S EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN GERMANY
CHAPTER
I
.
TUISKON ZlLLER AND KARL VOLKMAR StOY
101
CHAPTER
TUISKON ZlLLER
II
.
103
CHAPTER
Ziller's
III
Theory of the Historical Stages of Cul107
ture
..........
CHAPTER IV
.
Ziller's
Theory of Concentration of Studies
.113
CHAPTER V
Method
in
Teaching
The
Formal Stages of
In-
struction
130
CHAPTER VI
Dr. William Rein
in
Reducing
CHAPTER
Theory to Practice
141
Elementary Schools
VII
Dr. Karl
Lange Apperception
....
166
CONTENTS
ix
CHAPTER
Dr.
VIII
page
Karl Volkmar
Stoy Leader
tive Herbartians
.......
of the Conserva180
CHAPTER IX
Dr. Otto Frick, late Director of the Frankischen Stiftungen in Halle
......
III
187
PART
HERBARTIAN IDEAS IN AMERICA
CHAPTER
The Herbart Club
205
CHAPTER
II
.
Three Plans for the Correlation of Studies
215
CHAPTER
III
A New
Era
in
Education
228
CHAPTER
IV
.
Proposed Bases for the Coordination of Studies
240
Appendix
257
Part
HERB ART'S CONTRIBUTION TO

EDUCATION
HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS

CHAPTER
WHAT
I
PESTALOZZI LEFT FOR HERBART TO DO

the labors of Pestalozzi have done for Gertell.
What
man
education were long to
It concerns us
left
more
for present purposes to
know what he
undone.
The world has read the history of Germany's brilliant educational development, whose initial stages are found in the work of the Swiss Reformer, his disciThe story need not be retold. ples and successors. The schools of the United States, so far as educational
theory is concerned, trace their origin in large part to the same primal sources. But because these men did so much, it does not follow that they did everything.
Like
all
great reforms, that begun by Pestalozzi

stir
was
emotional rather than scientific in
its initial stages.
Exact and logical thought does not

great
a nation into a
for the educational uplifting of the masses, but serves rather to give direction and efficiency to what has been set in motion by moral forces.
movement
Pestalozzi
was a true reformer.
He
to be reached, he could rouse all
could see the end Europe to the sore
need of the people, he could expose the barrenness of formal teaching, he could announce universal princi3

;
pies but in directing his pupils over the long road that leads from ignorance to knowledge, from untu-
tored natural disposition to moral freedom, he could indeed rely upon the guidance that comes of faith, but not so surely upon that which comes from sight.
of teachers to follow, divine enthusiasm, it
believe.
This for him was doubtless best, but for the generations who could not be fired with his
became
as necessary to see as to
For a very good reason, however, Pestalozzi is excusable for not establishing his instruction upon a firm psychological basis. At that time, no psychology in
modern sense of the term existed. It is true Immanuel Kant had developed his system of the rational presuppositions that make mind and experience possible, but he had studiously neglected experience itself, so that his work had little or no effect in determining how the mind of the child shall be trained. The current psychology of the day was, for
the
that
the most part, that of Aristotle plus a good many misconceptions that had gradually accumulated in the common mind. This, added to the fact that Pestalozzi's
reform had
its
sources in the heart rather than
in the head, enables us to
understand that there was

namely, to give
something
left for
Herbart to do;
and moral training them upon an adequate system of psyby founding chology and ethics. Bacon describes three classes of thinkers, comparing them to three insects, the spider, the ant, and the bee. Some men, like the spider, he says, spin all their
scientific precision to instruction
knowledge out of themselves 'some

;
collect
it
indis-
WHAT

;
while others gather facts criminately like the ant wherever they can find them, and from these facts bring forth new products by means of their own
thoughtful elaboration, just as the bee produces honey from the sweets he has gathered from the flowers.
Pestalozzi's
method of investigation seems

first.
to
have
been the kind mentioned
He
looked into his
own
heart and mind for the laws of mental growth, formulated them, and forthwith began to spin his theories of instruction. Thus, in one place he says
:
"In these laws
I believe I shall
certainly find the
threads out of which a universal psychological method Man say I to myself, of instruction can be spun. in dreamy search for these threads, in the ripening of every species of fruit, you recognize in all its parts the
!
result of the wholly perfected product, and you must regard no human judgment as ripe that does not
appear in
all its parts as the result of complete observation of the object considered." The following are examples of these general princi-
ples of instruction, empirically received, from which Pestalozzi seeks to evolve the methods of teaching: " 1. Learn, therefore, to arrange thy perceptions, and to complete the simple before proceeding to the
complex.
2.
"Further, bring together in thy mind
all
those
things which essentially belong together, in the same connection in which they are actually found in nature. 3. "Strengthen and intensify thy impression of important objects by bringing them nearer through art, and by making them act upon thee through the different senses.

4.
"Regard
all
the effects of physical
nature as
absolutely necessary, and recognize in this necessity the result of the power with which they unify their
apparently heterogeneous elements to the realization of their purpose; and let the art with which thou,
through instruction, workest upon thy

the results which
it effects,
race, as well as
be elevated to a like phys-
ical necessity, so that in all of
thy doing,
all
means,
however heterogeneous in appearance, work together for the accomplishment of their great purpose. 5. "But richness and variety in environment and excitation cause the results of physical necessity to bear the impress of freedom and independence."
"From
marks,
"
we may
these individual principles," he again respin out the threads of a universal
and psychological method of instruction." Like an impetuous leader with an army before a
river, Pestalozzi
bids all rush in.
does not wait to build a bridge, but Many get over yet some are lost,
;
and
do
all are
wet.
Looking at the query, What was left for Herbart to ? from another standpoint, we shall see that one of the main results of the labors of Comenius, Rousseau, and Pestalozzi is the firmly fixed conviction that
observation, or the use of the senses, and in general the consideration of simple concrete facts in
field
every
of
knowledge,
is
the
sure
foundation
rests.
upon
This
which
truth
all
is
right elementary
education
the acknowledged starting-point of all scientific methods of teaching, yet the fact of the im-
now
with
portance of observation in instruction does not carry it any information showing how the knowledge
WHAT

what
its
so obtained can be utilized, or
nature, time,
amount, and order of presentation should be. In short, not show how mental assimilation can best it does
take place, or
made most
the
first
the resulting acquisitions can be efficiently to influence the emotional and
how
volitional side of our nature.
Perception
is,
indeed,
stage in cognition, but its equally important

is
correlative
It is
apperception, or
mental assimilation.
Herbart and his successors who have made us
The following paradistinctly conscious of this fact. from Dr. William T. Harris confirms the view graph here taken " The progress of education is in a zigzag
:
out
This appears throughnot that succeeding times profit by the experience of their forerunners, the progThe history of the good ress would not be assured.
line,
from extreme to extreme.
all history.
But were
it
and bad incident

vent
its
to
one extreme
is
sufficient to pre-
repetition.
The extremes
are
new ones
at
least in substantial features,
survival of past issues.
and not a discouraging At one time the schools have
tended
very
almost
little
exclusively to memory-culture, with attempt at verification by original research
and observation.
critics, this
This was the case with what
is
called the old education,
and
if
we
are to believe the
our time
also.
ought to be called the prevailing system of But Pestalozzi exploded the theory on
which it rests and substituted another. He laid stress on sense-preception, verification, and original research.
The
practice of our time may not correspond to its theory, but certainly all writers uphold the Pestaloz-
zian doctrine of instruction
while this reform
is
But by object-lessons. towards its extreme, progressing
another tendency has begun within a few years, and it promises to force a new departure on our zigzag line.
This
is
not so
much
the doctrine of Herbart, which holds that it is sense-perception that is wanted in educa-
tion as apperception
not
so
much
seeing and hearing
and handling
things, as recognizing
standing them.
them and underThe Herbartian trend on our zigzag
of progress helps to reenforce sense-perception by the memory, through the use of the causal series of ideas. It therefore combines the two former trends
in a higher.
Doubtless there will be
new
trends on
the zigzag of progress to correct the extremes and errors of Herbartianism, but, compared with Pesta-
theory of intellectual instruction, or with that other and older theory of memory as the sole intelleclozzi's
tual faculty, there can be no doubt that the Herbar1 tians are right."
initial
Closely allied to the fact that Herbart gave the impulse to this combination of memory and
perception in apperception, is another of almost equal "The natural harmonious development importance.
of all the powers of a human being for the sake of his " true moral nature is a principle to which Pestalozzi " It " the new ever recurs. is," says Vogel, principle of Pestalozzi's pedagogics. True, Comenius and Rous-
seau declared for an education in accordance with

nature.
But whereas Comenius by
'
nature
'
under-
stood the external world of plants and animals and physical forces, and Rousseau meant nature as op-
posed to
art,
Pestalozzi penetrated to the depths of

Edu-
1 Dr. William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education, cational Review, May, 1893.
WHAT
human
nature, since he found this principle in moral 1 feeling, in the freedom that is guided by duty."
Herbart fully accepts Pestalozzi's statement of the ultimate end of education, but attempts to show how
the daily activity of the school may bring about this a problem that Pestalozzi never desirable result,
solved for others.
It is a cardinal doctrine
with
all
followers of Herbart, that instruction itself should
The watchconsciously work toward moral ends. is Erziehender Unterricht ; that word upon their banner
is,
instruction that
makes
for character.
It is to a
scientific
study of psychology and ethics
in
their
application to teaching that they look for guidance in the matter.

Briefly summarizing, Pestalozzi, his contemporaries, and successors, left a threefold work for Herbart to
The development of a psychology 1. immediate bearing on the problems of capable of

do, as follows
:
teaching;
2.
The
scientific application of
;
chology to education
possibility of
and
all
3.
The
this psyrevelation of the
making
the activities of the school-
room, including especially instruction, bear directly upon the development of moral character.
should not regard Herbart's contributions as additions, however important, to an educational mosaic already existing.
We
Such a view would be most
is fundamental, compelling a misleading. of the whole theory of education. new elaboration
His work
Whenever the world has discovered a new principle or method of thought, all its work has been done
1
Dr. August Vogel, Geschichte
cler
Pddagogik
als
Wissenscha/t
p. 161.
10
over again. Bacon's revival of the inductive method was "not an addition to science, but a revolution in
science.
The
results
wrought out
in the
Middle Ages
were discarded or wholly revised.

his
Since Darwin and
fellow-workers established the theory of evolution as a standpoint in thinking, the whole field of knowledge has been reexamined in accordance with
the
new
principle.
Not only the natural
sciences, but
ethics,
religion,
have
felt
psychology, and even metaphysics, the leavening influence of the evolutionist.
a large volume to record the progress of the No student of this science regards it as a mere addition to the sum of
It takes
last ten years in bacteriology.
from which
science.
medical knowledge, but it to reexamine
is
to
all
him a new standpoint medical and surgical

of re-
The psycho-physicist does not dream
between mind and body, but claims the whole dominion of

psychology,
of his
if
;
stricting his investigations to the interaction
method
all
not of metaphysics, for the application that is, he too must open up again in a
new way
that other methods claim to have settled. did not add new circles to the already comCopernicus plicated system of Ptolemy; he wrought out a new
astronomy with the old stars. In a similiar way, Herbart, using the same facts of human nature and experience, the same materials and means of instruction and
training, brings forth
cation of
new
new products through As Dr. Harris principles.
the applisays, the
two old stages of education, memory and perception, are united by him into the higher one of apperception, or mental assimilation. The laws of mental develop-
ment are examined anew
each branch of instruction
WHAT
is
PESTALOZZI LEFT FOR HERB ART TO DO

its
11
studied in
relations to the pupil's needs, under-
standing, and
interests, and all the studies of the curriculum are considered in their double relations to one another and to the apperception of the
pupil. Finally,
the truest and best
methods of uniting these two factors, the mind of the child and the materials of instruction and training, are investigated. This treatment is comparable in kind to that of the modern
astronomer, bacteriologist, psycho-physicist, or evolutionist it is creative work.
;
CHAPTER
II
HERBART'S LIFE AND WORKS
The
were
times in which Herbart and Pestalozzi lived
at once the age of heroic speculative
thought in
the universities and the age of economic and political degradation among the common people. The heart of
the
mind
reformer, Pestalozzi, responded to the one, the of the thinker, Herbart, to the other for the
;
native forces of the
mind exert themselves
in accordinflu-
ance with surrounding intellectual and moral

ences.
Furthermore, minds become fertilized at an Lectures on early age by the spirit of the times. philosophy were given at the gymnasium attended by
the youthful Herbart, and we find him at the early age of fourteen writing essays on the moral freedom
At the age of eighteen, when most boys are in these days just entering upon their freshman work in college, Herbart was a diligent student of German
of man.
philosophy under Fichte at Jena. To gain recogniFichte had introduced himself to Kant at Konigsberg by means of an Essay toward a Critique of all
tion,
Revelation,
which was
for
a time ascribed to
Kant
himself.
In a somewhat similar
12
manner, Herbart
HERB ART'S LIFE AND WORKS

attracted Fichte's attention,
13
by handing him essays concerning certain doubtful statements in the Science of Knowledge. During his second year at the university,
he gave Fichte a critique of two of Schelling's works, in which he broke away from the ruling Idealism of the times, and laid in some measure the
groundwork of his own future system of philosophy. John Frederick Herbart was born at Oldenburg on
the 4th of
tingen
May, 1776. He died a professor at GotHis life-span reached over the 1841. period of great political revolutions and through that The of the evolution of great systems of thought. turbulence of the times does not seem to have modiin
fied essentially his course of life.
Fichte, his teacher,
and besides being the Idealistic philosopher became the firebrand of German patriotism but Herbart fought only the His field of labor was the spectres of the mind.
was caught
in the grip of the age,
university classroom his companions were, not armed soldiers of the camp, but spectacled students and
;
While Pestalozzi professors of the halls of learning. was dealing with the unkempt urchins of poverty, and
Froebel with the children of the kindergarten, Herbart was in the university instructing the future
leaders of thought.
Herbart's experience as a teacher

to
would seem too small a thing
mention
some
two
or three years in a private family in Switzerland with three children aged respectively eight, twelve,
and fourteen.
in an acorn,
Yet
i.e.,
to a man who can who can understand
see an oak tree

all
the study of a few, such an experience

fruitful.
may
minds from be most
14

At
the close of his university career, Herbart, then
a young
vitation to
twenty-one years old, accepted an inbecome tutor to the three older children of Herr von Steiger, Governor of Interlaken, Switzerland. The most helpful thing to him about this experience was that he was required to make a written
bi-monthly report to his employer concerning the Five of study, conduct, and progress of his charges.
these reports have been published nothing is known of the others. An extended biography would doubt;
man
warrant a careful analysis of these reports, since they are full of anticipations of the educational ideals that Herbart afterward elaborated. Yet, though
less
coming events cast their shadows before," a brief exposition must content itself with the essentials of Herbart's developed system, leaving the tracing of these anticipations to those who have time and inclination for the task.
"
After resigning his tutorship in Switzerland, Herbart went to Bremen to prepare himself for an academic career in the university. He stopped at Jena
for a time,
to
whom
his
and then visited his parents at Oldenburg, he showed his consideration by offering to
yield
preferences by taking up the law. They perceived, however, how much his cherished ideals would be disturbed by such a course, and generously
allowed him his

his father
own
free choice.
About
this
time
and mother separated on account of domestic difficulties, the latter settling in Paris, where she died some three years later. Being free to continue
his chosen career, Herbart
to
now continued
his journey
Bremen, where he spent two years more in prepa-

ration
for his life-work. for
15
Incidentally he tutored a
his be-
young man
pedagogical
the
to
ideas
university, and unfolded some appreciative mothers
He also longing to the higher ranks of society. wrote several articles and lectures on educational
topics.
Two
ivork
recent
How
of these
articles,
that on Pestalozzi's
Gertrude
taught
her
Children,
and that on Pestalozzi's Idea of an A 2 vation, gave a more scientific form
B C
of Obser-
to the thought
of the Swiss reformer. The latter essay was afterwards extended by one of Herbart's most important contributions, that on The Moral or Ethical Revelation of the World the Chief Function of Education, 3 the most important thought of which is that, through
in the
school experiences, and especially through instruction common branches, the teacher can reveal the
Avorld of
his neighbors
moral relations between the individual and on the one hand, and organized society
on the other, thereby developing a keen moral insight and a right disposition, and insuring reliable moral
habits
;
in a word, developing strong
moral character
Yet during his stay in Bremen, educational thought was rather a recreation than a serious labor. His chief efforts were expended upon Greek and mathematics. But the question of means wherein his pupils.
with to
with
world.
1
live
many
began to press upon him, as it has done another intellectual benefactor to the
Pestalozzi's neueste Schrift:
Wie Gertrud ihre Kinder

als
lehrte.
2 8
Pestalozzi's Idee eines
A B C der Anschauung.
Hauptgeschaft
Ueber die asthetische Darstellung der Welt
der Erziehung.
16
As his parents were convinced that philosophy would yield no bread, and were filled with anxiety
for his future subsistence, Herbart held
it
a duty to
make no mention
.on
air,
of his needs.
Not being
able to live
however, he turned to his friends, especially to Johann Schmidt, with whom he was living, and
they out of personal regard and confidence so supplied his wants that he was able to live in a humble way
at
Bremen, and thence
to proceed
his
comfortably to
Gottingen.
Here, however,
care
At Jena he in a distressing manner. and in Switzerland he had good health,

robust.
was increased had enjoyed become very

;
In stature he was not above middle height
the upper portions of his body were proportionately larger than the lower, so that he was more imposing
He was strong sitting than when standing. and muscular, his movements being decisive and vigBut after a long winter journey, in which his orous.
when
emotions were excited to the highest pitch, his health
began to
effects
fail.
He
of
the
anxieties
long suffered from the baleful and over-exertions arising
from his
state of poverty. his
Gottingen pected every winter to be his last. Yet in spite of these drawbacks, he resolutely pursued his course.
During the first years at health was so shattered that he ex-
Of
his academic studies in
Bremen but
little
public
es-
record remains.
He
left
with Schmidt two brief
says upon The Difference between the Idealism of Kant and that of Fichte, and A Critique of the Conception of
the
Ego.
going to
in
Upon
privat-docent
Gottingen he soon qualified as pedagogy, not being in touch with
17
the idealistic philosophy of the day. Seeking a firm basis on which to rest his educational theories, he
soon began to lecture upon ethics, or practical philosophy.

It is said that his lectures
were so
fine that
he soon attracted to his class-room the whole
phil-
In consecpience osophical activity of the university. of this success he received a call to a full professorclined,
ship at Heidelberg in 1805, which, however, he dethough the beautiful spot greatly attracted
him.
It is a tribute to the earnestness of philosophic
thought of those times that it went on vigorously under the most depressing influences of war and subjugation. Hegel finished his Phenomenology of Spirit to the thunder of cannon at Jena, and Herbart out
of his slender income
was forced
to contribute a quota
of 1500 francs to the
expenses of the war.
With
Fichte the
warmth
flaming zeal
of philosophic thought burst into for universal education as the surest
means of securing national freedom. During the period of his activity at Gottingen, from 1802 to 1808, Herbart published a number of important works, the principal ones being second edition of the C of Observation, in 1804, to which was added TJie Moral Revelation of the World as the
:
AB
also
In 1804, was published Standpoint for Judging Pestalozzi's Method of Instruction; in 1806, he issued General Pedagogics (his chief work on education), Chief Points of MetaChief Function of Education.
physics,
and Chief Points of Logic. his General Practical Philosophy.
In 1808 he finished
The
position to which he had attained in Gottingen
18
HERBAET AND THE HERBARTIANS

associate, Professor,
was that of extraordinary, or
with a salary of 300 thalers a year. The alarms of war and the increasing difficulty of providing sustenance,
gradually led to a diminution of philosophical study among the students. They drifted largely into more
practical departments, so that
when
the flattering offer
of Kant's chair at Konigsberg, coupled with a salary of 1200 thalers, came to Herbart, he was ready to " How accept it. happy I was," he writes, "to receive the offer of this, the most renowned chair of philoso-
phy, the place which
when
reverential dreams, as I studied the of Konigsberg." 1
a boy I longed for in works of the sage
Herbart removed to Konigsberg during the spring

of 1809, to occupy the academic chair of
Immanuel
Kant, which had just been vacated by Krug, the latter

having accepted a
call to Leipsic.
Herbart's father died.
"
The
latter
During this year had lived to ex-
perience the fact that not only had philosophy supplied his son with bread, but that it had yielded him honor as well." In addition to lecturing upon philosophy, Herbart was required also to take charge of
pedagogics, which had hitherto been cared for by several professors, who took turns in lecturing upon In a short time he became personally acquainted it.
with William von Humboldt, the commissioner of education for Prussia, who soon appointed Herbart a
member of the school commission having in charge the interests of higher education. Opposition began to arise, however, as soon as any serious school reform
1
Science of Education, see Felkins' translation,
p. 16.
19
was urged, the professors dividing into two parties, the young men being mostly for Herbart, and the older
professors
(who enjoyed certain prerogatives not con-
sistent with the highest welfare of the schools) being
opposed to his ideas. All joined heartily with him, however, in the establishment of a pedagogical seminary connected with which was to be a practice school in which a few children should be instructed accordin^ to the most scientific methods, and in which the
students might participate as instructors under critical observation. Twenty children was the limit set for
the practice school, which never, as a matter of fact, however, had more than thirteen members. The
parents were required to grant to the teachers the general privileges of private tutors, and were not
allowed to interfere with the instruction, at least for one year. The actual teaching was done by from four to six members of the seminary, who at the same time
received philosophical and educational instruction in the university. The professor of pedagogy stood in
the most intimate

directing,
relation
to
the
student-teachers,
advising, and
criticising
them.
Should a
difference of opinion arise
between the professor and
the student teacher, the latter was required to listen to the advice of the professor, but was not bound to follow
it,
provided he gave reasons for his
own
view.
Each year the teacher was required to write an educational essay based upon his own experience and This essay was first handed to the proobservation. fessor of pedagogics, who sent it with his comments The design was that to the school commissioners. these student-teachers should become superintendents
20

institutions upon the completion of One of these young men, Karl Volkmar afterwards became the leading exponent of one
of educational
their course.
Stoy, school of Herbartians at Jena, where he long conducted a seminary and practice school in accordance
with the plans instituted by Herbart at Konigsberg. The same seminary is now ably continued by Professor William Eein
of the kind in
;
it is
the most noted institution
Germany. The seminary was fully established in 1810, Herbart lecturing in the university four times a week upon education. In the house in which he lived, Herbart
made the
acquaintance of
Mary Drake,
the
eighteen-year-old
daughter of an English merchant who had been Dr. Bartholomai, in his biogruined by the war. 1 raphy of Herbart, tells the following anecdote of
their first meeting.
rades,
when
the
The company were playing name Herbart was given. The
chafirst
was described as a man (Herr = Mr.), the second as the ornament of a man (bart = beard), and when the whole was to be characterized, Mary Drake exclaimed without hesitation, "The whole is the ornament of the university." Herbart sought the hand of the young English girl, and they were married.
syllable
Their union proved to be a happy one, the wife entering most heartily into the plans and ambitions of her husband.
The Konigsberg period

most
of Herbart's activity was
fruitful in published works.
of his position gave occasion for

1
The prominence numerous addresses

73.
Biographij of Herbart, p.
HERB ART'S LIFE AND WORKS
21
and minor contributions to philosophy and education, many of which were published. Outside of his metaphysical writings, his most important work was the development of psychology, based anew upon metaA brief expophysics, mathematics, and experience. sition of his psychological ideas and their significance for teaching, is given in the succeeding chapter. His was completed in 1814, and his System of Psychology The main work, Text-book of Psychology in 1816. as a Science, did not appear until however, Psychology 1824-5. His General Metaphysics was published in 1828 and 1829 in two volumes, and his Brief Cyclopedia of Philosophy, in 1831.
The
best edition of his
pedagogical works is Willmann's scholarly edition in two volumes of about 600 pages each. An English
Moral Revelation of the World as Function of Education and of the General Chief Principles of Education (Allgemeine Pddagogik) has been prepared by Mr. and Mrs. Eelkin.
translation of The
the
1
Hegel died
in 1831, leaving vacant a chair
which
next to Kant's was the most celebrated in Europe. Herbart fondhy hoped to be his successor, and, indeed,
there were not a few voices raised in his behalf
;
but
instead of the coveted position, he received an Order. It would have been too much, however, for one man
to
occupy the vacant places
of
the
two
greatest
Worthily to have succeeded one of them should have satisfied any reasonthinkers of modern times.
able ambition.
But now,
restricted
by petty
officialism,
and vexed
Boston: D. C. Heath
&
Co., 1893.
22
by misrepresentations, Herbart determined to seek work outside of Prussia, in which the reactionary When in 1833, at Schultze's spirit was dominant.
Gottingen sought his services, he gladly accepted the call. His time was now fully occupied
death,
in preparing and delivering University lectures, so that his published works were few. The students flocked in masses to hear him, often breaking out in
cheers.
Outline of Pedagogical a work that bears the same relation to his Lectures, 1 system that Rosenkranz's Pedagogics as a Science does to the system of Hegel.
In 1835 he issued
On
the 9th of August, 1841, Herbart gave his last
with unimpaired ability. Two days afterwards came a stroke of apoplexy that ended his earthly career. His widow lived to see the one hundredth
lecture
anniversary of his birth. His grave is in Gottingen. It is surrounded by a tall iron fence, inside of which
is
a cross bearing the following inscription:
"To
To
penetrate the sacred depths of truth,

strive in joyful
hope for
aim.
human weal,
"Was his
life's
Now
his spirit free hath perfect light,
Here
rests his mortal frame."
1 Philosophy of Education, by Rosenkranz, with explanatory Paraphrase by Dr. William T. Harris. New York: D. Appleton &
Co., 1886.
2
Science of Education, Herbart, Felkins' translation, p. 23.
CHAPTER
III
HERBART'S PSYCHOLOGY
1.
Current Educational Psychology

not to the technique of psychology that edu-
It
is
cation looks for guidance, but rather to its point of view and its methods of procedure. The latter are
consequently the factors that determine a teacher's

professional tems.
interest
in
various psychological
sys-
American and English ideas of education are now unquestionably adjusted to a theory of mind that regards our mental constitution from aggregative
rather than from organic standpoints. The mind, according to this theory, is an aggregation of faculties it is the sum of what we call sense-perception,
;
'
memory, imagination, reason, feeling, choice, volition, and the like. Nor is it sufficient to reply that no real
psychologist to-day regards the
ient classifications of the
mind
as other than a
unit, that these so-called faculties are
merely convenmethods according to which

does not alter the fact
the
mind works
for
this
that our educational literature as well as our prac23
24

is is
tice,
completely adjusted to the notion that the
mind
an aggregate of more or
less
independent
faculties.
In witness of this assertion, we have the frequent

allusion to the training of the faculties, the adjustment of our courses of study in such a way that the
various faculties will receive the appropriate subjectmatter and method of training, as they appear one
by one in the order of their unfolding. Accordingly we must at first train the senses whence observation in the form of the object-lesson becomes a distinct department of school work; then the memory must be trained by its appropriate exercise, and. must have
;
It is well, subject-matter adapted to this end. to cram the mind with the largest possible therefore, number of facts in geography, history, and language,
it
mattering
little
whether the facts are concrete or
abstract, related or disparate, interesting or stupid, By and since, forsooth, they all train the memory.
by,
we must, in accordance with this idea, teach arithmetic because it trains the reason, and so on to
the end of the chapter. That good teachers avoid these extremes is due, not to the merits of the theory,
but to the
Curiously
common sense of enough, we have never
the
individual.
introduced
any-
thing into the curriculum for the discipline of the to train will, though we have made feeble attempts
the disposition and to inform the understanding
specting moral relations by teaching somebody's
cal system.
re-
ethi-
the
Another natural result arising from considering mind as an aggregate of faculties is our favorite
25
1 doctrine of mental discipline, or formal cultu re of the intellect. Carried to its logical extreme, this con-
ception assumes, first, that the mind can be trained with a minimum of concrete knowledge
second, that the
well and,
power gained
knowledge may be An extreme other.

is
in one department of transferred unimpaired to anyillustration of
the
first
point
that
if
we
train
abstractions of
mind thoroughly upon the Greek and Latin grammar, and upon
the
;
those of pure mathematics, we shall sufficiently cultivate the faculties that is, the recipe for developing digestive power is the chewing of rubber, not beefsteak.
cussions
The second point is commonly urged in disupon higher education, where it is usually
claimed that a thorough drill on language and mathematics will develop a power that can be used with
like facility in
any department of thought or
in
any
calling in life.
of the ancient gods portrayed in Homer is just as good a preparation for dealing with the complex industrial forces of the
A contemplation
any concrete study of the actual determining conditions, the argument being that the power developed by Greek is like so much mechanical energy, which may be made to do one kind of work as
present, as
No one can question the old-time well as another. schoolmaster's faith in formal discipline as the main objective end of education, but the world at large
refuses to accept this view, evidently regarding for1 Dr. B. A. Hinsdale of the University of Michigan has brought American thought down to date on tins subject by his article upon The Dogma of Formal Culture, found in the Educational Review,
September, 1894.
26

as a
mal training
myth, or at most as a special prep-
as a whole insist
The public aration for a few professional callings. upon the concrete knowledge studies
for their children,
little for a higher not visible relations to the aceducation that has
and will pay
tivities of life.
The
fact that the conclusions of the current edu-
cational psychology are not in general accepted by the people or by scientific students of education, is
sufficient warrant, if
of a
method
one is needed, for the exposition of thought leading to radically different
educational results.
2.
Threefold Basis of Herbart's Psychology

of Herbart's psychology is of mere historical more fruitful aspects have under-
Much
interest, while its
gone important changes
since
his
thought, psychology has a triple basis,
metaphysics,
its
time.
In
his
mathematics, and experience.

Metaphysics
(A.)
The
Soul and
Ideas
Of Herbart's metaphysical system,
in
which the
soul as an essence finds a place, we need say but The method of thought is pre-Kantian, rather little.
than post-Kantian yet even the metaphysics of psychology has important consequences. The way to arrive at a sound philosophy, Herbart thought, is to
;
take the
common
notions
in
derived from experience

all their contra-
and elaborate them

dictions
thought until
Thus, examining the ideas of disappear. substance and quality, we have such difficulties as
these
:
27
sugar is sweet, is ichite, is soluble : What is it sweet the whiteness, the solubility, the Is the substance the sum of weight, and the like ? the qualities ? is each quality a manifestation of the
that
is
sum
that
itself ?
of all the qualities or of all of them except Or is there, on the other hand, a substratum
is not quality or the sum of qualities which yet supports the qualities ? If so, what is its nature ? How must it be thought? Does it occupy space?
Is it, perhaps, a force or system of forces ? is it real or ideal ? These, and many similar difficulties, must
be resolved, if thought is to be made consistent with itself. Herbart's method is to make any assumption whatever that will bring harmony and consistency
into our thinking, without regard to the explicability of the assumptions themselves.
Being free, therefore, to make any kind of presupposition whatever regarding the ultimate nature of matter or mind, Herbart constructs an unseen universe as a metaphysical explanation of the seen universe that forms the basis of our experience. From Leibnitz he takes the notion of the monad, or the
metaphysical atom, calling however, depriving

it
it
a real, at the
same time,
principle,
of
its
most
fruitful
that of self-active development. The monad has with Leibnitz no windows or doors through which any outit, all activity, growth, and development coming from within but Herbart makes the monad single in quality, and aside from a sort of mechanical reciprocity existing among the reals, capa;
side influence can affect
ble of but one
kind of activity
against
of
self-preservation
the
namely, the capacity annihilation with
28
it. The being of the a plenum of these monads, or reals, conceived as in partial interpenetration, and in more or
which other monads threaten

is
universe
less
mechanical interaction.
These monads, or
reals,
are the
of Avhich the events of our experience are the phenomena. As smoke points to lire,
noumena
even though the latter is unseen, so the phenomena of the universe point to a metaphysical substratum, which we are not at liberty to deny just because it is not seen. One does not expect, even in the domain of
physical forces, that causes will be like their effects. They are simply adequate to produce them conse;
should not appear unthinkable that timeless and spaceless reals should produce the phenomena
quently,
it
of space and time. The soul is a monad, doubtless indeed superior to the myriad other monads with which it is in eternal
interaction.
monad
ideas.
is
The varying states into which the soul thrown by its efforts at self-preservation are These conditions or states called ideas have
in the soul.
permanent existence
They appear
by one
first
in consciousness, but give place one

ideas, or acts of self-preservation.
to other
Under favorable
conditions they
sciousness.
may
return again and again to con-
The one important point to note at present respecting this pre-Kantian method of speculation, is that there is no room in the soul for separate faculties. It
is
not a complex, but a simple in which nothing but
ideas, their relations,
has only ideas, which are
and interactions exist. The soul its one form of activity;
namely,
its
self-preservation against other reals.
With
HERB ART'S PSYCHOLOGY

this basis,
29
Herbart could confidently declare that his contemporaries had turned psychology into mythology, since they had transformed the various typical
internal states of the
called faculties.
mind
into objective existences

its
In his thought, Olympus with
numerous independent gods became the prototype of the psychology which even to-day colors our educational thinking.
But
it
matters
little
to us,
and
is
of small con-
sequence for the ultimate validity of Herbart's educational notions, whether this supposed universe of
monads, souls included, is a sober reality or a phantasm conjured up by speculation for his system, after
;
depends not upon the constructions of abstract speculation, but upon verifiable facts of experience.
all,
(B.)
Mathematics
Psycho-physics
we can
upon
attribute only psychology and edu-
If to Herbart's metaphysics
indirect or remote influence

cation,
we
are justified in ascribing great fruitfulness
to the remaining phases of his investigation.
As
be-
form psychology anew upon It is to metaplrysics, mathematics, and experience. the second of these that we must now turn.
fore stated, he sought to
Though considered
in
their
primary significance,
ideas are simply passive states, or "self-preservations of the soul," resulting from the influence of other
monads, yet ultimately through their relations to one another these ideas become forces. Some will fuse,
or
coalesce, partially
or
completely;
or
some are
an;
tagonistic,
counteracting
repelling one another
30
some are strong, some weak, and none able to sustain themselves for any considerable length of time in
consciousness.
series
Ideas, moreover, become associated in and complications, so that the strong help the
weak to reproduction, especially when sense-perception acts as a stimulus to ideas that are below the
threshold of consciousness.
From
all
these facts, as
well as from the fact that this mental

sists,
movement
per-
whether we will or not, and largely according to laws over which we have no control, Herbart has a warrant for considering ideas as a system of mental forces, whose statics and dynamics may be subjected,
He ideally at least, to quantitative determination. therefore applies calculus to mental movement and equilibrium, which, if fanciful in itself, has at least
important developments in modern psychophysics and physiological psychology in the hands of such men as Lotze, Fechner, Helmholtz, and Wundt. 1
led to
(C.)
Experience
Apperception
it,
tive
But however important for education the quantitamethod of psychological study may prove to be,
are not
we
'
now
especially concerned with
since the
impulse that Herbart gave to the theory and practice of teaching in Germany has been confined to
specific
the remaining aspect of his psychology
namely, that
which is founded specifically upon experience, and which has been brought under the general term apperception.
1
A concise
account of the development of psychology from the
quantitative standpoint is found in Ribot's German Psychology of To-day. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 18S6.
31
That the assimilative functions of the soul should be the chief study of a psychologist like Herbart is to
be expected.
signed
to
So slight an original equipment
the
preservation
capacity of selfthat the chief source of its activity
soul
merely
is
as-
the
must necessarily be experience.
The
soul becomes
enriched with a content, not through the development of any germ-like faculties, but solely through the growth of the ideas that experience creates within
us.
The attempt of the teacher to train the mind without imparting a thought content is therefore as foolish as was the attempt of the professor in Swift's
bers.
University of Lagado to extract sunshine from cucumThere is no sunshine in cucumbers to extract

;
and even
if
there were,
it
would not repay the labor of

is
it
extraction.
This thought
so subversive of current
educational doctrine, that
may
be worth while to
examine
it it
more
closely in order to see precisely
what
do not object upon occavalidity sion to readjust their thought, but few are willing to destroy an old system merely for the sake of constructdoes have.
ing a
Men
new
one.
To
tions
recognize the importance of Herbart's contributo educational psychology, it is by no means
necessary to accept his metaphysical presuppositions as to the nature and original equipment of the soul.
Because experience
is
supreme, importance in education,
a matter of great, not to say it does not follow
that nothing else is true or important. Locke, indeed, declares that all the furnishing of our minds has its origin in sensation and reflection, which is perfectly
true as to content, but not at all true as to original
32

much
is
constitution, unless
smuggled in under the
the mind no original power of term reflection. to experience, one does not see activity antecedent a camera should not have perceptions as well as a mind has. Here is the dividing line between the
Had
why
investigations of
Kant and Herbart.

field,
Though both
assume to cover the whole

only half.
tion
is
each really covers
Kant's well-known doctrine of appercep-
an investigation into the original constitution His conof the mind, antecedent to all experience. "What mental equipment must be stant query is, presupposed in order that perceiving and thinking " The content and and willing may be possible ?
importance of our perceptions do not enter into his problem. Everything is viewed in its formal aspect,
in its validity as a
law of activity
nothing
is
examined
as to its
concrete worth.
Herbart, on the other hand, neglecting entirely the constitutive equipment of the mind, fixes his attention solely on the
arrest,
production, reproduction, fusion,
and general interaction of ideas. While Kant approaches the study of mind from the critical apriori standpoint, Herbart sees only the concrete a posteriori
/"side.
Apperception with Herbart, therefore,
is
the
by means of ideas already posnot the Kantian original synthesizing power sessed,
assimilation of ideas
of the mind.
So far as the educational value of Herbart's theory of concrete apperception is concerned, it is a matter of
whether we accept his notions or Kant's as to our original mental constitution, for the teacher has no power to create or to destroy these original
indifference
powers
;
33
is
he can merely work with what
given.
He
must, in short, utilize old experience in creating new. His primary function is to impart knowledge in such
can be most rapidly, securely, and profitably assimilated, and this is a problem of concrete apWhether the mind be a germ or a series perception.
way
that
it
of germs to be developed, or whether to be erected, the process is still the

teacher's
it is
a structure
same from the

something of
standpoint.
He must know
the child's previous knowledge and interests in order to utilize them he must select his material of instruc;
tion with respect to ultimate purposes
and the pupil's
comprehending power
he must arrange the subject-
matter not only with respect to the pupil's acquired experience, but also with respect to that which he is
going to acquire, i.e., the studies must be brought into the best coordinate relation to one another and
;
he must adapt his teaching processes so as to secure

the quickest apprehension and the longest retention of the matter taught. All this has to do with the
acquisition of
new experience upon
the basis of that
already acquired.
It matters little, therefore,
whether
with Herbart we conceive the ideas to be psychical forces, or whether we regard the mind itself as a force
or system of forces working upon the ideas as so much The two theories point to the passive raw material.
same
line of practical activities for the teacher.
The
advantage is on the Herbartian side, however, since Kant investigates that over which education has no
control
namely, the original capacities of the mind, whereas Herbart shows how instruction may best supThis is precisely the ply and utilize experience.
;
34
Herein lies the significance of the whole Herbartian school of educational theory and practice. The Herbartians examine all the problems of instruction, school government, and moral
teacher's field of labor.
from the standpoint of a concrete psycholof actual experience. Herbart laid the theoretical ogy
training,
foundations
his followers have been
gaged in constructing
and still are enupon these foundations a selfto limit all
consistent system of educational practice.
Only an
illiberal
mind would pretend
progress along this line to the tenets of Herbart's The point of view is specific system of psychology. alone important and this, ascribed to an indi;
though
Any psychology may put the emphasis upon the processes of knowledge and of character growth, rather than upon logical presuppositions or unfruitful distinctions.
vidual, is necessarily universal.
By doing
this
it
will acquire the essential merits of Herbart's
method,
retaining,
With
in mind,
may be, all of its own specific advantages. this general survey of Herbart's psychology
it
we may turn now
to a
more
specific account
of the doctrine of apperception. Every simple or complex perception
(or sensation)
which enters consciousness through the gates of the senses, acts as a stimulus upon the ideas possessed by
It repels everything contrary to it that be in consciousness, and attracts or recalls all may similar things, which now rise with all their connec-
the mind.
This complex perception (or sensation) invades several other groups or series simultaneously, and thus induces new conditions of fusion or arrest.
tions.
While thus
it
causes a lively
movement
of ideas,
it
35
may
it.
be compared to a light casting
The stimulated mass
its rays all around of ideas raised simultane-
ously
all
be likened to an arched vault extending in upward directions from the centre. As long as
may
this arching continues, the central perception has,
by
virtue of
stimulating power, the controlling influence in consciousness. But the more it checks less
its
similar ideas, which were called up as opposites, the more they recede and allow older, quite similar ideas
and gradually form the apex of the arch; this becomes the more raised or pointed the longer the
to rise,
entire process lasts.
Now when
a fusion takes place
between the new perception (sensation) and the reproduced ideas, which stand high in consciousness, the latter assert and usually maintain a controlling influence, or supremacy.
For, as a general rule, the ideas
coming from within are, by virtue of their established connections, more potent than the single new percept,
especially since the latter diminishes in
power as
its
stimulating effect subsides. The new perception takes the place that its relative importance demands, being made an acquisition of the older series of ideas. In
other words, the new element of knowledge is adjusted into the system of ideas already in the mind, and is
thus assimilated or apperceived. 1
Says Lange: "The same relation presupposed between sensations or percepts and older ideas may be
pp. 256-7 (Boston D. C. Heath This hook, translated by the Herbart Club, contains an excellent exposition of the nature and educational significance of the process of apperception, together with a good historical account
:
Compare Lange's Apperception,
&
Co., 1893).
of the term as used
by Herbart, Lazarus,
Steinthal,
and Wundt.
36
HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS.
repeated between the weaker and the stronger ideas that reproduction brings into consciousness. weaker series of ideas, one that is less deeply rooted within
the whole body of thought,
may
be excited and de-
veloped in its own way in the mind. Through its influence a related mass of thought is stimulating reproduced, i.e., one that is stronger and deeper-lying.
At
first
the former, more active series of ideas presses

its
back the second series with reference to

elements.
opposing
This second series
is
thus brought to a
tension and presses up all the more powerfully. Now it determines the first series in accordance with
its
own
form, holding
it
it
by
its
similar and fusing ele*
ments, repelling
at other points."
Herbart develops these ideas at length, and shows moreover the conditions under which apperception
most readily takes place. His thought has been much extended and freed from contradictions by his succesLazarus sors, notably Lazarus, Steinthal, and Wundt.
calls attention to the importance, for apperception, of
we may for the time be unconscious, as well as of feelings, interests, affections, words, and In doing this he offers a valuable addition volitions.
ideas of which
to Herbart's contributions; "for, the forces that in the act of apperceiving awaken and guide the masses of ideas are the secret powers of the emotional soul
;
to understand
them means
to recognize the deepest
motives and causes of apperception." 2 Steinthal further develops the theme, classifying the various types of apperception as follows 3
:
Lange's Apperception,
Ibid. pp. 271, 272.
p. 257.
2 Ibid. p. 268.
"
37
1. If the object and subject of apperception are perfectly alike, that is, if the impression corresponds to a picture in the memory, both will be fused, not
only with reference to the cognition, but also with reference to the conditions of the mind under which
the process takes place.
ception.
This
is
identifying apper-
"2. While at times individual things are apperceived by individual ideas, at other times the individual is acquired by the general, the idea of a single being by the idea of the species, the idea of the species by the
class, order,
and so
on.
This classifying or subsuming

all classifying
apperception embraces
all
proving and inferring,
all
aesthetic
and arranging, and ethical
judgment. "3. Often a definite fact

certain ideas
may
be classified
among
incapable of harmonizing it with related groups of thoughts that are the seat of
is
when one
and
lively emotions
desires.
When,
for instance, a
person whom we have loved dies, we understand the event well enough but we cannot reconcile ourselves with it, cannot bring it into harmony with the con;
that is, we cannot apperceive it. an adjustment takes place between the opposing groups of ideas, it is not a case of subordination or superiority, but a case of coordination of ideas
dition of the soul
;
When
at last
that
the proper relation is found between coordinate ideas or such as belong to different classes. This
is,
the object of harmonizing apperception. "4. The creative or formative apperception, finally, is found in all those combinations on which the progress of science is based, in the creations of our
is
38
poets and artists, in the thinking process of induction and deduction, in the guessing of riddles, but
also in illusions
characteristic
and hallucinations. There is one which is peculiarly its own; namely,

it
that in every case

factor."
first
creates the
apperceiving
Wundt's
specific
is
/ Apperception
Since there
in
contribution to the subject of showing the function of the will

this account of
in this activity.
is
no need of confining
the initial
Apperception
to
contribution
made by
Herbart, the following general summary of the pres' ent status of the subject will be in place (1) The
:
original, inherent power of rethe physical stimulus that comes to it acting against through the medium of the senses, else we should
mind must possess an
never have any experience at
all.
is,
The
result of this reaction
ultimately, the pro-
duction of ideas.
Wundt
it is
calls this original reacting
power the
manifest
will
since
the function of the will to
its
activity in the realm of ideas, the outeffort
wardly directed physical

ing index.
Hence we may say
being an accompanythat, in order for
knowledge to get a start, the self, in conformity to the will, becomes a necessary element in every sensation, so that if asked, What is a sensation apart from all apperception ? we should be compelled to
answer, Nothing at all for consciousness, since without apperception we should never have a sensation.
This
first volitional
response of the mind to outward

Boston
:
1 Compare the author's Essentials of Method. Heath & Co., 1893, pp. 34-36.
D. C.
physical
initial
39
stimuli
resulting in sensations
coming through the senses, and and ideas, is the primary or

It is
form of
no
apperception.
such because
it
involves
previous
knowledge.
The phase
of
apperception most important in education, however, involves knowledge, and may, therefore, be termed
the cognitive apperception. (2) To have sensations and ideas, however, is to have what we call consciousness. This may be viewed
two ways. Comparing it figuratively with the image formed upon the retina of the eye in vision, we may
in
first, the whole field of illumination, and the central focus of light, from which the illusecond, mination rapidly diminishes to the periphery of the
distinguish,
image. If we call all activity within the field of consciousness perception, then the activity within the focus
of consciousness, or the point of greatest clearness, may be distinguished by the name apperception. (3) The elements of mental life, as they are pre-
sented by the senses, have a varying value in consciousness, those of most subjective worth coming into the focus, and others remaining in outlying portions of the field.
The primal
activity of the
mind
in responding to these stimuli has been called the will, so that the ideas that get into the focus of
consciousness
worth to the
must have the greatest momentary will. But that which has value in
is a motive, so that we may speak of the soliciting power that an idea has for the will This changes from moment to as its motive value.
relation to the will
moment and from

of the mind.
What
stage to stage in the development is a strong motive to us at one
40
time or in one condition ceases to be such at another 1 time, or when the state of the mind has changed.
It is because the original activity of the mind in its response to sense stimuli is conceived as will,
(4)
that
idea proper to regard the worth that each mind as a motive value. This value is to has for the
it is
be expressed in terms of feeling, whether having its origin in the body or in the contemplation of To have the motive intellectual or moral truths.
value arising from perceived knowledge relations, an idea must enter the field of consciousness, when it may be quickly elevated into the focus, provided it
This will depend, possesses enough motive value. not so much upon its actual value considered in itself, the subjective worth it has for a mind that as
upon
to alterconstantly changing its tone in obedience content of consciousness. say, in general, may ing that the motive value of an idea at any given time will depend upon the worth the idea appears to have
is
We
It may range from for the well-being of the self. the satisfaction of the simplest physical want arising from the bodily organism, up to the realization of the
of intelimpulses of the self in the loftiest realms

lectual
(5)
and moral
life.
Though the mind through
its
will
activity
Herbart would say) (power of "self-preservation," creates ideas, it does so in obedience to stimuli comthis ing from sources independent of itself. On account the original content of mental life depends
1 That this view of the will is not Herhart's, will be seen later in the present chapter. It is by no means the Kantian conception, however, since it is primarily determined by ideas.
in large degree
41
upon causes over which, the mind has
no control, but it may be said that all ideas have been more or less perfectly apperceived before they are recognized as old and familiar. Recurring ideas
that have been apperceived are recognized as such, and no longer command the attention necessary to
bring them to the focus of consciousness, unless they possess a motive value sufficient to call for a more
complete apperception.
constitute the
They,
it
may
be said, usually
main body of ideas in the field of consciousness they are perceptions which may, however, be called into the focus at any moment. (6) New ideas entering consciousness, whether occa-
sioned by physical or psychical processes, usually possess a sufficient motive value to raise them into the
They can obtain significance, when they are consciously related to however, only
apperceiving centre.
other ideas.
In order to establish these relations, the
in the focus of its attention, not only the newly entering idea, but also those to which it is The impossibility of holding one of to be related.
mind must hold
two related ideas in the focus of consciousness, and

keeping the other in the background at the moment of establishing the relation, seems to substantiate this
may say, therefore, that in an ordinary act of apperception the mind holds under the focus of its attention, not only the new notion, but also the other
view.
ideas to
We
which
it
must be related
in order to
have
significance.
One
of the most distinctive features of recent Heris
bartian thought
that all instruction, even in what
42

regard as non-moral subjects, such
as
science,
we
mathematics, linguistics, profane history, and literature, should tend directly and powerfully to the formation of moral, not to say religious, character. If this
view has more than a sentimental validity, it is worthy of the most serious attention for it is evident to
;
every thoughtful man that our public schools have been intellectualized beyond what is best for the in-
and the general moral welfare. In our anxbecome sectarianized we have allowed them to become secularized to an
dividual,
iety that the schools should not
unwarrantable extent.
'
Nothing, therefore, could be to the friends of public education, than a system of school training that will tend strongly to
more welcome
to conflicting religious doctrines.
develop the moral character, without having recourse Such a system, the
offer.
Herbartians claim to
to
It
remains for us briefly
examine
A
is
psychological basis. logical consequence of our "faculty" psychology the notion that the will is potentially free, that
its
any man can do as he pleases irrespective of circumstances and education. This is a convenient doctrine
while we are administering a criminal code, but it is not stimulating to the teacher, either as an inducement to try to educate a child into goodness, or as an indication of his ability to do so. The first arraign'
nient that Herbart
makes
is
transcendental freedom,
that a will which
of Kant's intelligible or is inde-
pendent of experience except in capacity to control If we will, we will experience, cannot be educated.
;
if
we
won't,
matter.
we won't and that is an end of the whole The Bible injunction, "Train up a child in
;

the
43
go, and when he is old he will not from it," has no applicability to a will that depart sits serene and high above the influences of space and
way he should
Transcendental or original and absolute freeis accordingly inconsistent with the idea of moral education.
time.
dom
of will
Here again we must assume the judicial attitude and inquire into the validity of these notions. While Kant, on the one hand, was so busied with a priori
this
phase of mind that he took no time to show how potential moral freedom might become actual
through experience, or to distinguish sufficiently between the mechanical freedom of caprice (which in the end is no freedom at all) and that rational freedom which is founded on the highest morality so Herbart, on the other, hampered perhaps by his meta;
physical presuppositions, and engrossed with the a posteriori, or practical, side of the problem, emphasizes solely the
development of character through the
concrete growth of knowledge and ideals. This again is the domain of the teacher for no more in char;
acter than in intellect does he

original powers of the soul
:
make
or
unmake the
through ideas.
lute
It
is,
he can only develop ideals therefore, a matter of indiffer-
ence to the teacher whether the mind has this absothe same education.
freedom or not, since in either event it must have Again Herbart has the advanhe deals with
tage, as in the intellectual realm, for character as a growth.
Since, according to Herbart, the soul possesses nothing but ideas, it became necessary for him to explain
those states which
we
call feeling, desire,
and
voli-
44

any innate mental machinery. from the relation of
tion without the aid of
Feeling
ideas.
is
represented as arising
"A feeling is the consciousness of a furtheror an arrest of the movement of thought when ing
:
a furthering, a feeling of pleasure when an arrest, a The life of the soul is one of ideas feeling of pain.
;
every furthering of them is at the same time a promotion of the life activity of the mind every arrest of ideas is also an arrest of soul life." 1
;
" Desire
is
to bring about
ent.
It is
;
mind which strives mind not now presalways directed toward some particular
in general a state of
some other
state of
object but of course only the idea of the object, not the object itself, can penetrate to consciousness not for instance, but the idea of undisturbed possesgold,
sion
thirst.
not the water, but the sensation of satisfied Yet the idea of the object is already in con-
sciousness
when
desired.
He who
quenching power
the pleasure of
of water, or
does not know the who cannot imagine

it.
its possession,
would never desire
Before possession, the idea is arrested, afterward it is freed from arrest. Impulse strives, therefore, to shake
off
the undesirable state of arrest from the idea of
the desired object, and to exchange this state for that of freedom from arrest in order to be complete master of the object so far as can be through the medium
of ideas." " But
faction.
2
desire, in accordance
with
its idea,
seeks satis-
If this appears impossible, the impulse re;
mains mere wish, and has no further significance

1
but
Co.,
Lindner, Empirical Psychology (Boston: D. C. Heath

2
&
1889), p. 170.
Lindner, Ibid.
p. 213.
if to
46
in the attain-
the desire there
is
added a belief
ability of the desired object, the desire passes into An object will and reveals itself in action and deeds. of desire is attainable when it appears as the final
member
of a series of changes
effect,
which are related
as
cause and
the
first
member
ceeding from the ego that wills. series comes to the support of any desire, the desire is transformed into will; the object is not only desired,
it is
of the series proIf such a causal
willed.
Will means, then, the desire for a certain

certainty, or at
least a
belief in the
result
and the
The impossible certainty, of its attainment. willed as soon as it appears to us as possible

;
may
be
and for
the same reason
we may
which
really are lacking in insight as to ways and means of reaching it. The clearer the insight as to the attainability
is
possible and
desire without willing that practicable, so long as we
of an object, the more conscious a man is that he can 1 attain what he desires, the stronger his will is." According to this view our will activities are the
natural accompaniments and logical conclusions of our thinking i.e., they result from the content and rela;
tions of our ideas.
Character-building is will-training, Reversthe apperception of ideas. the order, the teacher imparts ideas in such order ing and manner as to secure their proper apperception;
and this in turn
is
also
so that transient and permanent desires shall awaken from them, which in turn seek their satisThe quesfaction in the deeds arising from volition.
tion of absolute freedom
is
one of metaphysics, not
Lindner, Empirical Psychology, pp. 238, 239.
46
of pedagogics. The teacher is concerned alone with that psychological freedom whose development he can direct and stimulate, if not actually determine. Fur-
thermore, since the great mass of volitions that man has occasion to execute pertain to his relations to nature and his fellow-men both as individuals and
as organized in institutions, it follows that these volitions arise naturally from the ideas that the school imparts, such as those pertaining to science, history,
literature, civil
government, and economics.
All that
need be
the cultivation of adequate emotional and intellectual attitude towards specific

is
left to the
Church
systems of religious doctrine.

will
Subsequent chapters
show the direction along which the followers
of Herbart have sought to make all the activities of the schoolroom focus in the development of moral
character.
CHAPTER IV
HERBART'S ETHICS A GUIDE TO EDUCATIONAL ENDS
The mere
in a
exposition of a system of ethics might,
of this sort, prove to be of small interest, yet so great is the emphasis laid upon this department of philosophy as a guide to teaching, not only
work
by Herbart, but by all his adherents, that any account of his educational contributions would be very defective were the subject passed over in silence. idea that the deeper purpose of education is
The
the
development of moral character rather than intellectual acumen is by no means new. Centuries ago Socrates maintained the teachableness of virtue, claiming
that right doing
is the necessary result of complete knowing. As we have seen in the preceding chapter, Herbart finds the roots of volition in the ideas arising from the various sources of experience. Moral insight
gained from a moral revelation of the world as

effected, partly
it is
through home experience, but chiefly school instruction, may easily pass into moral through
ideas through cultivation of a right spirit or disposition. By means of careful oversight and discipline tempered by love, moral ideals may become permanent
47
48
rules of action through the formation of reliable moral
That is to say, moral character is a growth from the soil of experience as gained through arising knowledge and social intercourse, not a mystical fachabits.
ulty born in us.
In order, therefore, to develop moral ideals and to transform them into rules of life through a moral revelation of the world, the teacher must have a clear
consciousness of the fundamental ethical ideas, or
moral principles, that find their embodiment in conduct.
at moral
Herbart's theory of the manner in which we arrive judgments may or may not satisfy the mind
;
of the student
yet this
is
a matter of small conse-
arrive at substantially quence, for all ethical systems the same rules of life, however varied the derivation
The important thing for of these principles may be. the teacher is to see how these ethical results can be
utilized in education to secure
moral insight and disthe solution of this problem Herbart position. makes the following contribution Feelings are states of the mind arising from the
To
relations of ideas.
Certain harmonious relations give
rise to inevitable feelings of pleasure,
and their oppo-
sites give us equally inevitable feelings of displeasure
From this fact our moral judgments arise, or pain. as our judgments of harmony or discord in music just do not ask why a certain combination of arise.
We
tones pleases
we decide that it does. In the same manner we condemn a discord. Morality necessarily
;
has to do with the

bad.
will, since only this can be good or Herbart addressed himself to the task of mak-
HERBART'S ETHICS
49
ing a final reduction of all possible will relations, in order thus to arrive at the irreducible moral or ethi-
In this way he arrived at five moral two of which are formal in their nature, and ideas, Each of the ideas is valid in its indithree concrete. vidual and in its institutional aspects that is, between man and man and between the individual and the
cal conceptions.
;
organized groups of society, such as the family, the school, the civil community, the state or nation, and
the cooperative groups of business. detail are as follows
:
The
ideas
in
1.
The Idea of Inner Freedom
This idea arises from an inner relation between our

is right or wrong; between volition and ideas. It is founded on is, If the two the pleasure arising from inner harmony. are in accord, then the mind is at peace with itself,
deeds and our insight as to what
that
man who has deliberthe conscience approves. acted in accordance with his firm belief as to ately
His is right is internally or subjectively free. conscience approves, and he is at peace with himself, even though at war with others. The teacher rightly
what
tries to cultivate the conscientious spirit,
but
it is
no
less his
duty to inform the understanding as to the moral relations that are valid in the world, and to
enlist
the interests and affections of
the
mind
in
their behalf.
2.
The Idea of Efficiency of Will

is formal, but of great consequence. a certain positive force of determina-
This idea also

It implies,
first,
50
and vigor of execution. Everybody knows what weak will is, and how hopeless is the case of a man who cannot be counted upon to reduce his good resolutions to practice. The efficient will is the strong will. But it is more. It must, also, be reasonably concentrated in its action that is, it must make all its efforts work together for the accomplishment of
tion
leading purposes. All this, however, is purely formal, and holds of evil as well as of good men. No man
can be positively bad whose will

concentrated.
is
not strong and
truly efficient will, however, must be consistent in its main lines of action, and to be
must be right; for deeds that are consisare wholly self-destructive in the end, whilst there can be no idea of really efficient voliconsistent
it
tently evil
tional
life where one action contradicts its fellow, must be the case where one's deeds are partly It appears to follow, thereright and partly wrong.
as
be truly efficient one's will must be strong, concentrated, and consistent with the real ethical order of the world. But even granting that
fore, that
to
a will cannot be
the fact
still
efficient that is
not rightly directed,
remains that this principle is purely since it throws no light on what is right or formal,
wrong.
The
basis of this
idea
is
the pleasure
we
have in the perfection of power.
3.
The Idea of Good-will
It is the natural impulse of each individual to make himself the end and center of all that he comes in
contact with, to
make himself the master
to
which
HERBARTS ETHICS
everything else must be subordinate.
51
This
is
a nat-
ural impulse, because each self is in reality the center to which all its own mental experiences must be
But this same experience soon teaches him that there are other selves with claims equal to his
related.
own, and that if he would have his own selfhood reThere thus spected, he must respect that of others.
arises practically in the
world the idea that ChrisIt is that state of
mind in which the validity of a foreign ego is recognized, or in which the good of another is willed as if for self. Its opposite is ill-will, a feeling whose impulse is to Goodinjure or destroy or subordinate a foreign ego.
tianity calls Good-will.
will is the
key
to a long list of virtues,
such as kind-
ness, benevolence, charity, fidelity, goodness, generoswhile its opposite, ill-will, gives rise to an equally ity
;
extended
list
of
faults.
Exercise of the virtues of
good-will pleases us unconditionally, while a manifestation of their opposite meets our unquestioning dis-
approbation.
4.
The Idea of
The idea
is
Justice, or Prevention of Strife
contention.
It
founded on our natural displeasure in comes to light when two individuals
strive for the possession of that which, in the nature of the case, only one of them can have. It is the idea of rights, which lies at the basis of most of our laws
tem
large part of the judicial sysof every country is devoted to the securing of justice in the acquisition, possession, and disposition of wealth.
regarding property.
52

5.
The Idea of Equity or Kequital
This idea arises whenever existing will-relations are It is the notion of realtered either for good or bad. for good or bad actions, and it demands that quital
the requital shall be adequate to the deed. This idea is the basis of the system of rewards, and especially of punishments, that society has gradually evolved.
Institutionalism takes the requital of evil deeds out of
the hands of the injured person, and places it in those The effect is to ward off from others the of the state.
blow of the evil-doer, making it return upon his own head. This conception is expressed in Michael Angelo's Last Judgment, where each shows by his looks
that he
is
but facing the result of his
own
deeds,
which carry their own requital with them. Such, Herbart thought, are the root-ideas of moral It is the business of education to keep them in life.
touch with instruction throughout
its course, to
make
disci-
them the guide
to social intercourse,
and the
plinary requirements of the school. In this way the child may reap the benefit of the accumulated experi-
ence of the past, just as he inherits the wealth stored up by his immediate ancestors. In the impressionable years of childhood and youth, while the heart is tender, the imagination vivid, and the apprehension
quick,
it is
possible so to enlist these faculties that
the moral victory may be won before the real battle is We do not hesitate to have the child enter fought.
into the inheritance that the past has left us in knowlNo child is asked to start a thousand years edge.
behind his time in any great
field of
human
endeavor.
HERB ART'S ETHICS
53
Our children now accept the electric light as freely as our grandfathers did the oil lamp or the tallow candle. The -same is true in every realm of science and practiWe seize the advantage gained, and go on cal life.
to
new
conquests.
?
moral world
Why should it be otherwise Why may not the bitter lessons
in the
of the
be turned past in the struggle with ethical principles as fully to account as the results in the intellectquite
ual world ?
What
a weary round of scourgings the
race has gone through to arrive at its present state of The child is and moral freedom material,
political,
!
experiences before him. Must he, for want of proper education, retrace the do not ask it thorny path of his forefathers ?
born now, as ever, with
all his
We
with regard to his material or intellectual welfare. Why should we with the moral ?
Not only do the

institutional
five ethical ideas pertain to individ-
uals as such, but as
we have seen they have

Thus the
fifth
also an
bearing. of rewards of equity, gives rise in society to a system a negative kind that is, punishments for the disturb;
idea, that of
ance of ethical balance.
If a rich
man
offers the life-
guard a nickel for rescuing him from the ocean breakers, our moral sense is outraged, but the law but if one person defrauds another inflicts no penalty
;
of property or of some personal right legally his due, then the laAV prescribes penalties. On behalf of the
idea, Justice, society institutes a legal code, together
with a legal machinery for the hindrance of strife. The business of the lawyer should be as much the prevention of contention as the establishment of equity. Furthermore, in order to realize the idea of Good-will
54
in its institutional aspects, society organizes a system of administration aimed at the greatest possible good of all. To make all wills efficient so far as may be, soci-
ety sustains a system of culture in its schools, colleges, and universities aimed at the greatest possible power and efficiency. Finally, the idea of inner freedom in the large sense involves the conception of the state as a personality having a volition, or power of acting, and a constitution, together with its accompanying
statutes.
As an
its
individual, the state

;
is
free
when
its
laws are in harmony progress is secured by the gradual change of fundamental or statute
actions
and
law through
legislation.
When
the legal status of
the nation collides with the ethical ideas that rule

the individual (slavery, for instance, compelled men to refrain from natural impulses of good-will, as in obeying the fugitive slave law), then a conflict arises
between the conscience of the individual and the constitution of the state. This discord continues until
the conscience
is
seared or the constitution altered.
Grasping the ideas together in their individual and in their institutional bearings, we have for the individual the conception of virtue. Virtue, therefore, involves goodness, clear conscience, efficiency of will,
and equity in private and in public life. There is a double reason why Herbart's thought of moral training is important for us. In the first place,
justice
the public schools are debarred from any sectarian use of the Bible as well as from all religious ceremonial,
because of
for
the simple fact that these

It
is,
schools
are
for all sects.
therefore, practically impossible
them
to
make
distinctively religious doctrine the
HERBART'S ETHICS
basis of their moral training,
55
however desirable such
In the next place, it a procedure may be recognized that the moral problem in its should
be deemed.
The Golden concrete filling changes from age to age. Kule has indeed eternal validity, but the deeds that I
would that
my
neighbor should do to
me
differ
with
the changing ideals of different ages. Furthermore, ideals of morality arising from the relations of individuals to society as grouped into
civil, social,
educa-
tional, charitable, and family organizations are subIn ancient Greece, moral ject to still wider variations. were focussed about the art ideal. In conceptions
Rome, the boys were taught to swim (that the Eoman armies might not be stopped by rivers) and to know the Thus virtue was first aesthetic, then table of the laws. and civil in its essence. During the Middle military
Ages,
when
the Church
was both the
spiritual
and the
temporal power that ruled the world, morality neceshence obedience sarily fused with the religious idea,
to
church authority and strict conformity to her ordained ceremonial was naturally esteemed the basis of moral character. In our own age, however, science
and political evolution have changed the point of view. In theory, at least, every individual has political freedom and equality. All are alike in the liberty to influence the social, educational, economic, and politScience has at the same ical policy of the nation.
time made
it
much
better.
live possible for many more people to Not only are larger populations now
medical science enable possible, but public hygiene and even the feeble to survive civil equality has raised
;
the
demand
for universal education, and this in turn
66

the ideals of the people as to what belongs of a high standard of life human existence
leisure.
lifts
decent shelter and clothing good, wholesome food

right to
and some
The scholar has long been

leisure to
able to
make
his recreations conduce to the vigor of his
body
the laborer
now demands
make
his recreations
contribute to the cultivation of his mind.

therefore, of the fact that there is
In
spite,
much
in morality
that
is
ually changing,
unchanging and eternal, the emphasis, perpetis now economic, social, and civil, as it
aesthetic,
was once
Who
that contemplates
then military, then ecclesiastical. modern society with its few

its
masters and
many men,
concentration of capital
strikes, its
and division of
labor, its
lockouts, its
bloody encounters, and its systems of arbitrations, can doubt that the institutional phases of morality are Universal different from what they were in the past ?
has also brought new problems, which our great cities are sharply accented, while the advancing moral sense of the people reveals in new light the bane of intemperance and social impurity.
political liberty
in
With
this prohibition of the use of religious doctrine
as the basis of moral teaching, on the one hand, and the growing importance of what we may term public
or institutional morality on the other, we may the more warmly welcome the thought of Herbart that
school
discipline
if
and
instruction
in
the
common
branches,
ideas,
illumined
by the
fundamental moral
may be the adequate means for developing moral character. The thought that there may thus be a moral revelation of the world to the child through discipline and instruction in the school will be more
fully exemplified in subsequent chapters.
CHAPTER V
THE DOCTRINE OF INTEREST ITS BEARING UPON
KNOWLEDGE AND VOLITION
A complete chapter on the subject of Interest would be an exposition of the greater part of HerIndeed, the caption theory of instruction. Many-sided Interest is used throughout his discussion Ziller in his Grundlegung devotes of that topic. two hundred and nine pages to an elaboration of the
bart's
All Herbartian educational significance of the idea. writers attach great importance to the subject, for
now be briefly stated. The Herbartian psychology rejects as a pure myth the idea that there is in the human mind any independent, or transcendental, faculty whose function is to will, and which is free in the sense that it can
reasons which will
originate actions that are independent of all ideas or On the contrary, with Herbart's of thought processes. a system, volition is strictly dependent upon ideas,
product of them either as they originally appeared in the mind, or as they have come to be through Ideas become repeated returns to consciousness.
adjusted into apperceiving masses, with which are
associated interests, desires, and volitions.
57
volition
58
therefore only an idea which has passed through a complete development, of which interest is an essential stage. That being the case, it becomes of the
is
greatest importance that the child should conceive an

inherent, abiding, and growing interest in the subjectmatter through which instruction is expected to fur-
nish a moral revelation of the world.
Unless the
teacher can succeed in exciting such an interest, he cannot make knowledge yield more than an intellectual theoretical
better than none.
The teacher
morality, which is perhaps little desires that ideas of

;
virtue should develop into ideals of conduct
that the heart will be
warmed
is
for these ideals
he hopes but of
;
small prospect so long as the child regards the content of his studies with Instruction indifference, it may be with aversion.
cannot,
mission.
therefore, of
such a consummation there
upon forms
remain a dry, perfunctory drill knowledge and accomplish its highest
We
;
see
now why
all
Herbartians make so
of apperception, or the assimilation of ideas through ideas why they insist that the subject-matter
shall be selected, arranged, articulated, and presented in strict accordance with the stores and processes of
much
the children's minds.

rich in
Only in this way can knowledge become meaning to the pupil, revealing relations to life and conduct. ever-widening
We
means
often conceive of interest in stndy merely as a for securing attention to lessons, hoping that
the knowledge will remain after the interest has departed; whereas, the other conception is that
through a proper presentation of the right amount of knowledge in the best manner and at the right time,
THE DOCTRINE OF INTEREST

we may
incite
59
an interest that will abide even after
the knowledge has faded from the mind. Each of these conceptions of interest has a certain validity, but the latter goes much deeper; it is one of the
abiding results that
instruction
should reach.
harmoniously developed, many-sided interest of this sort is, on the one hand, a sort of graduated scale by
which we may measure the success of our efforts as educational artists and, on the other, the grand
;
stage in the formation of moral character through the development of ideals, the cultivation of
initial
moral disposition, and the acquisition of moral habits.
We
see
new reason
for rejecting the
doctrine of
formal culture of the mind as a desirable educational

process.
The moral world
is
not
fully
revealed
through language and mathemetics, even when these

are as concrete as possible,
much
less
when they
1
are
formal and abstract.
The following quotation from Kern

interest
is
shows that
regarded, not alone from the standpoint of temporary expediency, but from that of its bearing " In a upon the future of the individual many-sided
:
the pupil should find a moral support and protection against the servitude that springs from the rule of desire and passion. It should protect
interest
him from the

ness
;
errors that are the consequence of idleshould arm him against the fitful chances of fortune it should make life again valuable and
it
;
desirable even
its
when
a cruel fate has robbed

;
it
of
most cherished object

1
it
should enable one to find
Kern, Grundriss der PUdagogik,
12.
60
HERB ART AND THE HERBARTIANS

new
calling
when driven from
the old
it
should
elevate
goods and successes of earthly striving appear as accidental, by which his real self is not affected, and above which the moral character stands free and sublime."
him
to a
standpoint from which the
k/
That the subject of interest should be regarded Herbart divided the various kinds of interests into two groups or classes namely, (a) interests arising from knowledge, and (6) interests arising from intercourse with others, as in the family,
specifically also,
;
the school, the church, the civil community, society.
(A.)
Interests from
Knowledge
we may
dis-
Of
1.
interest as related to knowledge,

:
tinguish the following phases

in the
The empirical interest, or the pleasure excited mind by the changes and novelty that arise
Wonder
from a presentation of the manifold and variegated. is one of its manifestations, and is, as Plato
long ago told
The exciting
beginning
us, the starting-point of knowledge. of empirical interest is, therefore, the it explains of education many of the
;
devices of the kindergarten, and most of the concrete large part objective work of the primary school. of the devices regarded as methods of teaching are
invented
to
children until
catch the wandering attention of the it can be fixed on more serious things.
are
These
devices
perfectly
legitimate,
and even
necessary,
become
unless, passing their proper limit, they One sometimes hysterical or sensational.
finds schools in
which the children
will ignore every-
61
attention, these.
thing but the most dramatic efforts to attract their and will give but transient heed even to
That every earnest purpose of education
is
thereby destroyed at least for the time being is selfevident.

2. The speculative interest, or the search for the causal connection of things to which the dark, or 1 " He problematical, or mysterious impels the mind.
who rejoices upon looking into the starry heavens has the empirical interest lie who reflects upon the conditions of stellar origin has the speculative inter;
est."
It is the speculative interest to which we apwhen we teach pupils to perceive the reasons of peal things when we lead them to look beyond the facts to the laws that unify them, and make them appear
;
in their rational connection.
This interest
is
of the
utmost importance for education. Its beginnings are found in very young children, and not until a mind has become atrophied by age or occupation or bad
teaching does
lectual life.
it
'
cease to be the mainspring of intelSo long as spontaneity remains, the
causal and other rational relations of things will be It is in the discovering of these relations sought.
that thinking chiefly consists. It needs no argument, therefore, to demonstrate that an interest so vital to
mental vigor should be developed to the fullest extent by the teacher. The man is intellectually dead
whose mind
gation,
all
1
is
who
like the stolid
not continually challenged to investiox plods on, unmindful of
that does not promise to minister directly to his

Ufer, Introduction to the Pedagogy of Herbart, translated Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1894.
by
J. C. Zinser.
62
physical profit.
How
can a
man
be a good citizen
cares nothing for the causes that produce misrule in the land? How can he be a useful brother
who
who
cares nothing for the social and economic forces
that produce weal or woe to his fellows ? What to him are railroads, steamships, telegraphs, newspapers, and all the great instruments of industry, if
he
is
their function ?
not stimulated by their presence to investigate The Macbeths of the mind are those
who
all
causes.
knowledge of origin and speculative interest is the gateway to progress that rests on the apprehension of logical
silence its cry for the
The
relations.
3.
The
aesthetic interest, or that
which
is
aroused
not by the manifoldness and variety of things or their causal relations, but the contemplation of an ideal
through a sense medium,

ter
as, for instance,
the charac-
of
Moses
(an ideal)
through Michael Angelo's
him (made of marble). It is the interest aroused by the beautiful in nature, in art, or in morals. In the case of moral beauty, an ideal is
statue of
not through stone or canvas, but by means of conduct action. This interest a passionate one with most persons of some races, and with some persons among all races is often neglected
manifested,
through contempt for its utility or fear of its influence. That art has sometimes been debased to
ignoble uses is no more an argument for its neglect, than the fact that religion has often been used
to
inflame hatred
is
a reason for
its
abandonment.
soul has a right to symmetrical development; but this it cannot have if a part of its natural inter-
The

ests
63
are ignored. It must therefore be asserted, in of Puritan teaching to the contrary, that the spite aesthetic sense of the children must be cultivated as
much pure joy. The time should come when even the artisan will be an artist in his work, when beauty will be everywhere a sweetener of life. To these ends, as well as to the idea of beauty as an
the source of
end
in itself, the teacher
must turn a part of
his
attention.
(B.)
Interests arising from Association with
Others
Of the
1.
interests arising
from human
:
following points
may
be distinguished
interest,
relations, the
The
sympathetic
or
that which
is
aroused by the joy or sorrow of others. The cultivation of this species of interest should begin in
the family, though as a matter of fact it is very frequently repressed by a collision of selfish wills, giving rise to
all sorts
of bickerings
and petty heart-
It often happens, therefore, that children burnings. first learn in the kindergarten what satisfaction there
is
in the
spirit of cooperation.
Miss Harrison of
Chicago relates an incident of a pretty young miss who came to the kindergarten dressed in silks and
spangles.
girls
The children began a play

to represent the
in
which the
were
housewives and the boys
the out-of-door laborers.
When the part of preparing dinner for Tommy came to the new pupil, she flung herself into a chair with many airs, saying,
"My mamma
the servants."
doesn't get dinner; she leaves that for "Very well," said the teacher, "we
64
The play went on with will excuse you, if you like." much pleasure to all except the little girl in silks, who sat debarred from all the fun. The next day
she dismissed her foolish pride, and, after that, entered heartily into all the occupations of the kinderThe school, too, has constant opportunity to garten.
develop the spirit of brotherly kindness, ideally in such studies as literature, history, zoology; really in
the daily intercourse of the pupils. If this feeling of individual sympathy
is
extended
by a knowledge of the wider relations of society into feelings respecting the welfare of large numbers, we
have
2.
:
The
social interest.
It is in laying the founda-
tions for this species of interest that the kindergarten

is
Its games, plays, songs, occupations, preeminent. the cooperation of all the members, are involving
an ideal epitome of
form.
social cooperation in its highest
The school should continue
to
develop the
for spirit so admirably generated in the kindergarten, out of these beginnings grow the great institutional
interests
of
the Anglo-Saxon race.
It
lies
at
the
basis of public spirit, charity, public reform, patriotism, commercial reciprocity, and their kindred virtues.
The studies that give preeminent opportunity for the development of this interest are literature, civics,
and commercial geography.
This last study, more than any other, reveals to the child his
own
present
and possible future relation to the business world. Even the barefooted urchin of the country crossroads
may
into
be led to see that his parents cast their mite the world's commerce to have it returned to
THE DOCTRINE OP INTEREST

them, not after
magnified.
65
many
The heart
days, but at once, enriched and of the youth is fired as he
beholds the possibilities of a life of cooperative harmony with others he sees the possibilities of his own worth enhanced a thousand fold, his petty self;
hood
infinitely enlarged, his dignity exalted, through the reinforcement that the race brings to him when
he learns the supreme lesson of

through service to his fellow-man.
3.
serving
himself
The
religious interest.
This interest
may
be to
considerable extent awakened in the school, even when not a word is said about the subject in the form of " When interest is direct instruction. As Ufer
says,
directed to the history and destiny of mankind, when it is as clear to the understanding as to the feelings
that the ordering of the history of

fore, the history of
man
involves somethat, therelie
thing more than mere human power, and
each individual does not
entirely
in his
own
l
hands, then fear and hope gather in the

is
heart."
The foregoing exposition
designed to show that
Herbart meant by interest something of vast importance to the development of the individual, not a mere tickling of the mind for transient ends. In the words of Staude, " Interest is the light with which
Herbart has once for
all
brought the dark and tortuIt

in-
ous course of didactics into the clearness of day. is the charmed word which alone gives power to
struction to
it
call
the
spirit
of
youth and
to
make
serve the
1
aim of the master.

to the
It is the lever of
Ufer, Introduction
Pedagogy of Herbart.
66
education, which, lightly and joyfully moved by the teacher, can alone bring the youthful will into the desired activity and direction." 1
1
Dr. R. Staude, Piidagogische Studien, Hrsg. von
W.
Rein, Heft
II.
CHAPTER
VI
INSTRUCTION ITS MATERIALS, COURSE, AND METHOD

1.
Materials of Instruction
The
materials of instruction are the literature and
science that constitute
human knowledge.
It
is
to
Herbart's successors that one must look for detailed

directions for the selection
and articulation of the
Herbart himself dissubject-matter of instruction. cussed these topics for the most part in principle Of literature and history he says, " Periods only.
which no master has described, whose
spirit
l
breathes, are of little value to education."
no poet Guided
by the doctrine of apperception as an index to the child's natural interests, he insisted that Greek should come before Latin. He found his boys ready and
eager to read the Odyssey at a period at which Latin
was highly distasteful
to them.
The following
testi:
mony
" I
as to his
am
gives his point of view indebted to the Odyssey for one of the hap-
own experience
piest experiences of my life, and in a great degree for my love of education. This experience did not teach me the motive that I saw before, clearly enough to
;
Herbart, Science of Education, Felkins' translation,
p. 74.
67
68
begin
my work
as a teacher
by allowing two boys, one
nine, the other not yet eight years old, to lay their
Eutropius aside, and requiring from them Greek instead, even Homer at once, without any so-called
preparation by the hotch-potch of text-books. I erred in keeping far too closely to the routine of schools, exacting accurate grammatical analysis, when for this
to
beginning only the principal signs of inflection ought have been taught and explained with untiring repetition, rather
than demanded again and again from

I lacked all prepara-
the boy by pressing questions.

tion in history
and mythology, so necessary to make exposition easier, and so easily furnished by a student who possesses true educational tact. Many an injurious breeze from afar disturbed me much in my surroundings, which, I can now but silently think, was favorable to me. But nothing can destroy my hope
that the good natures of healthy boys are not to be considered such rarities, but will stand the greater
number
of educators in good stead as they stood me.
And
while I can easily imagine a much greater art in carrying out the task than my first attempt can boast,
I believe I learned
from
my
experience (for which the
reading of the Odyssey required a year and a half) that this commencement in private tuition is as practicable as it is wholesome, and that it must ordinarily
succeed in this sphere, if teachers who approach the subject not only in the philological but also in the
educational spirit, will lay down some rules by way of help and foresight, more minutely than time and
space at present permit
me
to do.
cannot deter-
mine what
is
possible in schools, but were I in the
INSTRUCTION ITS MATERIALS
69
position to do so, I would make the attempt with courage, and with the firm conviction, that even if the result were failure, the evil could not be greater
than arises from the customary study of Latin grammar and Eoman authors, of which not one exists even
passably suitable for guiding a boy at any period of his childhood into the ages of antiquity. They may
Homer and a few other Greeks But a considerable amount of learned confusion is shown in the manner in which they have hitherto been used, and in tolerating for
conveniently follow,
if
have gone before.
the sake of an instruction so wholly wanting in all educational value, so much labor for so many years, so much sacrifice of good humor, and of all free move-
ment
of the mind. I appeal to many educational reviews more easily forgotten than confuted, which at any rate exposed this great evil, even if they did not
at once point out a suitable remedy.
"
The preceding
is
sufficient to afford a preliminary

;
acquaintance with this proposal

to exhibit it in its infinitely
it
is
not sufficient
relations.
numerous
It
would be but a beginning, were any one inclined to grasp the whole of the present volume in one thought, and carry that thought about with him for many I at least have not given expression huryears.
my experience. My attempt began more than eight years ago, and since then I have had time
riedly to
to consider
it.
" Let us rise to a general consideration of the subject. Let us look on the Odyssey as the point of touch in a
fellowship between pupil and teacher, which, while it elevates the one in his own sphere, no longer depresses
70
the other, and while it guides the one farther and farther through a classical world, yields the other a
most interesting picture in the imitative progress of the boy, of the great development of humanity, and
lastly prepares a store of recollections, which, associated with this eternal work of genius, must be re-
awakened
at each
return to
it.
In like manner, a
familiar star recalls to friends the hours
when they
together." Further directions as to choice of material are given in the Science of Education, 2 as follows
:
were wont to observe
it
Without wasting time I merely mention that of Homer's works, the cruder Iliad is not suitable, but
the entire Odyssey is, with the exception of a single long piece in the eighth book (individual expressions can be easily avoided). The Philoctetus of Sophocles
in early years, then the historical writings of
"
Xeno-
phon
(not,
however, the essentially immoral
Mem-
which owe their reputation to the greatesthappiness doctrine), and in later boyhood, after a few
orabilia,
easy Dialogues, the Republic of Plato can be read: This last is exactly suited to the awakening interest in wider society in the years when young men seri;
ously devote themselves to politics it satisfying as Homer to a youth who
is
is
just as little just at that
period when he throws everything childlike behind him. Plato, as the teacher of idealism, and Homer, as the poet, always remain for riper age but do not
;
these writers deserve to be read twice ?
teacher of youth the choice of spending time in his own hand ? "
iHerbart, Science 0/ Education,
p. 91.
2
Has not the much or little
Herbart, Ibid.,
p. 168.
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION
It is to Ziller
71
and Rein that we look for detailed
and arrangement of studies upon the basis of apperception and a moral revelation of the world
selection
through their thought contents.

2.
Course of Instruction
Looking upon the educational procedure in a broad

way, Herbart, in the Science of Education, distinviz. guishes three methods of procedure (1) the and (3) the merely presentative, (2) the analytic,
;
synthetic.
Only that can be presented according to the first method which is sufficiently similar to that which the
1.
pupil has already observed as, for example, pictures of strange cities, lands, and costumes, with the pictures of other well-known objects historical descrip; ;
mere explication tions reminding of the present. in clearness and penetration the further it is loses
removed from the experience of the

is,
child.
Its rule
" so to describe that the pupil will
imagine that he
has a direct sense-perception."

2. Analytic instruction, however, resting on its own strength, has to do more with that which may be separated, that which has reached some degree of univer-
sality.
That which
is
separated into
istics.
its parts,
simultaneously present can be and the parts into character-
The masses of ideas which course through the mind may be separated, in order to bring clearness to
them.
way be separated one comes upon that which cannot be separated, which is law-giving for the speculative intellect, and upon that which should or should
Events
may
also in similar
or analyzed.
In
all this
72
not be separated, which is based upon aesthetic relaIn analytic instruction we make an tions, the taste. of that which the child knows in a analysis general
way, in order that he
may become
conscious of that
really implied in his knowledge, but not con" Art sciously perceived thus, if we analyze the line,
is
;
which
fleeting," which the student understands well enough in a certain way, we shall discover a wealth of implied meaning not at first seen.
is
long,
and time
is
We
may
find that " art "
means any kind of human
ity in
which there
;
fine arts
future
ing,
is productivity useful arts and that " long " refers to the past and to the that the present status of any art (paint-
activ-
weaving)
past
;
is
in the
that
its
the product of all recorded progress if a man would advance in art, he

in
must master
his advance
past to start with, and manage to get

that,
embodied
;
namo,
for instance)
some tangible form (a dyindeed, all machines are the
records of arts that are so " long " that they may extend over centuries, and that what we call institutions are the spiritual machines of the race
;
finally,
that
the process of vidual master of these " long " arts.

all
is
education
making the indiBut the advan-
tages, of analytical
limitations of that
ence.
3.
instruction are restricted by the which can be given only in experiAnalysis must take its material as it finds it. Synthetic instruction, however, "which builds
its
out of
own
stones," reaches
much
farther.
It can-
not, indeed, be richer than the science and literature of the world, but it is incomparably richer than the
individual environment of the child.

ritory
lie
Within its termathematics and science, together with that
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION
73
which precedes and follows them, and the whole advance of mankind through the steps of culture from the old to the new. Synthesis has two functions to
:
To give the elements, and to contrive their union. complete the synthesis is impossible, for this is an
unending process. Herbart now applies the analytic and the synthetic methods of instruction to each of the chief classes
of interest.
is
The group
of
interests
arising out of
knowledge developed from such subjects as mathematics and natural science, while that arising from human association (Tlieilnahme) comes out of those subjects which relate to man, such as history, literaWe cannot at present follow him ture, and religion.
through these applications, though they are highly

suggestive to the teacher. In view of certain developments in the Herbartian
will be interesting to note Herbart's attitude He says " The youth is likely to religion. lose himself in opinions. His character must guard
school,
it
toward
him from ever thinking it desirable to have no religion his taste must be too pure ever to find the discord bearable which necessarily arises in a world without moral order that is to say, which arises out
;
;
of a world of realities without the reality of God." He thinks the religious feeling of childhood should be
cherished, for
it is
impossible suddenly to restore a
lost religious sensibility

tion.
"Yet
through speculative convicpositive religion as such does not belong
to the school, but to the church
The
and to the parents." followers of Herbart, seizing upon the fact that Germany is a unit in demanding the teaching of relig-
74
ion in the schools, have made this the pivot about which everything turns and to which everything is
related.
This
may
and by no means necessary

of Herbartian principles.
be regarded as purely accidental, to a thorough application
3.
Methods of Instruction
prin-
Here again Herbart discusses the subject in

ciple rather than in concrete detail
;
while the brief
exposition he gave has, in his successors, grown to be an important chapter, under the general title of the
Formal (or rational) Stages of Instruction (Die malen Stufen des Unterrichts). 1
for-
Antecedent to a consideration of the four steps to be observed as a principle of instruction, we shall need to examine briefly Herbart's view of attention as a
tinction
tion.
phase of apperception, and his very suggestive disbetween mental absorption and rational reflec-
We
;
have seen that

actions,
all
mental
life consists in
the
reciprocal that the business of education ideas

ideas, to assist in their arrangement,
relations,
and conditions of the

is
to
supply
and
to bring their
proper relations before consciousness.
tem
We
any
1
An ideal sysof pedagogics must show how this is to be done. are indebted to Herbart, perhaps, more than to other man, for a series of fine observations giving
;
fortnalen Stufen
cited at this point: "Wiget, Die Rein, Outlines of Pedagogics, Van Liew's translation, Syracuse, NY.: C. W. Bardeen, 1893; DeGarmo, Essentials General of Method, Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1893; McMurry,
The following works may be
Method, Bloomington,
111.
Public-School Publishing Co., 1893.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
75
clearness and certainty to the procedure of instruction.
The first step in this direction is the doctrine of Attention, a subject that has received its most exhaustive and fruitful treatment at Herbart's hands.
Voluntary and involuntary attention are the two
which the subject naturally falls. This is brought about Voluntary Attention (a) through the effort of the will in obedience to some
parts into
remote purpose of the teacher in government or trainIn this case the representations are given to coning.
and are not spontaneous (freisteigend). one of the greatest and commonest mistakes of teachers is made. They imagine that
sciousness
At
this point
when they
means
are forcing attention or inducing it by of remote ends, such as good marks, emulation,
etc.,
high rank in school, prizes,
that they are best
serving the child and the school. They do not consider that they are losing sight of the main purpose, which is the excitation of direct interest. This can
arise only out of the subject itself.
The voluntary
attention, however, is
those cases where
to be rejected in self-control is necessary, as in longetc.
by no means
continued direct perception, in learning by heart,
Eor
this latter procedure,
practical hints.
We
Herbart gives a number of should not begin with learning
by heart even when this itself is the end to be reached. First must come clearness in single perceptions then
;
their association.
There should be no hurry the beginning must be slow, especially where great difficulties are to be met. Bodily movements, oral recitation, often in concert, writing, drawing, are all helps which
;
76
matter
are not to be neglected. Even where the memorized is to be always held by the memory, perpetual
repetition is a questionable means, for it may easily It is preferable to exercise the lead to overpressure. mind by constant application of the matter in hand to
that which actually interests the pupil. Involuntary attention (b) Involuntary Attention
divided into primitive and apperceiving. In primitive attention the idea arises solely through its own
is
individual
assisted
power
in
apperceiving attention
it
is
or reinforced through its connection with For the primitive attention, ideas already present. Herbart lays down four rules
:
1.
The
sense-impression
must
have
sufficient
strength; hence the need of direct sense-perception This failing, a picture is preferable to a of things.
description.
2.
that receptivity
3.
Excess of sense-impression must be avoided, so may be prolonged.
must be avoided.
tion,
rapid piling up of one thing upon another There must be singling out, separa-
procedure step by step, in order that through the opposition of the ideas a hindrance or mutual arrest
shall not arise
4.
among them.
There must be intermissions, or resting-points, so that the aroused ideas may have time to restore
their equilibrium, or, in other words, so that the child may have time enough to apprehend, in its proper
It is not connection, what has been given to him. to hold young children to recitaadvisable, therefore,
tion for long periods at a time. The apperceiving attention is that state of the
mind
77
in which each new representation is brought into proper union or relation with those already present. It is of the greatest importance in education, and
tive
although presupposing and depending upon the primiattention, it is observed very early in life.
Apperception
must constantly be exercised

is
in
all
;
given in words only the ideas upon which the interpretation of the words depends must be supplied by the hearer, or learner.
instruction, for instruction
When
its
is once properly pursuing should not be disturbed. The teaching course, must go on until it has satisfied the expectation that The solution must plainly answer to it has aroused.
this
kind of attention
it
the problem. Everything must be connected. Attention is disturbed by untimely pauses or by the intro-
duction of foreign matter. It is disturbed when that is brought into the light which should have remained
in shadow.
set
The same
forms of expression
everything that emphasizes

;
is
true of oft-repeated words,
the language at the expense of the subject-matter this is true even of rhymes, stanzas of poetry, and
rhetorical
adornment when used

is
in the
wrong
place.
that, before being set at work, the pupil shall be led into a field of consciousness This can similar to that in which his work is to lie.
fundamental rule
be done at the beginning of a recitation hour by giving a short review of the work of the preceding lesson or
by a general review of that which is to be attempted, or by both. This thought is more fully developed by Herbart's disciples. Instruction builds upon the foundation of experience already gained in or out of the school. The fact that that which is already possessed
78

to be
is
cites
widened and strengthened and arranged, exattention and expectation. If that which is is not strong and vivid enough, it already possessed must be reproduced in order to lead the pupil into the
thought where his work lies. The right care for the apperception, i.e., the proper distribution of the masses of ideas as they exist in consciousness or
field of
come into
uniting of
it, is
of the greatest importance in method-
ical instruction.
new
For, only by a vital and consistent ideas to those already present, can the
compass of thought be continually extended and made a permanent acquisition. This is the reason why the teaching of great numbers of unrelated facts, in geography and history, for instance, is such a fatal
blunder.
(c)
Mental Absorption and Reflection
In
the ac-
tivity of the mind in taking on or apprehending the ideas in their manifoldness, we meet with the notions
of
Absorption
Vertiefung)
is
and Reflection (Besin-
nung).
Absorption
an object
in thought. gives to a subject in order to apprehend it fully and to But absorption should not be distorted. enter into it.
the giving up of one's self to It is the special care that one
A
"
single, habitual
all
frame of mind that would falsify
and minimize
The mind
other impressions, must be avoided. should manifest itself clearly in many
directions."
But again, the personality that rests upon unity of consciousness would not obtain in continuous absorption, if
the collecting power of reflection did not step that absorption has given. Reflection must, however, avoid the synthesis of the
in to unite the manifold
79
contradictory, for where this occurs confusion follows, or the mind is lost in doubt and irrational desires.
"But
is
not that
the true significance of reflection (Besinnung) what we call inner synthesis, consists
merely in a uniting of ideas in general, but that we simultaneously gather them about the focus of our
self-consciousness,
and make ourselves aware of them

x
as our possessions, or mental states."
But
since the
two notions, absorption and reflection, exclude each Herbart other, each must pass over into the other.
calls
them the inspiration and expiration of the soul. It is in this connection that we come next to the
and method.
;
logical distinction of four steps, or stages, in instruc-
tion
They
;
ciation
(
(3)
system
are: (1) clearness; (4) method.
(2) asso-
of Instruction Taking up the four notions in order, we have 1. Clearness By this term Herbart means the apStejis
d)
The Formal
prehension of the individual, or single object as such.

of instruction is simple presentation on the part of the teacher and reception on the part of the pupil. It may, according to one of Pestalozzi's methods of elementary instruction, consist in the
teacher's presenting a
The manner
word or a sentence
to the class
and having the

concert.
latter repeat the
same, singly or in
In general, it means the perception of any concrete or individual fact by the pupil. This step is one of absorption. 2. Association This consists in a progress from
one absorption to another, as opposed to the non-pro1 Sc-limi.lt

.
Encyclopadie der Ptidagogik,
art.
"
Herbart."
80
It appears as a gressive absorption of the first step. uniting that is determined through the imagination, "which tastes every compound and rejects only the tasteless."
Association
is is
which
is
learned, there
not complete when, in that not force enough to bring
the imagination to the front, or when that which is The method for this step learned checks its action. is conversation, which gives the pupil an opportunity
to investigate, to change, to
make
consistent the acci-
dental union of thoughts, and to assimilate, after his
own
fashion,
what
is
learned.
This
step,
although
characterized as absorption, seems to contain elements It is an elementary stage in the process of reflection. of apperception, or assimilation of knowledge.
This is the step in which each part of System that which is learned finds its proper place in relation
3.
It evidently belongs to the nonto the other parts. It is the progressive reflection (ruhende Besinnung). " Its essential rich arrangement of a rich reflection.
condition
is
clearness of the individual elements
its
method is the connected discourse. The bare statement of an all-pervading principle does not suffice to bring its importance into view, except to him who To see the importance and bearing of this reflects. principle one need only consider what a chaos instruction is when coordination does not come in to unite and articulate any given manifold." Just as the mind
unities, so the teacher
synthesizes the manifold of sensation into significant should synthesize the manifold
given in instruction, in order that each factor may This stage comfind its place in an organic whole. of the elements of knowledge, pletes the association
81
and brings about the highest scientific organization of which the pupil is capable. 4. Method By this term Herbart understands the
well-ordered self-activity of the pupil in the solution of tasks, and in investigation under the leadership of
the teacher.
flection.
He
The mode
sees in this step the progressive reof procedure is to assign tasks
and problems whose preparation is the duty of the pupils, and which the teacher corrects.
As before remarked, it is one of the chief merits of the Herbartian school to have further developed these
We may therefore defer a thoughts of the master. more minute discussion of the subject, and close this department of our topic with a few quotations of gen1
eral import.
Herbart says " In general, absorption should precede reflection, but just how far it should do so remains undetermined. Certainly the two must be
:
kept together as closely as possible, for we wish no absorption that would be harmful to personal unity, the condition of which is reflection. We can desire no reflection whose long and unbroken continuance
would create a tension under which a sound mind could not exist in a sound body. In order, therefore, to keep the mind in balance, we prescribe the general
rule
1
:
give equal prominence to absorption and reflecof these four ideas,
The most elaborate application
now known
as the formal stages of instruction, is found in Dr. Rein's Theorie und Praxis ties Volksschulunterrichts nach Herin
Germany
bartischen Grundsdtzen. In these books all the work of the eight school years is laid down in great detail, and a large number of model exercises worked out according to the formal steps. This
epoch-making work will be considered
in Part II.
82

;
tion in every group of objects, even the smallest that is to say, emphasize equally clearness of the in-
dividual perception, association of the manifold, coordination of the associated, and progress through exercise according to this coordination. Upon these
conditions depends the charm which should everything that is learned."
rule in
ness in the school-room
In this connection Herbart's protest against tediousHe says " Exis pertinent.
:
perience often brings a tediousness that we have to bear, but which the pupil should never have to suffer
at the
est sin
hands of the teacher.
Tediousness
is
the great-
to fly
of instruction. It is the privilege of instruction over steppes and morasses if it cannot always
;
wander in pleasant valleys, it can at least exercise in mountain climbing and reward with broad fields
of view."
CHAPTER
VII
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE GOVERNMENT AND TRAINING

1.
Government
This chapter is an important one for those who would grasp the whole significance of Herbart's system of education, in which instruction in knowledge, even that apparently non-moral in kind, performs an important function in the development of moral characAt the outset Herbart makes a sharp distinction between mere repressive governmental, or police, regter.
whereby heedlessness, or youthful impetuand boisterousness, is held in check without osity regard to any specific moral effort, and to those more
ulation,
serious, far-reaching efforts that involve the formation of moral habits. By government, then, he means
the immediate maintenance of outward order through enforced authority, the holding in check of youthful
perversity, partly that education
may
to secure the safety of the child in
succeed, partly many kinds of
danger, partly to protect society against childish love of destruction and mischief. Training is moral education itself in so far as
it
works directly upon the
mind.
It seeks
to
build the will, whereas govern83
84

to
ment attempts only

straint.
hold
it
Training
is
here
related
temporarily in reand united to
instruction, and together with it comprises the whole of education proper. Government works for the presIt is the business of ent, training for the future.
government
to hold youthful impulses in check until
training has time to form a will that shall be able to control them. Great harm ensues when the teacher
always governs but never trains when he imagines that older and shrewder pupils need only shrewder
;
The following from Herbart's own government. words makes perfectly clear the occasion for government, together with its scope and function
:
"The
own, and
relation.
child enters the world without a will of its

is
therefore incapable of any conscious moral
Consequently the parents (partly spontaneously, partly agreeably to the demand of society) can make themselves master of the child as of a chattel. It
true they know well that in the being whom they now, without asking, treat as they like, a Will in the course of time will put itself forth, which they must
is
win over
flict
unseemly
to themselves if the incongruity of a conto both is to be avoided. But it is
long before this takes place. At first, instead of a true will, which renders the child capable of determination, there is only a wild impetuosity, impelling it hither and thither, a principle of disorder, disturbing the plans of adults, and placing the future
personality of the child itself in manifold dangers. This impetuosity must be subdued, or the disorderly
character will be put

guardians.
down
is
as the fault of the child's

force,
Subjection
brought about by
and
GOVERNMENT
the force
85
must be
sufficiently strong,
and often enough any trace
repeated, to compass this subjection before of a true will is manifested in the child.
The
prin-
of practical philosophy require this. ciples " But the germs of this blind impulsiveness, these
crude desires, remain in the child, and even increase and grow stronger with time. To the end, therefore, that they may not give to the will growing up in
their
to
midst an anti-social direction, it is necessary keep them constantly under an ever-perceptible
restraint.
" An adult trained to reason undertakes, as time goes

on, to govern himself.
ever,
There are human beings, howguardianship, calling some there are who actually
;
who never
under
reach this point, and society keeps
such
idiots,
perpetual
prodigals.
some
is
Some
cultivate in themselves an anti-social will
with such
society
justly
inevitably at war, and generally they are worsted in the end. But the conflict is a
moral
evil for society itself, to

is
government
prevent which childone among numerous necessary pre-
cautions. " It is obvious that the
manifold
partly avoidance
aim of child-government
of
is
harm both
for others
and for the child himself in the present and the future, partly avoidance of strife as an evil in itself,
finally
itself
forced into a contest for which
avoidance of collision, in which society finds it is not perfectly
authorized.
" It all
amounts
to this, that such
at producing no specific
government aims moral result in the mind
(Gemiith) of the child, but only at creating a spirit of
86

Nevertheless,
it
order.
will soon be clear that the
cultivation of the child-soul cannot
be altogether a matter of indifference to government." *
These childish offences

a bodily or mental origin.
arise out of desires
having
to
The wise teacher seeks
remove their cause. For example, if disturbance arise from physical restlessness, this is an indication that
seats are uncomfortable, or that the air is bad, or the temperature too high or too low, or that the recita-
tion periods are too long. Disturbances arising from mental conditions must likewise be traced to their
source, that the
disturbing cause
may
be removed.
to mental activity is one of the strongest in the child. If school work is not properly planned,
The impulse
some children will receive no food for mental activity from the teacher, and will, of course, supply their own.
It follows naturally,
when
the teacher has been able
to excite only indirect or transient interest, such as
from mere government or unworthy incentive from mental disIn such cases satisfaction are always imminent.
results
to study, that disturbances arising
the disturbing cause is the teacher. The watchful attention of the teacher
is
means of
government
to prevent disorder.
Again, the teacher

If the obedi-
may demand
ence
is
obedience to his directions.
to follow as a result of the teacher's authority,
without inquiry into reasons, then any means taken to secure obedience belong to the department of government. The obedience that follows the directions
of the teacher, because the pupil in consequence of
Science of Education, pp. 95, 90.
GOVERNMENT
87
reflection has agreed to their correctness, falls, not under government, but under training. The means of
enforcing
commands
punishments, at
chastisement.
are
are warnings, threats, and finally the end of which stands corporal
to
Yet more fundamental
government
ruling, complementary ideas, authority and love. Of them Herbart says: "The mind bends to authority its peculiar movements are constrained by
two
it,
and
it
may
thus be of considerable service in sup-
pressing a growing will which tends to perverseness. It can be least dispensed with in the case of the most
energetic natures, for these make trial of the bad as well as the good, and pursue the good if they are
not lost in the bad.
But authority is obtained only through superiority of mind, and this, as is well known, cannot be reduced to rules. It must act independently, without reference to education.
logical
far-reaching course of action once
prescribed,
and must
openly and freely take its own straight course, regardful of circumstances, but undisturbed, untroubled by the likes or dislikes of a weaker will. If the careless boy breaks rudely into the prescribed circle, he must
be
made
to feel
what he might
spoil.
If the
wanton
desire to spoil arises in him, the intention, so far as it

act, must be richly punbut the teacher must scorn to take any notice of the bad will, together with the insult implied therein.
becomes or could become an

ished
;
To wound the
of children
is
desire to do evil,
which the government
as powerless as the state to punish, with
the deep disapproval
it deserves, is the business of education, which begins only after government has done its work. For the way to utilize authority once
88

we must
tion proper.
look beyond government to educaFor though mental culture gains nothing directly from passive obedience to authority, the marking out or enlargement of the circle of thought which depends upon it, and in which the pupil moves freely and builds up himself independently, is of the highest
attained,
importance.
on
it
Love depends on the harmony of the feelings and The difficulty a stranger finds in winning habit.
at once
who, when he
becomes apparent. He who secludes himin hard tones, and becomes exself, cited about trifles, will assuredly never gain it nor, on the other hand, will he who makes himself familiar
who speaks much
should be kind and yet at the same
time maintain his ascendancy, seeks his
own pleasure taking part in the enjoyment of the children. The by
harmony of feelings that love demands, may arise in two ways. Either the teacher enters into the feelings of the pupil, and without permitting it to be noticed, joins in them with tact, or he takes care that the feelings of the pupil can approach his own in some particular way this is more difficult, but must, nevertheless, be combined with the other, because only
;
when
in
it is
some way or other with the
possible for the pupil to unite his activity teacher's can he con-
tribute force of his
own
to the relationship
between
them.
But a boy's love is transitory and fitful unless sufficient strength of habit be added. Time, tender care,
intercourse alone with the individual, strengthen the need not say how much this love, relationship.
"
We
once won, lightens the task of government
but
it is
TRAINING
so important to education proper (since
it
89
imparts to
the pupil the teacher's bent of mind), that those deserve the severest blame who so readily and so fatally make use of it to gratify themselves by the exhibition of their
power over their children."
2.
Training, or Discipline in the Large Sense
To show more
ing,
fully,
however, what relation train-
or discipline in the wider sense, bears to the formation of character, Herbart offers the following
trenchant remarks upon the attempts that many make to form character through repression or by harping upon the chords of sensibility
:
" Direct action
on the youthful mind with a view
to habit, is discipline, or training.
It appears, then, a possibility of forming the character by merely acting on the feelings without reference to the circle of thought. It might indeed appear to be
there
is
we were wont, without further search, to give ideas logically put together out of properties the credit of reality " But it will appear quite otherwise if we interroAt least, whoever has noticed into gate experience.
so, if
.
what an abyss of pain and misfortune a human being may fall, and even remain for long periods, and yet,
up again apparently almost unchanged, the same person, with the same aim and opinion, even the same manner
after the time of trouble has passed, rise
whoever,
we say, has noticed much from that swaying of
this, will hardly expect the emotions, by which mothers especially so often believe they are educat-
90
ing their children. Besides, when we see what degrees of paternal strictness a robust youth will endure, and
remain untouched, what incentives are wasted on
weak natures without making them

temporary
action,
is
stronger,
how
the whole reaction which follows the

well advise the educator not to prewhich are usually the
!
we way
pare false relations, for himself,
only residue of mere discipline
"To me
all
these experiences are
but confirma-
tions of an extremely simple psychological conviction, namely, that all feelings are but passing modifica-
and then when the of thought must return by itself to its old equilibrium. The only result I should expect from mere stimulation of the emotions, would be a fatal blunting of the finer feelings, the place of which would be taken by an artificial sensibility which in the course of years would
tions of the existing presentations,
modifying cause ceases, the
circle
but foster pretence with all its troublesome offshoots. "The case is indeed entirely different, when the circle of thought receives additions as opportunity offers,
or
when endeavors jmss
ivill.
into action and thereby become These conditions must be taken into account in
order to interpret experience correctly. " At this point, we can judge what discipline may be to education. All changes of feeling the pupil must
suffer, are
only necessary transitions to determinations
And thus of the circle of thought, or of character. the relation of discipline to formation of character is
twofold
make
the
It partly helps to indirect and direct. that instruction possible which will influence subsequent formation of the character of the fu-
TRAINING
ture independent
as the case
91
man
be, a
it is
partly a
means even now

It is
to create or not to create, through action or inaction,
may
beginning of character.
impossible to instruct an ungovernable boy, and the boyish tricks he plays are to be taken in a certain way
his future personality, though, as every one knows, with considerable limitations. An unruly boy acts mostly from fleeting fancies; doubt-
as indications of
less
he learns thereby what he can do, but the first a element necessary to fix the will is here wanting firm, deeply-rooted desire. Only where this forms the
basis,
The
first relation
do boyish tricks help to determine character. of discipline to the formation of
character
is thus the more important that, namely, which clears the way for such instruction as will penetrate the thoughts, interests, and desires. Still the
second ought not to be neglected, least of all in subjects who are less mobile and act with firmer purpose.
The concept
is,
of discipline formulated in the beginning

itself,
taken merely in
to
completely empty.
The
mere intention
act on, the
form cannot enter
into, or directly
mind
in such a
really able to form.
empty discipline shoio
way as to become a power Those who by means of such an their good intentions, work, they
;
know not how, on

cle
gentle natures through the specta-
their tender, anxious, they themselves present urgent manner gives the observant boy the idea of the
of the thing which an otherwise honored person has so much at heart. Such teachers then need only be careful not to mar this spectacle in
great importance
other ways, not to

ness, or,
stifle
respect
by passion or
petticriti-
even worse, lay themselves open to the
92

Thus
cisoi of the child, often as true as it is sharp.
they will be able to accomplish
for impressionable natures, without, however, being for that reason safe from committing greater errors with less
much
willing ones."
in Herbart's pedathat training shall unite with instruction to gogics form character. But character-building is will-buildis
The most important thought
ing.
is
ing Herbart's doctrine of the formation of the will as presented in Chapter III. Will arises out of desire when
To understand more fully, therefore, how trainto affect the will, we must make a summary of
coupled with a conviction of the possibility of its attainment. The idea in its strength and completion
is will. is
But along with every action of the will there present in consciousness a mass of ideas concerning motives, duties, considerations, etc., all of which
" " of the will-action. When together form a picture the will a second time has occasion to make a similar
decision, this "picture
"
of the former action at once

If the second decision coinis
rises into consciousness.
cides with the
first,
the total representation
much
strengthened and
to
vivified.
Later repetitions continue
deepen the impression. If now, upon a later occasion, a desire arises which contradicts and opposes the decisions already made, there at once begins a mental strife or struggle between the opposing ideas, the old and established group, which has been made strong
and vivid by repeated actions of the will, on the one side, and the new and opposing desire on the other.
1
Science of Education, pp. 22&-231.
TRAINING
93
If the latter idea falls in with the former, the hind-
rance
is
and comfort follow.

is
removed, union takes place, and mental peace If, on the contrary, the decision
opposed to previous right ones, the opposition remains, and a mental discomfort ensues, the highest
is
degree of which
called remorse.
Out of
single acts
of will, then, grows the more general will. similar action strengthens the tendency
Every new
already at
hand.
The memory
the will
" pictures," becomes important in this con-
of the will, or reproduction of
If the reproduction is to be rapid and the representations of which these "pictures" clear, are composed must be intimately and strongly united.
sideration.
This would be the case, for example, when a willaction arises from energetic and thoroughgoing reflection.
The latest series of ideas, then, are examined the apperception, or synthesizing power of the by mind, to see if they can be harmonized and united to
the former.
The
result
is
a judgment on the matter,

or prohibition.
out of which rises a
command
When
such a judgment
cases,
is
extended so as to include not
merely a single case, but a whole class of similar
we
maxim.
call it a practical principle of conduct, or " If these maxims are to hold good for life,
;
they must arise through and out of life true maxims are always the expression of a portion of the life his-
Maxims tory of an individual. in the thinking reflection, origin instruction, must be practised in
maxims."
1 '
which have their

as, for
life to
example, in
become
real
It is the business of training to see that
Volkmauu, Lehrbuch der Psycholoyie,
ii.,
454.
94
of will-action are brought under the dominion of moral maxims, in order that a (f symmetrical
all classes
" passion for good
may
be created.
" Character
is,
in
general, uniformity will."
and fixedness of the whole of

first
Children have at
arises
no real moral character.
It
and begins when here and there single moral volitions arise from the union of similar acts of will. These more general determinations of
gradually,
will-action which, through the apperception, begin to accept or reject the new will-actions, form the beginning of the subjective side, or subjective foundations of
Over against this stands the objective part, or the single will-act which results from a manifold of The subjective part of character is that which desire.
character.
determines ;
the objective part
is
that which is deter-
mined.
it is
In regard to the subjective side of character, the task of instruction, in company with training,
it, not that several lines of thought, existing " but that alongside of each other, come to validity, there be secured that unity of a ruling habit of thought upon which rests the energy and consistency of will peculiar to character, and through which a
to see to
With these is set to the rule of the passions." general remarks about the nature and growth of will, we may turn to the more individual phases of trainlimit
ing.
Empty
training, the
of sensibility, is
by
all
mere playing upon the chords means to be avoided, for it
merely deadens feeling without effecting anything more.

It is the
duty of training to care for the deed,
TRAINING
;
95
through whose courage the will is strengthened of course to further the good, to suppress the bad. There are two characteristics of the will- furthering deed: (1) It must have an aim of real, earnest significance, and (2) desire of the child
it
;
must proceed from an earnest must spring from a direct rather

It
is
than an indirect interest.
the business of train-
ing not to suppress disorder, but to cultivate that habitual right tone of mind so essential for instrucIt seeks to remove disturbing influences, so that no matters of overpowering temporary interest fill the mind. It seeks to secure a collected state of
tion.
works to the end that the same and openness be ever present or newly awakened, and if the pupil has reached the point where his self-activity suffices as impelling and guiding force, training seeks to give him the needed In its direct influence upon the will, trainquietude. ing has for its end fixedness or firmness of character.
in pupils.
mind
It
docility, willingness,
The
1.
It limits
factors of its activity are as follows and enlivens action according to its
:
own
sense.
In that
it
limits, it
meets the closely related
" accent " is not government, but its very different, short and sharp, but measured of slow penetration
;
and gradual withdrawal.
It
limits
harmful action
through diverting employment and through punishment. This last, however, belongs to training only when the action is seen to be deliberate, and where new excitations break forth, which, continued, would
impress false features upon the mind.
action
It enlivens
where the present tendency of thought gives
hope of a correct determination of character.
96

2.
In reference to what has been called the objective i.e., the volition resulting from a manifold of desire, training must support and deterside of character,
mine (halten und- bestimmen) By the first of these is meant the correct procedure of training in order to
.
effect the
memory
of the will.
This
is
brought about
when
the teacher always conducts himself toward the
pupil with quiet and fixed certainty, never losing presence of mind, and always answering to the tone of
mind in which he has placed his pupils. The teacher must be so won for education that he himself is largely
determined by the pupils, and then, through a natural The teacher reflex influence, will determine them.
must press the naturally determining feelings so penetratingly upon the pupil that he will early perceive the true relation of things. Here is the place for the punishment which is to train. It is distinguished from the purely police punishment, in that it is not adjusted by any measure of retribution, but must be so measured as always to appear as well-meant warning, which does not excite ill-will toward the teacher. It avoids as much as possible the positive and arbitrary, and limits itself where it can to the natural consequences of human action. Rewards are to be given according to the same principle. 3. In relation to the subjective or determining side of character, training should be regulative and supporting. Here the principles of action which the pupils themselves have, are taken into account.
be
felt
that
action.
Training lets it does not understand an inconsequent Furthermore, it calls attention to the crudity
it
it
of hap-hazard principles of conduct, but
never treats
TRAINING
slightingly
97
what springs from earnestness of purpose, even though it may deserve and receive reproof.
Training gives support in the struggle of principles to assert themselves, provided, of course, that they deserve support. Here authority and an exact knowl" For it is edge of the pupil's mind are important. of the child's own prinprecisely the inner authority ciples of action which must be supplemented and
strengthened by an
authority."
external
but
exactly
similar
This in general
is
the application of training to the
work of education.
remarks, however, memory of the will
Herbart adds some important

in
is
reference to morality.
The
bad may ing must seek
not always desirable, for the be remembered as well as the good. Trainto
which
is evil.
The estimate
instruction
put to confusion and shame that of the good-will is not to
be determined by the result of the action.
In early
and environment invite to youth, the first apprehension of moral truth, Herbart demands the preservation of a quiet, clear frame of
mind, and the preservation of a child-like sense. That is harmful which opposes a natural forgetfulness of self. Just as the healthy body is not felt,
so the care-free child does not feel
it
when
its
existence, for
should not make itself the measure of the importance of that which is external to itself. All, then,
which continuously and actively

self is harimful
calls
attention to
These disturbances may arise from pain, pleasure, sickness, and exciting temperature, bad treatment, frequent teasing, neglect of needful care, or from anything which feeds
for moral training.
98
vanity and self-love. Further, in this period the tender feelings of the child must be protected and favored
by the removal of everything which can accustom the

imagination to the morally hateful. This excessive care would with growing years and moral power be a
mistake, for in the moral as in the physical world, long-continued tenderness is a poor means of protecIt is only with the tion against rigor of climate.
negligent educator that the child takes up and imitates all
he
is
approval
sees. The making glad through deserved the fine art of training.
Part
II
EXTENSION AND APPLICATION OF HERBART'S EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN GERMANY
CHAPTER
TUISKON ZILLER AND KARL VOLKMAR STOY
The Two Schools

These two men are the pioneers in the application of Herbart's theories to the work of the schools.
Herbart himself, whose teaching experience was confined to tutoring, a form of education that seems
always to have hovered before his mind, had little opportunity in his university career to put his system into actual operation in the school-room. This was
left to his successors.
Born about the same time and coming
alike
under
the influence of Herbart, both Ziller and Stoy began Each earnestly to reduce his theories to practice.
became the representative of a

of the
doctrines.
specific interpretation
In this
way two
schools arose.
The Stoy
its
school held to Herbart's theory mostly in original form, making their chief work the appliit
cation of
schools.
to the various
elementary and secondary
Dr. Stoy himself gave most attention to the working out of the system in the elementary schools, while his most renowned coadjutor, Dr. Otto Erick, late Director of the great Orphan School, or FranJcesche
101
102

established by Francke in Halle, did a in applying it to the secondary
Stiftungen,
schools, or
monumental work
gymnasiums.
Professor Ziller, on the other hand, struck out more independently, giving a wider and freer interpretation
He applied Herbart's principles for the selection of the subject-matter of instruction

to Herbart's ideas.
with a freedom that caused the more conservative to gasp with dismay. Not content with one masterstroke, he
made another equally
startling to orthodox
educators, by proposing in all seriousness a remarkable method of articulating, coordinating and unifying instruction. This is known as his theory of Con-
centration, an exposition of which will be found the chapters on Ziller, and his most aggressive follower, Dr. William Rein, of Jena.
in
We may now turn
to a detailed study of the leaders

first
of the two schools, treating
Ziller
and
his
fol-
lowers, then Stoy and his adherents, it being understood that in some cases the classification is a loose
one.
CHAPTER
II
TUISKON ZILLER
1.
Life and
Works
Ziller was born on the 22d of December, 1817, at He first Wasungen, a village in Saxe-Meiningen. attended the gymnasium in Meiningen, and after-
He
wards studied philology in the University of Leipsic. then became a teacher in the gymnasium where
In 1853, however, he returned to Leipsic to qualify as privat clocent in law.
he had once sat as a pupil.
But
him
his teaching experience in Meiningen had given a fondness for educational questions, and in
1
1856 he published his first pedagogical essay, Introto General Pedagogy. In the following year he issued his treatise on The Government of Children, 2
duction
which
is
idea, already described.
an extension and application of Herbart's These works soon attracted
public attention.
With
the assistance of Dr. C. Barth,
he
now founded
in connection with the university at
Leipsic a pedagogical seminary and practice school, modelled after that of Herbart at Konigsberg. This
1
Einleitung in die allgemeine Pddagogik. Die Regierung der Kinder. 103
104

its
seminary ceased to exist upon the death of

in 1883.
founder
In was in 1865 that filler's epoch-making work, 1 Basis of the Doctrine of Instruction as a Moral Force, appeared. By many this book was looked upon as a
stroke of genius. At any rate it marks the beginning of popular interest in the philosopher Herbart,
who
in
his
positions,
lifetime, though occupying prominent had been thrown into the background by
the more dazzling philosophical systems of idealism
founded by Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. As an index of the newly awakened interest, the Herbart Association, under the title, Verein fur Wissenschaftliche Pddagogik, was founded in 1868, with
Professor Ziller at
all
its
head.
The Verein has
since
over Germany, and numbers many hundreds spread of adherents. It is, for the most part, broken up into local clubs for the study of educational problems from
the Herbartian standpoint. Lectures on General Ped2 in agogy, a text-book on educational theory, appeared
and in 1881, Ziller's last work, General Philo3 He died in 1883 at sophical Ethics, was published.
1876
;
the age of sixty-six years, having been for a long time a sufferer from severe physical ailments.
2.
Ziller's Interpretation of
Herbart
outcome
Whatever may be thought

of Ziller's work,
1
of the ultimate
it
deserves respect as the most thor-
"
Grundlegung zur Lehre vom erziehenden Unterricht. Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Pddagogik.
Allgemeine philosophische Ethik.
TUISKON ZILLER
'
105
oughgoing attempt ever made to answer the question,
How may
instruction
in
the
common
school
become an instrument for the development of moral character ? It can scarcely be denied that Ziller is
thoroughly Herbartian in his foundations.
three questions as follows
1.
:
He
asks
What must
be selected from
human knowledge
as the subject-matter of instruction ? must these studies be coordinated so as to 2.
How
conduce to the most perfect mastery of knowledge, the clearest insight into moral relations, and the for-
mation of the highest moral ideals, the best moral disposition, the best moral habits ?
3.
What method
of teaching will best further the
above-named ends ? About the investigation of these three subjects one may, with unimportant exceptions, group all that His guiding principles, taken directly Ziller wrote.
from Herbart, were as follows 1. The conception of moral training through instruction in the common-school branches, keeping the five moral ideas in close touch with the content of
:
the various studies.

2. The apperception of children, or their natural thought-processes founded upon acquired knowledge and social experience, as the only reliable guide to
the selection and arrangement of studies, together with the best methods of teaching them.
necessity of developing in the pupils an inherent, far-reaching, and abiding interest in study as a moral revelation of the world.
3.
The
These are the basal ideas from which he proceeds
106
and to which he ever returns. Through the 524 pages of the Grundlegung and the 428 of the Allgemeine he labors at Pddagogik, aside from a few incidentals, from the standthe solution of the three problems
ideas. point of the three fundamental The contents of the Grundlegung are as follows
to (c) The Relation of Instruction Training. and Instruction. 1. Government
2. 3.
:
Government and (moral)
Two Kinds
Social
of Instruction.
and Religious Associations
in their Relation to
Instruction.
4.
5. 6. 7.
The School as a Place for Moral The Compass of Instruction.

The Art
of Instruction,
Training.
Relation of Instruction to Moral Training in General.
etc., etc., etc.
(6) Specific
12 14.
Ends
of Instruction.
&
13.
Interest
and Desire.
Direct in Relation to Indirect Interest and to Love. Interest as a Protection against Passion 15. Many-sided
ate Desire.
16.
17.
18.
19. 20.
As an Aid to Occupation. As a Means of Rescue against the Storms As a Means of Perfection. As related to Personality.
of Fate.
As
related to Individuality.
The importance
of each of the three lines of investi-
and treatgation regarding the choice, arrangement, various studies warrants a presentation ment of the
in separate chapters.
CHAPTER
ZILLER'S
III
THEORY OF THE HISTORICAL STAGES OF CULTURE
considering in detail the contents of the separate chapters of the Grundlegung, we may proceed at once to his treatment of the first of the three great
questions of teaching 1. What shall be the subject-matter ? 2. How shall it be articulated ?
:
Without
3.
What
shall be the
first
method of instruction
of these topics, Ziller begins byclassifying the school studies into two groups, those that pertain to man, and those that pertain to nature.
Taking up the
The humanistic group comprises

and profane,
(1) history, sacred
(2) literature, (3) art, as
drawing and
The group music, (4) languages, native and foreign. of nature studies consists of (1) geography, (2) natural history, physics and chemistry, (3) arithmetic, (4) geometry, (5) practical exercises,
and (6)
gymnastics.
Ignoring for the time being the

Ziller seeks a principle of selection
nature studies,
and development
for the humanistic, or culture branches.

107
108

first
The
factor in the problem appears to be the

to
fact that
we have
do with a developing mind.

life
In
no two years of his
are the knowledge, apprehending power, ruling interests, or educational needs He goes somewhat rapidly of the child the same.
through a succession of epochs in his mental development. It is not sufficient to demonstrate merely that
the child passes through a succession of stages in his mental unfolding we must have some idea of the
;
nature of the development he goes through if we are to succeed in finding the best possible adjustment of
The current concepsubject-matter to these stages. tion of this matter is that it is the faculties that unfold in succession,
memory, then
perception, then imagination, then so that our American reason,

etc.,
pedagogy, in so far as it has any doctrine at all upon the subject, teaches us in a general way to follow this
order in the presentation of topics. It is conceivable, further, that the stages of the child's development
follow the natural unfolding of the subjects of study
according to some logical principle, as, for instance, the order of evolution in biological sciences, or that of
increase in complexity of numerical relations, as in Were this the case, the key to the mathematics.
presentation of studies would be the most logical unfolding of the various studies as relatively completed
sciences.
difficulties.
may
This view, however, meets with serious The philosophic order of complete systems not correspond to the natural psychological order
What naturalist, of learning, especially with children. for instance, wishing to give a child a knowledge of nature and love for the study, would begin with a
HISTORICAL STAGES OF CULTURE
109
microscopic investigation of undifferentiated protoforms ? plasm, or monera of scarcely distinguishable in the child's former experience, interest, or Nothing
knowledge would throw a particle of light on the subWould he not, rather, begin with the familiar ject.
animals of
field
and forest?
The
child's
developis
ment
is
at all events psychological,
and
it
plain
is
that the logical order of developed

parallel with
it.
sciences
not
must, therefore, look further for the true principle of apperception in the mind of the
We
growing
child.
The thought over which
Ziller
most loved to
linger,
and for which he cites a host of witnesses, is the somewhat poetic idea, which certainly has biological analfrom infancy ogy, that each child in his development to manhood passes through the same general stages that the race has passed through in its rise from
savagery to
as
civilization.
This
is
the argument
Just
the embryo of one of the higher animals shows unmistakable evidence of passing through all the es-
stages of development manifested by lower so the child in his mental evolution passes orders, through, in little, all the great culture epochs that
sential
have marked the development of the race. This is Ziller's famous doctrine of the historical stages of culture. If, therefore, one would appeal to the understanding of the child, or touch the springs of his
terest, or portray to
in-
ethical relations capable of his attention, one should be mindful of these claiming are fond of thinking of education as the epochs.
him
We
process of realizing in each individual the experience of the race, but we have not emphasized the idea that
110

same
1
the child can best get this experience in the order that the race obtained it.
The following from Dr. Eein's
Outlines of Pedagogics
gives a clear view of the matter as conceived by the "These considerations turn us back Ziller school.
are
from the complicated relations of the present, which more difficult to grasp, to past times, which are more simple, more easily understood, and, at the same time, more easily adaptable to the conceptive power of
From this standpoint the material the young mind. for the instruction that is to mould character should be
sought in the development of the national is to be followed in its chief epochs.
culture,
It
which
should be
presented from its very beginnings, i.e., from the point at which a constant progress is apparent, up to the
present.
This idea, which, agreeably to its content, the principle of historical culture, also as we shall see at once, with the psychoharmonizes, in each logical requirement that the subject-matter
we may
call
case correspond to the child's stage of apperception. The material and the formal points of view coincide.
A people
culture
;
does not rise at once to a definite height of
centuries of zealous, universal labor are necesIt must climb before the height can be reached. sary from lower to ever higher stages; must pass from
simpler to ever more complicated relations in order to satisfy the bent for improvement and the realizaAnd the tion of the kingdom of God upon earth.
individual, the
same as the people, rises in his defrom lower to ever higher stages, from velopment
i
Syracuse, N. Y.
C.
W.
Bardeen, 1893.
HISTORICAL STAGES OF CULTURE
111
ideal
simpler to ever richer mental contents, if only his tendency be not smothered by material sensual-
fine height.
by the feeling that he has already attained a Thus we must accept on the one hand on the other hand individual, stages of historical,
ity or
the two series
development, or apperception. It is obvious that if the historical, with its various cult-
ural materials
and the personal, with
can be brought successideas, wishes, and desires and accurately into harmony with each other, fully one can undoubtedly get control of the scholar's inter-
its
manifold
because by this means the psychological conditions would be best established. The development of the individual is nourished on the development of the
est,
subject can claim the height of enters into the thoughts of the child being expected, it is welcome, and the direct interest makes its appearance provided the teacher possess the neceswhole.
interest, it
;
Whenever a
sary art of instruction. As a matter of course, the most careful selection of material is useless when
there
is
a lack of
skill.
But
this careful selection of
subject-matter will give the teacher unsuspected assist-
ance as soon as he understands

"
it.
find that this idea of the analogy between the individual and general development of humanity is a
We
common
lects.
It appears, for
possession of the best and most noted intelexample, in the works of the
literary heroes Lessing, Herder, Goethe,
and Schiller;
with the philosophers Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Comte with the theologians Clement of Alexandria,
;
Augustine, Schleiermacher with the Darwinists Huxley and Spencer with the classical philologists F. A.
; ;
112
Wolf, Niethammer, Dissen, Liibker; with the educators Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Diesterweg, Herbart, Ziller, and others.
"
From
two, Goethe and Kant.
the large number of voices let us select but The former said Although
'
:
the world in general advanoes, the youth must always start again from the beginning, and, as an individual, The latter traverse the epochs of the world's culture.'
points out that the education of the individual should imitate the culture of mankind in general, as developed
in
various generations." l If, therefore, we are to regard this principle as substantially true, if there is in reality such a parallelism
s
between the successive stages of the child's mental growth and the culture epochs of the race as this theory claims, then, as Ziller and Rein declare, a striking advantage at once comes to view, the psychological principle coincides with the historical one of the material of study, so that without further search we have a common guide to the development
of the several culture branches.
"What shall be done with the nature-studies
is
an-
other story, which can be told only when we consider the subject of correlation, or concentration, as
Ziller calls
it.
This idea of the culture-stages was foreshadowed by Herbart when he insisted that Greek should come
before Latin because
child's
it
corresponds more closely to the

:
comprehension and interest, also when he said "Periods which no master has described, whose spirit
little
no poet breathes, are of

1
value to education."
Outlines of Pedagogics, pp. 96-98. Herbart's Science of Education, p. 74.
CHAPTER IV
ZILLER'S
THEORY OF CONCENTRATION OF STUDIES
mprogress of the thought will now be best the second grand topic prehended by taking up
:
The
WHAT PRINCIPLE SHALL GOVERN THE ARTICULATION,

OR COORDINATION OF THE VARIOUS STUDIES
?
Why,
first
of
all,
should
we
strive for
any coordina-
tion of studies^?
Chiefly for three reasons, say the Herbartians, two psychological and one ethical. " 1. Instead of I," as an regarding the self, or empty point of personality, the same whether rich or
barren in experience, whether ignorant or learned, we may think of the self, or ego, as a constantly growing,
developing somewhat, whose true unity, or individuality, depends upon the unity that exists in its knowl-
edge and
content of
experience
in
general.
my
mental
life, I
am I
Abstracting the only in the sense

;
that an unrealized possibility

do, I
is equal to nothing else but not abstracting from what I know and feel and
am J to the extent that conscious unity exists among the various elements of my mental life. If my ideas cannot be related when they pertain to
related things, to this extent I fail to realize my true One of the forms of insanity is plurality of being.
113
114
mental existence. But this unity depends upon proper correlation of ideas. The elements in the content of our mental life must he so organized that
unity of knowledge and consistency of feeling and volition may arise. Our interests grow out of our
knowledge
our feelings, desires, and motives are the

;
natural consequence of our interests our wills strive to realize the good to self revealed by motives based
on knowledge.
Symmetrical character
is
hardly con-
ceivable aside from symmetrical, coordinated knowlman may indeed rule powerfully within a edge.
small range of concepts of which he is master, but put him into situations that he does not understand, and
customary strength becomes weakness. Much of a proper correlation of knowledge comes to us spontaneously in spite of teacher or text-,book, yet it is easily conceivable that a proper progress in the
his
sequence of topics in each subject, together with a
happy juxtaposition
jects,
of the related parts of all sub-
might aid materially in bringing our knowledge If each subject is to be an into a substantial unity.
errant comet, pursuing its path independent of the others if, in other words, disorganization and isolait is plain tion of topics is to rule in our instruction that the desirable unity of knowledge will not only not
be promoted, but will actually be hindered that consequently the teacher, in spite of his pious wish for the highest welfare of the pupil, may aid in making
;
him a dependent being, whose unrelated knowledge does him little or no good. Our desire to develop the
individuality and power of the pupil can find its best realization, so far as instruction is concerned, in the
CONCENTRATION OF STUDIES
115
best possible coordination of all the subjects that we The first purpose of the coordination of studies teach.
is,
therefore, the promotion of true unity and consistency in our mental life through instruction.
2.
may
In the next place, knowledge gained at school mean much or little for our subsequent careers.
idea, the result of the
is
According to the formal-culture
training largely independent of knowledge retained If the urchin only " buckles or interests awakened. " to and learns his lesson, he may forget it as soon as
he
likes
the advantage
is still his,
for he has
had the
discipline.
There
is,
however, another
is
;
at these matters,
and that
useful
this
if
way of looking the lad remem-
bers little of
what he learns
for
he cares
little
having learned to read, reading if having been

if
;
mass of knowledge, no effect remains upon his interests, tastes, permanent or pursuits, then this formal training upon which we It would pride ourselves is practically worthless.
forced to acquire a certain
have been better to

tions in
let
the boy pursue those occupainterest, for
which he had some
only where
there
is
This
interest in things learned can profit result. Ziller's view. is Now, the coordination of
studies
it
means
their correlation
that
is, it
means that
enable the pupil in one way or another to become conscious of useful and interesting relations
shall
among the
child
various
is
topics
of
the various studies.
sure to be interested in something, so Every that if he can see that other things are related to his
This favorite ones, life at once broadens before him. basis of interest in study is laid when the child finds
in the subject-matter of instruction that
which appeals
116

own thinking
as valuable.
to his
He must
under-
stand
self.
it, therefore, primarily, in its relation to himThe richer the content in his eyes, the more
varied and intimate the relations that are revealed to
him, the warmer is his interest, the more willingly he pursues study for its value in promoting the things
which he is most fond. Is it not plain, therefore, more knowledge is knit together, the more one subject throws upon another, the richer light will be his apprehension and the warmer his interest ? For the reason, consequently, that coordination of
of
that the
studies promises to increase rapidly the pupil's power of apprehension and to promote his direct interest in what the school has to offer him, it seems worth
working
3.
for.
It
has been stated that there
is
one ethical reaThis, too,

is
son for the coordination of studies.
an
outcome of the new way of looking at psychology. favorite notion with Germans, and perhaps with
A
all
Christian people, is that the school ought to develop the moral aud religious character of pupils. The old took but little note of the studies of the school way
as implements for this training, but relied mainly on authority, first of the Scriptures, and then of teachers,
parents, etc.
logical
This
is
the natural outcome of a psycho-
system of independent "faculties." But Ziller's view of which I am writing, not underestimating the
value of the old training, adds, as we have often seen, the important thought that the common school studies
themselves
cal culture.
may become no mean

This idea
is
instruments for ethi-
a natural outcome of the
notion that interests, desires, and motives are formed
in
117
consequence of ideas gained through study and ob-
and that consequently the will itself is directly dependent upon ideas, or knowledge, for its field of activity. To bring about unity or consistency
servation,
in our volitional acts, therefore, it would seem that the body of knowledge in which volition has its roots should be unified to the greatest practicable extent. If knowledge lies in isolated tracts, it has in the first
place little cumulative effect upon the motives of the child and in the second place, even if each separate
;
own little round of interand motives, there is small probability that the resulting acts of will would of themselves drop into a
tract should give rise to its
ests
coordinated line of consistent actions.

:
Dr. Rein sums
the matter up as follows " The ethical need demands that the teacher shall endeavor to concentrate the
spiritual forces of the pupil, so that they shall not be dissipated, but shall in their union call forth strong, effective action. "Without such concentration of mental forces
no moral character
is
conceivable.
But
if
the
pupil
is
to be able to effect this concentration of his
tal store
powers, the greatest care must be taken that his menbe not broken up into disconnected parts, but
unified to the greatest possible extent." There is, in addition to these theoretical grounds, a practical reason for the proper coordination of studies,
that should cause us to listen to all serious propositions looking to that end. It is universally acknowl-
congested,
edged that our present curriculum, if not already badly is likely soon to become so. Subject after
subject has been added, not from
any demonstrated
pedagogical need, but in obedience to popular demands
118

The process Not only each newly-developed
or to the professional zeal of specialists.

is
still
continuing.
branch of useful knowledge, but even every popular social reform (scientific temperance, for instance) de-
mands a representation
is
in the school-room.
The
result
often a detrimental atomization of the pupil's time

attention.
Not having time to digest any subject he soon becomes a mere taster in all learnthoroughly, The initial stages of our educational progress ing.
and
were brought about by men like Comenius and Pestalozzi, who were impelled more by their sympathies and instincts than by clear, analytical thinking it would
;
seem that we are

are taking
little
following our instincts to put into the school everything good in itself, but that we
still
heed of the
effect
upon the
child.
Nothing appears more
essential to our further advance,
therefore, than a rigid examination of the curriculum, that indispensable parts may be properly related and
needless ones eliminated.
Some
of the reasons
why
coordination of studies
is
desirable having been examined briefly, the interesting to be question now arises, How is the coordination
Ziller's plan is one of concentration about a core of culture material. This core about which the work of each successive grade is to be concentrated is
effected ?
composed of the studies that have the greatest moral content, or practical value in bringing about the moral revelation of the world in the mind of the child.
to be
They constitute the material that serves best to cultivate ideals and disposition, being called, indeed, Gesin1
nungs-Stoff.
i
History and literature naturally consti-
That
is,
material that serves to cultivate right disposition.
119
tute the core of concentration, the one narrating the actual progress of the race, the other picturing ethical Both are concrete, alconflict in imaginative forms.
lowing direct access to the ideas they portray, whereas languages have a bar of grammatical and other forms separating the student from the ideas.
Taking advantage of the

is
everywhere
taught in
German
fact that Biblical history schools, Ziller elabo-
rated a double historical course for them, the one Jewish, the other German. His only serious attempt
to utilize literature proper, as a factor of this course, is found in the early years, where he selects twelve of
Grimm's
fairy tales for the first grade,
and Kobinson
of Ziller
still
Crusoe for the second.
The followers
adhere somewhat rigidly to his selections. Later, the ISTiebelungen Lieder and some of the Thiiringer Sagen
are used, but after this, not much attention is paid to In the double historical series, literature as such.
effort is
made
to adjust the
work
for each year to the
corresponding epochs in Jewish and German history. The following is the order of topics First year,
:
second year, Robinson Crusoe third year, (1) Bible Stories from the Time of the Patriarchs, (2) Legends of Thuringia (Thiiringer fourth year, (1) Bible Stories from the Sagen)
Grimm's Fairy Tales
Time
of the Judges, then of the Kings, (2) NiebelunTales fifth year, (1) Bible Stories from the Time gen of Christ, (2) History of Henry I., Otto I., Charle;
magne
of
sixth year, (1) Bible Stories from the Time Christ, continued, (2) Migration of the Nations,
;
Roman Empire and

dle Ages,
the Popes, the Crusades, the Midvon Hapsburg; seventh year, (1) Rudolph
120
The Original Congregations of Churches, and the Apostle Paul, (2) Discovery of America and its First
Settlement, History of the Eeformation, the Thirty Years' War; eighth year, (1) Instruction in the Catefor
chism, (2) Frederic the Great, the Napoleonic Wars Independence, the Restoration of the German
Empire.
Having decided what the core of concentration shall be, Ziller has now to show how the remainder of the
instruction can be grouped about the topics in the In the first leading studies from grade to grade.
If place, how shall the languages be disposed of? human deeds, both real and ideal, must of necessity
be the expression of the ethical forces at work in the world, it is clear that language is essential for their
preservation and transmission. In language, therefore, we find the embodiment of the ethical, so that
language study
is
merely the formal aspect of this

It
culture side of the curriculum.

to lend itself, at least to
ought consequently
some
extent, to the
same
principle of development.
Language being only the
vehicle of thought, may naturally be made to follow In this case language the development of thought.
would have to be studied as a means for the expression and comprehension of thought, not as an end in itself. Except for minor culture subjects, like drawing and singing, this, for the present, disposes of the first or humanistic group, so far as the principle of
concentration
arranged in
the
man
For a detailed program with this idea, we must wait for harmony who now wears Ziller's mantle, Dr. Wilhelm
is
concerned.
Rein, Professor of Pedagogy at the University of Jena.
121
We
don of
come now
Ziller's
critical
point
What
what may prove the Achilles tensystem. At all events, it is the most
to
shall be
done with the nature-
studies ?
Having confessedly no moral content, they can at best be used only as instruments for moral training. Yet they must be concentrated about the historical
epochs of culture.
The performance
is
of this task,
The though seemingly artificial, second group constitutes geography, nature-studies, and mathematics. The difficulty now with concennot impossible.
is, not only that nature-studies have no moral content related to the core of concentration, but also
tration
that they have no useful historical principle of development. These are difficulties to the Ziller school,
yet not insurmountable obstacles. The path of the progress of science has been that
which leads out of darkness into

to truth.
light,
from error
teach
Who
before
would, for instance, seriously
alchemy chemistry, or astrology before as? are fond, indeed, of telling our pupils tronomy about these beginnings of science, but we speak of
We
them rather
to-day.
as items of interesting information than
as necessary to
an understanding of science as
it
exists
Something can be done, however, in the way of practical concentration. If, as was seen above, the
logical order of science as a relatively
completed sys-
tem
tion,
of knowledge
we may
fall
not a safe guide to its presentaback on the psychological principle

is
of apperception, and present it in any way that will appeal to the child's interest and understanding.
122
It has long been a favorite idea with teachers that
Not geography should be correlated with history. must history have a place in which to unfold, only
but the unfolding itself has to a large extent been dependent upon the geographical features of the country
its
mountains, plains, rivers, seacoasts, forests, and
climate.
Geography
as
a basis for history
is
now
becoming an important subject of study in German It may be added also that it is of much Universities.
importance in the biological sciences.
Thus one might
study the Alps as a seat of history, at the same time devoting a part of his attention to Alpine flora and
fauna. In a sense, then, geography forms a link to bind together the deeds of man and the facts of nature. In a still larger sense, geography unites nature and man. In these modern times, commerce binds
the whole world together.
A man
in the
Northwest
may any land under the sun. He contributes to the world what he raises, and the world stands ready to give him someexchange his
for the product of
wheat
thing of everything in return.

It is
geography that
first
makes the child conscious
of the reciprocity that exists in the world, for it shows him in a concrete way, through a study of productions,
populations, transportation, and the like, how each man, by the division of labor, works for all men, and
is
in turn served
by
all
men
to the extent of the value
of his
own
contribution.
Geography, then, connects history and science, also revealing the most concrete modes of human reciprocIt is, therefore, the natural link binding purely ity.
humanistic and purely
scientific
studies.
Following
this hint, Ziller does not find
it difficult
123
to discover
some
sort of connection
subordinate subjects. fact that the will puts itself into relation to nature in order to bring it into the service of man ; that human
action
is
between the leading and the Dr. Rein calls attention to the
limited by moral rules and by the nature of
Obedience to moral ideals limits the will as things. to ends, while obedience to the nature of things limits
the will as to means.
The ends
for
it,
and the means whereby they do

to the
which men work, should be brought
mind simultaneously.
Finally, mathematics bears the same relation to science that language does to the humanistic studies.
It is their
formal
side.
If its real function is
made
apparent, and its application sufficiently concrete, enough correlation can be brought about to hold the
pupil's interest for
in that
number and to enhance his interest which number measures.
That the Anglo-Saxon teacher who may be curious know how this arrangement of culture- and naturestudies would look in English, may be gratified, the
to
following outline of single coordinated groups is inserted. It is from the pen of Dr. Frank McMurry,
formerly Professor of Pedagogy in the University of

Illinois.
First Grade
The Fir Tree, Andersen. Science: (a) White Pine as a type of evergreens, more common here than any other evergreen tree.
Literature
:
since
it
is
(6) Austrian Pine.

(c)
Scotch Pine.
(d)
Norway Spruce.
124

Balsam
Fir.
(e)
in
Pine Twig" and "Story of a Pine Tree," Nature Stories for Young Readers. Also sentences on the board taken from the Science and Literature work, like those
Reading:
"A
immediately following Written Language: Sentences based on Literature, thus:

:
The fir tree lived in It was not happy.

It
the forest.
wished to be
tall.
A little
rabbit sometimes
jumped over the

:
tree.
This made the tree ashamed.
Or based on Science, thus The fir tree is green all winter. Sometimes the snow covers it. Then it is a white tree. The snow does not break the limbs.
See
They bend down.
they are fastened into the trunk. I cannot break off the twigs.
how
Writing
If
: (All the small letters this year.) the children are ready to study r, take the words
fir,
rabbit, green, tree.

If some other letter should be studied, similar groups of words bearing on the study of the fir will suggest themselves to
the teacher.
Drawing
or crayon.
(a)
Drawing of pines and
firs,
with colored chalk
(6) Drawing,
trees, of cones, (c)
and sewing in perforated board, of evergreen and of rabbit. trunk of evergreen, tub in which it was Moulding
placed, toys that adorned it. (d) Drawing of different scenes in the story, as of
cutters hauling the trees
(a, 6, c,
wood-
from the forest, etc. are from Science, d is from Literature.)

of needles in a bundle of White, Scotch,
Number : Number
;
in two bundles of or Austrian pine five of Scotch or Austrian pine.
White pine
in two, four,
Number Number
of
of pairs of legs
wings on two, three, etc., seeds. on rabbit.
Number
Music
:
125
of wheels
on wagon that hauled the tree away.

?
How many
span of horses
" High in the Top Poems: " Pine Needles."
of
an old Pine Tree."
"The
Little Fir Trees."
" The Pine Tree's Secret."
Second Grade
Literature: "Louise, the Child of the Western Forest," in
Seven
Little Sisters:
: The squirrel (the animal that Louise loved to The quails (of which a beautiful description is given).
Science
watch).
If squirrels
cannot be secured, or are not familiar, the rabbit

;
may
be taken as a type then the squirrel by comparison. So also with the quail, the hen may first be studied as a type
first
form.
" Beading : "The Little Chickens," and The Chicken Hen," Easy Steps for Little Feet. "The Squirrel," in Parker's Second Supplementary Reader. " Story of Chicken Little," and " Two Naughty Chickens," in Stickney's Second Reader. " The Rabbit's Party," in Interstate Second Reader. "Rover and the Squirrel," in Barnes's Second Reader.
in "
What
the Squirrel Said," in McGuffey's Alternate SuppleStories written
mentary Reader.
Written Language
:
by the children about
Louise, and also about the animals studied.
Writing
If
will write Louise
the children are ready to take up capital L, they if it is C, they will write Christian (Louise's
;
brother) and Christmas (the gala day for them). Many other capitals can be introduced from the story, and short sentences, or phrases be written, as Little Gretchen, The
beautiful river Rhine, Louis loves Fritz.
Drawing
(6)
(a) Illustrations of scenes in the story

of rabbit, squirrel, hen,
.
drawn on
blackboard or on paper.
Drawing
Moulding
and quail
flute,
of the ship
(on which Louise sailed)

(c)
log
houses, Christian's
the axe with
126

felled the trees, the linen chests (their only
which the father
furniture), the vegetables (that they raised to sell).

(d) Paper-cutting
;
quails, squirrels, vegetables, etc.
baby quails has a mother quail ? if they were to go in couples, how many couples would follow the mother ? (6) Examples based on the nuts that the squirrels used,
(a)
Number :
How many
Various stories derived therefrom, or
measures, pint, quart,

(c)
etc.
(d)
On the number of eggs, how many dozen ? On the number of logs it takes to build one On
;
side of a
house.
(e)
the
number
of dollars Fritz received for a load of
wood
(J)
for three or four or five loads.
Children measure and
sell
vegetables (going with Chris-
tian to market).
Song: "Bob White."
Gay Bunny Goat." "The Queer Little House." Game " Hop Little Rabbit "
"Little
:
(small chickens represented).
Poems : " Wanted, Twelve Pairs of Stockings." " The Mountain and the Squirrel." "Old Squirrel Gray."
Third Grade
Literature
:
Robinson Crusoe
" Robinson's Harvest."

it
is
from time of sowing until it taken from the oven as a loaf of bread. " The Mill Wheel," in Easy Steps for Little Feet. Beading : " How the Mill Wheel was Turned," Harper's Third Reader.
Science: Wheat
following
" What Comes from Seeds."

Miller's Methods," "The Staff of Life," "The Machine Baker," Information Reader, I. Written Language : Chapter on Robinson's harvest reproduced in writing. Story of a tiny grain following a grain of
The
wheat as indicated in the Science lesson. Writing Based on sentences taken from the above.
;
Drawing:
(a) Picturing of Robinson,
showing his
field
of
grain, his harvest.
(6)
127
Drawing a
;
stalk of wheat, a sheaf of

pestle
used as a scythe baskets in which
it
wheat a saber and mortar used in pounding wheat was held clay dish on which it was placed
:
after being fashioned into loaves

(c)
the loaf
itself.
Moulding
of saber, pestle, mortar, basket, plate,

;
and loaf.
(d) Paper-cutting
saber, basket, mortar, pestle.
(a) Measure stalks of wheat. Measure wheat by peck, one-half bushel, and bushel. Examples like the following If I have a bushel, a half -bushel, and a peck of wheat, how many pecks have I ?
(6)
:
Number:
Weighing a bushel of wheat. How much does a half? A peck ? A quart ? the work (d) Selling wheat at various reasonable prices not to be beyond the pupils. (e) How many grains in a head of wheat ? (choose a head within their possibilities) measure grains in a one-half gill cup. How many such heads will it take to fill it ? To fill a gill cup ?
(c)
bushel weigh
bushels can a steam thresher thresh in one In one-half day ? In one hour ? (g) How many bushels of wheat can the Bloomington mill grind in one day ? In a half a day ? etc.
(/)
?
How many
day
(h)
(i)
What
part of a bushel of wheat becomes fine flour
? ?
How many
pounds
in a
sack of flour
half-sack
How many pounds in a sack of graham flour ? In two sacks ? A half -sack ? 0') How much does one sack of flour cost ?
Two
sacks
?
etc.
" We of the Farmer now will Songs: Sing." " When the Corn begins to Sprout." Poems : " There was a Miller."
Jolly
Fourth Grade
History
:
Fremont's Expedition.
:
Geography
The country
i.e.,
to
which the
class
is
introduced
through the history,
St. Louis, Mississippi River, Platte
River, prairies of Kansas and Nebraska, animals, plants, and products of these states, Fort Laramie, Rocky Mountains in the
region of Fremont's Peak, mountains, lakes, etc.; wheat farms,
128

new Western
cities, railroads,
cattle ranches,
frontier facts, gar-
risons, Indian tribes, prairie fires, blizzards.
Science
The wheat
plant, grasses of the West, rocks, fishes,

If
birds, deer, buffalo, etc.
these animals are not
all at
hand,
those most nearly related to them may be studied instead ; for example, the sheep in place of the deer. Also instruments used
by Fremont,
i.e.,
the barometer, thermometer, compass (air-
pressure and pneumatics). Arithmetic : Problems suggested by Geography and Science compare lengths of rivers, for examples in division value of
;
;
wheat farms, quantity
of
wheat raised and

;
its
value at a certain
number
of bushels per acre

;
the values of hides and income of
trappers from that source
value of cattle.
Language
Spelling
:
The thoughts expressed on paper are taken from

necessarily introduced
History, Science, etc.
Words
by tbe other
studies.
Fifth Grade
History
:
less colonists, his
Story of John Smith (his struggles with the shiftadventures with the Indians, and his expedi-
tion of discovery).
Geography : Chesapeake Bay and vicinity oyster-beds, tobacco-raising coal and iron mines and fruit-growing in addition to study of climate, relief, soil, etc.
;
;
native plants
Tobacco plant, oysters, clams, snails, with other and animals of Virginia. Arithmetic : Quantity of tobacco chewed by one person per
Science
:
; ;
quantity smoked its value. Weight of ashes of cigar compared with weight of cigar one is what per cent of the other, etc. Language : Compositions on the history of an oyster, the production of iron, John Smith's adventures, etc.
year, in a lifetime
;
Sixth Grade
History : Causes of the French and Indian War. Desire of France and England to secure the fur trade ferences iu religion, etc.
dif-
Geography
:
129
Lawrence, the Great Lakes, Ohio Brunswick, Lake Champlain, and Lake George, pineries of West and North, fisheries on coast. beaver, otter, mink, bear, Science: Fur-bearing animals Also deer and moose. buffalo, raccoon.
Valley of
St.
River,
Nova
Scotia,
and
New
Arithmetic
Relative size of the lakes, expressed decimally

;
of the states in the once disputed territory
relative
worth of
various kinds of furs, and so forth.
The third grand subdivision of Ziller's work, of Methods of Teaching, is based on Herbart's
distinctions,
that
four
Clearness, Association, System, and Method, as already explained in Chapter VI of

I.
Part
This topic
is
discussed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER V
METHOD
IN
TEACHING THE FORMAL STAGES OF

INSTRUCTION
Ziller has given an exhaustive treatment of the laid down by Herbart under the terms Clearness, Association, System, and Method as
principles
explained in Part I, Chapter VI. He has, however, given a special function to the processes Analysis and
Synthesis, in that analysis works upon present stores of knowledge and experience, in order to prepare the mind for the best possible apperception of the new
material that
tion.
is
synthetically offered to
Ziller
it
by
instruc-
Recognizing this separate function of analysis
and synthesis, most followers of
now
divide the
step clearness, as defined by Herbart, into two steps, thus making five in all. Dr. Rein names them as fol-
lows:
(1)
Preparation
(analysis),
(2) Presentation
(synthesis),
cation.
(3) Association, (4) System, (5) Appli-
The following translation from Rein's Dos Erste Schuljahr (The Pirst School Year), made by Dr. Charles A. McMurry, 1 gives a perfectly clear idea of the subject as conceived by the disciples of Ziller:
General Method, Bloomingtou,

130
111.:
Public-School Publishing
Co., 1893.
METHOD
The Formal Steps in
IN
TEACHING
Outlines
131
their
Proceeding
notice first of
now
all
to the act of instruction itself,
we
that the subject-matter of every study like arithmetic or geography is to be divided up into a number
of smaller parts, units of instruction, each of which will occupy from one to four, or even more, recitaThese divisions of a term's work in history or tions.
geography are what Ziller calls methodical unities, and each one of them is to be carried through the successive steps of a systematic recitation plan, namely, the formal steps. For if the single topics which go to make up the great variety of school studies are to be clearly un-
derstood and thoroughly assimilated, each must be worked over by itself. For this purpose sufficient
time must be given so that the details of each object can be absorbed, and this absorption with the details
must be succeeded by a period of
recollection, a brief
survey of the situation, a glance backwards and forwards, so as to fix the relations of this object to
others.
Suppose that the instruction in a class begins with one of these methodical unities. The first thing
to
do
is
to
make
plain to the pupils the great object or

instance,
will hear
aim of the lesson. In a primary class, for the aim maybe so expressed: " To-day we
the story of a little girl that lost both father and For a more advanced class as follows mother." " are acquainted with the earth as a great ball will next see whether this ball hanging in space.
:
We
We
is
at rest or in motion."
Reasons for stating
the
Aim
at First
There
are
several important reasons in favor of the plain state-
132
merit of the purpose of a recitation at the beginning. 1. It pushes aside and out of view those irrelevant
thoughts which chance to occupy the mind before

the recitation, and it accordingly makes room for the ideas about to be developed. 2. It transplants the children into the new circle of ideas which are to
demand
which
this
is
their attention,
and
it
encourages the rise in
the child's
of those older and kindred thoughts will be most welcome supports to the new ideas
mind
about to be presented.
3. It excites expectation, and the most favorable disposition of mind for the 4. It gives the child a beginning of instruction.
strong incentive to an exercise of the

it
will,
and impels
to
voluntary cooperation in solving the difficulties
of the proposed lesson. The last point is of fundamental importance, and worthy of a special consideration. The pupil should
know beforehand what

his powers to bear
is coming if he is to bring all on the work of learning, and it is easier to call out all his effort if he knows beforehand what is to be gained. To conduct a child along an unknown road toward an unknown object, by means of questions and hints, the object of which he does not see, to lead him on imperceptibly to an unknown
has the disadvantage that it develops neither a spontaneous mental activity nor a clear insight into
goal,
the subject.
Having reached the end of such a line of thought, He cannot surthe pupil looks about bewildered. vey the road that he has just gone over. He does
not comprehend what has happened to him. He stands at the goal, but does not see the relation in which the
METHOD
result stands to the
IN
TEACHING
133
labor performed.
He
does not
rise to that satisfactory
mental activity and favorable
disposition of mind which are stimulated by the purNo aim, no will Now suit of a clearly set purpose.
!
since instruction that aims at moral character finds

its
it
highest purpose in the development of will power, follows that a lesson should develop the will just
as
much
as the understanding.
But
to develop will
power, instruction must pursue plainly set aims, and to reach them the pupil must be called upon to throw all his mental powers into the effort.
The general purpose of a lesson having been made plain, the real work of teaching then begins, and in every methodical unity this work runs through a succession of five steps. The first step in this process consists First Step in a preparation of the ground for the reception of the new lesson. This is done by freshening up and
calling clearly to the upon the new, such as
mind such older
ideas as bear
by their similarity explain and assist the understanding of the new. It is only when
a troop of old familiar ideas come forth to meet the strangers that they are received easily into the mind.
It is in this
alone that they can make a lasting the thoughts and feelings. If these impression upon forces which lie asleep in the background of the child's
way
thoughts are not called into activity, he will remain

dull
and indifferent
to the recitation,
tion reminds us of a learned discourse
and the instrucwhich shoots
over the heads of the listeners.

attention and participation, of mind.
it
Instead of interested
produces only weariness
134
This result will always follow when that which is awakens no chords of sympathy in the minds of the hearers. If nothing springs forth from within
said
coming from without, the lesson will be meaningless and the pupil unreceptive. Things new and strange can only be appropriated by means of a wealth of old ideas, and the plan of recitation must
see to the preparation of these old materials during
to greet that
the
first step.
The second step begins with the presentation of the new lesson, which will vary in manner according to the age of the pupils and the nature
class,
Second Step
of the study. story will be related to a primary or developed according to the conversational
method.
read.
reading lesson for older pupils would be geography topic would be presented by the
teacher while talking and drawing, and a subject in physics while experimenting and speaking. If the preparation has been of the right kind the lesson will be appropriated with ease and and the
certainty,
teacher will not be compelled to talk and ask and exWhenever this is necesplain all around the subject.
sary the preparation, the first step, must be regarded as a failure. What has been learned is not only to be momentarily understood, but permanently approIt is necessary to close priated. up this step Avith repetition and drill, and these must be continued under
varying forms till the lesson has been firmly fixed. In this manner the first great act in the process of teaching and learning has been completed, namely,
and
the presentation and reception of the subject-matter, it consists, as we have seen, of two steps, prepa-
METHOD
IN
TEACHING
135
ration of the ground and presentation of the lesson. The second act within the limits of a methodical unity
the process of building up and bringing into distinct form the general or abstract ideas which are to be drawn from the concrete materials already collected,
is
and
this second act
is
brought to a conclusion in the
three following steps. In the third step we are to bring toThird Step in the mind the newly won ideas, to compare gether
them among themselves and with older
ideas,
still
and
when necessary with
additional
new ones
to be
presented; in short, to compare and to combine the new and the old. Such a comparison and union of
is necessary for two reasons: (1) in order that connection and harmony be established in one's range of ideas, and (2) that what is general and essential
ideas
in the midst of special individual things
may
be ex-
tracted from them.
Nowhere should heterogeneous
heaps of knowledge, like piles of gravel, be brought together. Always and everywhere there should be
towards well-associated and systematized " Our whole knowledge. personality rests in the end
an
effort
upon the unity of consciousness, and this is disturbed and injured when the mind is driven through a confused conglomerate of knowledge in which unconnected ideas are piled up together." But every concrete individual thing which
as a methodical ttnity contains or
is
treated
embodies a general an abstract notion, which may be separated from truth, But it the concrete thing in which it is embodied.
can only be brought to light by bringing this object into comparison with other well-known concrete objects
136

essential idea or truth,
which contain the same

bringing together in the
identical.
by
mind things
similar but not

essential to all
That which
is
common and
is strengthened by repetition, while accidental features and differences drop easily into the background. The
common
forth as a
all the objects embody springs idea of higher potency, as a general notion, as a rule or law. But the abstract idea is still bound Fourth Step
truth which
new
up with the concrete thing
a complete separation of
its
this abstract or general notion from

:
clothing in
the particulars has not yet taken place and this is means of a few wellof the fourth step. By purpose
directed questions we call out into pure and simple relief the general truth or rule, freed from its particular applications.
We
reduce this idea to definite lan-
guage expression, and
finally bring it into systematic connection with our previously acquired knowledge. It only remains to impress the abstract ideas thus ac-
quired upon the mind by repetition, so as to convert them into a real mental possession. With this the
process of abstraction is complete, but teaching canfifth step is not afford to end the matter here.
needed
of
Knowledge Fifth Step

life.
to convert the
knowledge acquired into use. and ability to know have

first
themselves no value either for the individual or
for society.
Knowledge must
step into the ser-
vice of
One must know how
edge.
use
Knowledge and power they must be transformed
to apply his knowlmust be changed into
into conscious ability.
But will not this take care of itself? Not at all. Hundreds of children have learned how to estimate
METHOD
IN
TEACHING
137
the surface of a triangle, and many of them can give the proof of the rule with ease and precision. But
put the question to one of them, How many acres does a triangular garden with sides of a given length contain ? he will stand helpless, unconscious of the fact that he possesses in his own mind the necessary
this
elements for the solution of the problem. How is explained? He has not learned to employ his
It is a
knowledge.
dead possession.
And
are there
not plenty of such cases? The conclusion is, that even the application, the use of knowledge, has to be
learned.
the master.
habit
is is
"Here also it is only practice that makes But drill which aims only at mechanical not sufficient. Even during school life that
cases as the
which
as
life
many
learned should be applied as often and in narrow limits of the child's
permit." Since the value of knowledge culminates in use, instruction should cultivate its use so far as possible in a closing step called application. For this purpose the child should be held to a diligent use of its stock
of ideas as rapidly as they are acquired, to go from the particular to the general, and back again from the
general to the particular, to traverse his circle of ideas
from a given standpoint

theoretical,
in all directions,
and to make
use of the results reached for the solution of moral,
and practical questions.
In this manner
so
a child's acquired ideas
may
be
developed,
so
comprehensive association, that all his knowledge becomes a reliable, personal possession. It is clear and systematic as well
firm, systematic,
welded together in
as practical.
138

recapitulate
:
To
In the work of instruction each

fol-
methodical unity should be carried through the

:
lowing steps 1. It should introduce the new lesson by means of

a preparatory discussion. 2. Present the new lesson.
3.
Compare the new
iu its
parts and with older
ideas and their combination.

4. Draw out the general results of this comparison and arrange them in systematic form. 5. Convert the knowledge acquired into use. This topic, more than perhaps any other from the is now accessible in English. The referred especially to the following-named works for an extended discussion McMurry, General
Herbartian school,
reader
is
Method;
De
G-armo, Essentials of
;
Apperception, pp. 200-245

lation), Outlines of lation), Science
Method; Lange, Rein (Van Liew's trans-
Pedagogy ; Herbart (Felkins' transof Education, pp. 122-128. Concrete illustrations will be given in the next Chapter, where
The varying terminology used by writers with respect to the forDr. Rein's contributions are discussed.
lowing
mal steps of instruction is well presented in the foltable, compiled by Van Liew in his translation
of Rein's Outlines of Pedagogy.
1
1
Page
145.
FORMAL STEPS
a a
.9
CD
139
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efi
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i-h
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ip
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u
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o
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^tz
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140
Upon Ziller's work as a whole many judgments have been passed, both laudatory and the reverse. Certain it is, that few can regard it with indifference.
Its bold, radical, far-reaching propositions challenge assent. attention, even if they do not always command
CHAPTER VI
DR.
WILLIAM REIN REDUCING THEORY TO PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

at the
So long as men merely lecture
universities
or write their opinions in their books, the world at large does not know whether their theories will work
in actual practice or not. When Dr. Stoy died at
Jena in 1885, it was exceedfortunate for the cause of education in general, ingly even if it was not for the specific doctrines of Professor
Stoy himself, that Dr. William Rein, Director of the State Normal School at Eisenach, was called to be his
Dr. Rein has made the pedagogical semiJena the most noted of its kind in Europe, to which students resort from every civilized country. His specific contribution to the Herbartian cause lies
successor.
nary at
not so
much
in the promulgation of
new
ideas, as in
the practical application of the important ones that

Ziller's had remained mostly untried. opponents were inclined to regard him as a pedagogical sentimentalist, who would sacrifice any number of rich educational inheritances for a poor mess of pedagogical pottage.
Few
teachers thought that his plan of

141
142
its
concentration, with its scheme of culture epochs, and subordination of the greater part of the subjects of study to Biblical and profane history, would stand the
It
test of actual practice.
was the unrivalled work of
Dr. Rein, aided by two of his colleagues in the nor-
mal
show in eight single volumes correto the eight years of the common schools, sponding
school, to
just how Ziller's plan for the selection and concentration of studies, could be carried out in practice, revealing at the same time in the most elaborate detail
the methodical treatment of each subject according to the formal steps. These eight volumes 1 are a
monument of patient labor, such as only Germans are capable of executing. As will be seen from the succeeding citation, Dr. Rein adheres closely to Ziller's exposition of Herbart.
Concerning the principle of the culture epochs as a guide to the selection of studies, he announces the
three following principles 1. By following the order of the national culture, and presenting it in the light of ethical judgment, we
:
shall call forth
permanent interest
in the developing
child
hence,
to
chronological progress
from
older
and
simpler,
newer and more complicated stages and

basis for this material
conditions.
2.
As a
we must use
child-
like classical, religious, literary,
and
historical matter
(Volks Stories 'and Robinson Crusoe in the first two "Periods which no master has described, grades).
whose
1
spirit
no poet has breathed, are of small value
Theorie unci Praxis des Volkschulunterrichtes (Die acht Schul-
jahren) by Rein, Pickel, und Scheller; Leipzig: Heinrich Bredt.
DR.
for education"
WILLIAM REIN
143
Only classical presenta(Herbart). to constant and profitable repetions invite the pupil
titions
;
they
alone
furnish
nourishment
for
the
interests and aspirations of children. Only through these does the past speak in full tones to the present. 3. Only large, connected unities of subject-matter
are able to arouse
and keep alive the deep sympathy
of the
youthful mind, thereby contributing to the " Great moral energy is development of character.
scenes
the effect of entire
and unbroken thought
masses" (Herbart).
result of the application of the idea of Concentration to the work of the first year, Dr. Rein exhibits
As a
the following program

1.
Core of Concentration
")
Drawing, Singing,
ber,
Numand
Studies
-C:
1.
Nature-Study
Reading, Writing.
Ethical Core of Concentration (Gesinnungs-Stoff);
Grimm's Fairy Tales. These form the center, or core, The other branches are concentrated of instruction. about them; and by them the remaining topics are
largelv determined.
2.
All the subjects that are sugthe Fairy Tales, receiving a special illumigested by nation from them and thereby awakening an intensified
Nature-Study
interest, are first
chosen for treatment.
School
life
and individual experience furnish much supplementary matter.

3.
this purpose the objects menin the Fairy Tales and in the nature-study are tioned
Drawing For
(See
list
of object lessons below.)
used.
4.
Singing
The choice
of songs
is
determined by
144
the moods developed by instruction and by school The various songs must express emotion at fitlife.
ting times.
5.
Number Work
This
is
connected closely with
the things that are considered in the various culture and nature subjects.
6. Reading and Writing The material is chosen from the topics treated during instruction in Fairy Tales aud Nature Study. " For the following grades, also, we seek to apply
the foregoing principles, even though the growing complication of the studies makes it more difficult than
during the
diverge, the
first year.
The more
the studies threaten to
firmer must
so that
shall
the fusion
all
of the individual
parts
be
made,
variety, there
through multiplicity and never be lacking the fundamental
condition for unity

personality,
and
l
therefore for the development of
of consciousness, for identity of moral
character."
noteworthy peculiarity proposed by Ziller and carried out by Rein and other members of the Ziller school, is that the ethical core of concentration for
the
first year shall consist of some dozen Fairy Tales from Grimm and for the second, of the story of Robinson Crusoe. This is done for the reason that they represent still more elementary culture stages
;
than the simplest stories of the Bible, being, therefore,
more perfectly adapted

of comprehension.
to the child's elementary stage This proposition was at first violently opposed by most teachers as a caricature on
Das Erste Schuljahr, 5th
edition, p. 87.
DR.
WILLIAM REIN
145
the religious teaching given in these grades of most schools where the Bible itself was used as the basis of
moral and religious instruction. The plan is now more calmly considered, though it has found but little
all
practical application in the schools, the chief cause, however, of all the slowness of reform in German
schools
being that the curriculum

stories are carefully edited
is
prescribed
by-
state authority.
The
before being pre-
sented to the children.
method
of treatment
may
good idea of the general be seen from the following
examples, translated from Das Erste and Das Zweite

Schuljuhr :
The Wonderful Kettle

i
Once there was a very poor little girl, who lived with her mother near a great wood. They had nothing to eat, and grew very hungry. Then the little Here an old woman, girl went out into the woods. who knew already that the little girl was hungry, met
her.
So the old woman gave the little girl a kettle, and said to her, " If you say to the kettle, Kettle, But if you cook,' it will cook you good, sweet rice.
'
say, 'Kettle, stop,'

little girl
it
took the kettle

it.
Then the will stop cooking." home to her mother, and

After this they did not need to
told her all about
go hungry, for as often as they pleased they ate good,
sweet
rice.
ii
One day the mother went away from home, and

the
little girl all alone.
left
Soon she became hungry, and
146

;
said to the kettle, " Kettle, cook " but she had for" The kettle gotten all about saying, Kettle, stop." kept on cooking more rice, until it ran over. Then
the kitchen became full of boiled
rice,
then the whole
house, then the street, and at last all the houses.
Nobody knew what to do. At last the mother came home, and
"
Kettle,
stop."
It
called out,
;
stopped cooking at once
but
whoever wanted
to get into that
town had
to eat his
way
in through the rice.
Methodical Treatment
A. (1) I have told you about a little girl. Who had died ? Could they give her food any longer ? The poor girl must have often suffered hunger, why ? What must she have had, not to be hungry any more ? Children name many kinds of food. There are warm foods and cold ones. How are warm foods prepared ? How long must rice cook? (Kitchen, stove, fire.) it cook forever ? What would happen ? May I will tell you of a little girl who often had to go
hungry.
" as often as they pleased, they ate (2) Story to
good, sweet rice." B. (1) What did the old
What was
this,
woman give the girl ? she to say to it ? Could the mother say How did she know about it ? What also ?
kettle do ?
How long would it cook ? Do the girl had thought of this ? If she you suppose
would the
had
not,
(2)
what would happen ? Story to "and nobody knew what
to do."
DR.
C.
WILLIAM REIN
147
(1)
How
Who
(2)
could stop
long will the kettle go on cooking? Where is the mother? it ?
Story to the close. Repetition by children. Uniting of the three sections. Questions on the
whole.
tell the whole storyhad not remembered what the old Who had ? Has any one ever told said. that you ought to notice and remember? you anything (The teacher, parents, brothers, and sisters, etc. Children give examples.) Who had not forgotten what the old woman said? What could the mother do when
Several pupils
child
(3) The woman had
the rice ran over ?
had forgotten it ? Who did not you have forgotten somewhat can you not do ? But if you have rememthing, What does the teacher bered, what can you do? when you have forgotten some(papa, mamma) say thing? What should you not do? What should
Who
know what
to do ?
If
you do
(4)
must not forget what we are told to do." What should you do when e.g. (5) Application meet the teacher? (Greet him.) When you you meet people on the street ? When your mother goes away and tells you something, what must you do ? etc.
:
"We
Robinson Crusoe
is
recast as
is
seen in the follow-
form ing translation of Rein's version, the original not being regarded as important, since it must in auy
event
suffer
translation
is
for
German
it
children.
As
soon as a section
narrated,
treatment according to the five Chapter V. All the studies of the second year are related to this ethical core as to the fairy tales of
at once undergoes steps described in
148

first
the
Following the story of how Robinson a delightful account of an actual lesson on Robinson Crusoe told by Dr. Klemm in his European
year.
settled
is
Schools.
It gives a vivid picture of the
manner
in
which
this material is utilized.
Robinson Settles
the things that Robinson brought from the were a spy-glass, a Bible, and pens, paper, and ship ink. He folded himself a book, in which he wrote
Among
everything that happened. At the same time he prepared an almanac. He set up a cross as a monument
where he had been cast upon the shore. Robinson now began to build himself a secure His tent stood on swampy ground, so he dwelling. sought a better place and found one on high ground Here there was a cave in the rock near a spring.
at the place
He first large and dry enough for him to live in. carried all his things to the cave. Then, wishing to
protect himself, he made a strong fence by driving The fence tall stakes close together in a half-circle. reached from the rock near the cave around to the
rock on the other side, and enclosed a space twenty paces long and half as wide. He left no opening, but
climbed over the fence by means of a short ladder, which he always drew in after him. The fencing of
his dwelling-place was a severe labor, and lasted from the 3d of January to the 14th of April.
of cellar.
Robinson now began to enlarge his cave into a kind This took a long time, for he had neither
i
New
York: D. Appleton
&
Co., 1889.
DR. WILLIAM REIN

pick nor shovel.
140
But he found a piece of firm, hard from which he made a very good shovel. This wood
took him three days. "Within his fortress Kobinson

his tent let the
now
built a hut, for

it
water through when
rained.
He
drove stakes into the ground in front of the cave, put a cross-bar on top of them, and then used poles for
rafters,
which he placed standing against the rock
above the cave.
He
covered the roof with branches
of trees, leaves, and whatever he could find that would keep out the rain. The sides he covered with wood,
plastering
up the cracks with
clay.
The doorway he
covered with a piece of sail cloth. But there was still He had no bed, no chair, no plenty to do within.
table,
and no
fireplace.
It took a long time to
these.
Then he put
his things in order.
make The most of
thein he put into the cave and the cellar. To know the time of day, he made himself a sundial.
After this he could divide his time regularly. Every morning he took a walk in the open air with his gun, then he worked until 11 o'clock, at which time he
prepared and ate his dinner from 12 to 2 o'clock he slept, since the heat of the sun was then unbearable.
;
The remainder
diary at the
of the day he worked, writing in his end of the day. One morning he shot a goat. At first he rejoiced, but how sorry was he, when he saw a kid by the side
of its dead mother
He took the goat upon his shoulders and the kid followed, but would eat nothing, however much he might try to induce it to do so. At
!
length he had to kill the kid to prevent it from slowly dying from starvation. At another time, he shot a
150
young goat in the leg, caught it, carried it home, and bound up the wounded leg. The wound healed, and the animal became so tame that it never ran away. Afterwards the goat gave him rich milk. At first when night came on, "Robinson sat in darkness, or had only the light of the fire on the hearth. By and by he began to study how he could have a He used the fat of the goats light, and found a way.
oil, prepared a wick, and could now keep a small lamp burning, which he had brought with him from
for
the ship.
Lesson on Robinson Crusoe

"
Teacher. Well, my children, we heard that Robinson had at last found means to return home. He was
ready to embark in the ship, the captain of which" was What do you willing to take him across the ocean.
think he took along with him ? " " I think he took his Pupil. parrot."
Teacher. Pupil. Teacher.
"
"
Why ? "
it
would be a nice present

"
Oh, he liked the bird, and he thought for his mother."
Indeed, my child, he was sure to have taken his parrot, and I am glad he thought of that dear mother of his. Would you have thought of your mother first, if you had been in his place ? "
"Yes. Don't you know he had nearly Pupil. broken his mother's heart by running away from
home
"
"
Teacher.
1
Well, what else did he take with
him
"
Reported by Dr. L. R. Kleram in his European Schools, pp.
199-206.
A LESSON ON ROBINSON CRUSOE

" I think he took Pupil Friday. have left him alone on the island.
151
He could not He owed him
thanks for being his companion." Teacher. "True, Ave must never forget a debt of He who forgets a friend is not worthy to gratitude.
have a
friend. " Pupil.
What
else did
he take
"
sol,
took his self-made clothes and parato show how he had helped himself."
"
He
Teacher.
Yes,
"
it
is
likely
that he took
them.
Anything
else ?
" I think he took the tools he had Pupil. made, and some of the pots he had formed and baked." Teacher. " The tools, yes, but hardly the pots, for he would have found it very troublesome to travel
with them.
So, then, they took leave of the island.
The sun shone brightly, and the birds sang as though they meant to say good-by to Robinson and his black friend. They both went on board the large sailingwhere they were well received. Now the anwound up." (Teacher draws an anchor, "The sails were hoisted" pupils explain its use.) were drawn on the board, by pupils likewise on (sails slate), "and the wind began to move the vessel onward. Eobinson stood on deck and looked back to the island where he and Friday had spent so many
vessel,
chor was
weary months. Both remembered the many hardships they had suffered. Now some one may tell the story
so far."
Piqnl.
"
When
this
is
agreed
1
to take
the captain of the sailing-vessel had Robinson with him to Hamburg, Rob1
Remember
Defoe's original
was a German school. Another deviation from found in the substitution of goats for llamas.
152

me
take
for
inson said to him: 'Let
my
friend Friday.
my companion many months and would be ungrateful if I should leave him here alone on the island.' The captain was willThen Robinson ing to take the black fellow also. took on board what was dear to him, his parrot, his tools, his clothes of goat-skin, and other things which he had wanted to show at home. He intended to give the parrot to his dear mother, the poor lady who had grieved for her bad, runaway boy. Both Robinson and Friday took leave of the places on the island where they had found shelter, and by taking the captain along on their tour of leave-taking they showed him the island and many of the objects that had served them. When they stood on the deck of the sailinghas been
it
He
years, and
vessel they looked back
upon the
island.
The sun
shone upon the gently swaying palm-trees, the goats were capering among the rocks, and the birds sang and twittered as though they meant to take leave of
Robinson,"
larity.
. . .
etc.,
with delightful childish particu-
Now
ently, a proof
another child told the story somewhat differthat each pupil thought his own
Then this part of the narrative was enthoughts. This titled " Mobinson's Departure from the Island."
heading found a place on the blackboard under
Teacher.
"
I.
For the present, children, we must leave Robinson on the ocean, and let us hope he will not meet with another storm such as had wrecked the ship on which he had left home. We have a gentle-
man with He comes

long
it
us
who has been on

the
the ocean several times.
way from America. Ask him how took him to cross the mighty ocean."
all

Pupil.
153
he
is
" Oh, no, he cannot have come from there not black or red like Negroes and Indians."
Some boys laughingly agreed

:
that the teacher's state-
ment could not have been right. But others looked sober and one of them said " My cousin went over to America some time ago, and when he comes back
I
there
hope he will be white yet. People don't get black who are not born black." That sobered the
others at once, and now they believed that there might be white people in America. After this fact was ac" knowledged the boys said to me, Do tell us how long it took you to cross the ocean."
" It took
see,
me
came
in a large steamer.
thirteen days and ten hours, but you Had I been in a
sailing-vessel, it
would have taken me much longer

!
at
any rate, several weeks."
" Did you Pupil. Why, that's nearly two weeks not see any land on the way ? " " Yes, on the tenth day we hailed the coast of Eng-
land,
of sight,
and after that we hardly ever till we reached Hamburg."
lost the coast out
" Pupil. Well, how long does it take a sailing-vessel " to cross the ocean ? " If the wind is But it favorable, about five weeks.
may
take seven weeks."

"
Pupil.
Hooh
seven weeks
it
!
why
that's forty-nine
Did you see any fishes ? " " Yes, my dear, we saw large fishes, called tumblers, who jumped from one wave into another, following the steamer to eat what was thrown overboard. They are
days, just think of
called hog-fish, because their flesh looks like fresh
pork, rosy and fat."
154
HERBART AXD THE HERBARTIAXS
" " Did Pupil. you have any storms on the sea ? " Yes, a storm that lasted three days, and we had much fog, in which we could not see the bow of the
steamer when standing at the stern." Other questions with which I was pelted I will omit here and proceed
with the lesson.

Teacher.
" Let us see, boys
;
our story
tells
us that
Robinson had a passage which lasted nine weeks. If you remember where Robinson's island is situated, west of South America, the voyage was very swift." (Map
is
" The vessel shown, and distances are compared.) met with no storm or fog, and the weather was fine.
The
fishes in the sea could
be seen playing in the sun-
Robinson and Friday made themselves useful on board by helping to set sails and doing other things.
shine.
At
they reached the coast of England, but did not vessel glided along the shores of England, France, Holland, and Germany, and finally up the river
last
land.
The
Some one Elbe, and entered the harbor of Hamburg. may tell the story of 'Bobinson's Voyage across the "
Ocean.''
First one, then two others, told the story, mentioning time of voyage, comparing it with that of a
steamer.
The
fishes, sunshine,
wind,
sails,
work on
deck, and other points were touched with a faithful-
ness truly astonishing. Teacher. " Let us proceed.
Tell
me what was done
when the ship was fastened to the dock ? " Pupil. "The people left the ship and went on
land."
Teacher.
"
Leaving everything under deck they had

?
brought with them
"

Pupil.
"
155
No, they unloaded the freight." " Teacher. " What may that have consisted of ? " Pupil. Well, the ship had been in the South Sea,
and may have been loaded with oranges or other

Southern
fruit,
perhaps with cocoanuts."

other things are brought from for-
Teacher.
"
"
What
" eign countries ? Pupil.
Petroleum, wheat, dye-wood, wild animals,
hides, dried fish." Teacher. " Think of
some things that do not grow

tea,
in
Germany."
"Coffee,
"
rice,
Pupil. bacco."
cane-sugar,
cotton,
to-
Very well. Our story does not say with what the ship was loaded but, when it was fastened to the dock, all the freight was carried out and wheeled into the big magazines along the dock, where the merchants came to buy. Shall we stay at the dock and see the freight unloaded, or follow Robinson and " Friday into town ?
Teacher.
;
" Let us follow Robinson." Teacher. " All right it must have taken several days to unload the ship, and Robinson wanted to
Pupil.
;
hurry home to see his dear old mother. How do you think Friday behaved when they reached the
harbor
?
"
"Oh, he must have been very much astonhad never seen a city. The many ships, the high houses, the many white people, and the smoking chimney-stacks of the steamers, the cranes for unloading ships, all of it must have looked very
Pupil.
ished, for he
queer to him."
156

"The
strangest things the savage the horses drawing wagons.
Another pupil.
saw must have been 'Look, Robinson/ he
cried, 'look at
these animals!
'
did you ever see such strange things ? And when entered a horse-car and noticed the long rows of they houses with the many, many windows, the thousands
of people on the streets, and all the many objects of interest flitting by, he sat in dumb amazement." Teacher. "Very well told, my boy. I see I need
not
can.
tell
the story myself

"
you can
they
tell it as
well as I
"
What happened when
left the street-car ?
Oh, Friday saw so many new things he had Pupil. never seen before that he stood still every minute to ask Robinson to look at this and that."
Other pupils.
"Yes; and when they came to a big shop-window he wanted to know what everything seen there was for." " He reached out his hand to take some of the things, to look at them closer, but was much astonished to
find he could not do that on account of the thick pane " I wonder of glass between him and the articles." how often he cried to Robinson, who was urging him
on, to stay
and look at a new
article
he had never
to be a wild
seen?"
first
"I believe he was afraid when he saw the
dog.
He may
have thought him
animal, such as a panther."

Teacher.
"We
me
will call this part of our story
'
Their
Arrival in
Hamburg and Friday's Astonishment.''
Some
'
one
the story." It is repeated in a connected manner by several pupils. Then the teacher
may
:
tell
said
let
" Before
we hear what Robinson found
at
home,
us repeat the three parts of our story. This section shall tell us of his departure from the island; the

second section
;
157
may tell us all about his voyage across and the third of their arrival in the harbor and Friday's astonishment at the new sights he beIt was surprising to see how faithfully they held." recalled the different incidents spoken of and how well
the ocean
they expressed their thoughts. Teacher. "At last they reached the house where
Robinson was born. He looked at the door-plate, which used to bear the name Daniel Crusoe,' but now Robinson rang the bell. A serbore another name. vant opened the door and asked him whom he wanted to see. He said, I want to see Mr. and Mrs. Crusoe.'
'
'
any longer, but wait a minute, He may tell you where to find The gentleman came and looked at this strange them.' couple, Robinson not having had time to shave his long beard and cut his hair, and Friday, the black fellow, must have looked odd enough in this city of white people and then remember they were laden with queer-shaped things and a jabbering parrot. Robinson asked anxiously after his mother. The
'
They do not
live here
I will call
my
master.
gentleman of the house asked them in, offered them seats, and told them all about the old couple. "Robinson's mother had grieved so much over her
runaway boy that she
fell
ill,
and when news reached
her that the ship in which he had sailed for foreign lands had been wrecked, she died of a broken heart.
Think of the
bitter tears of repentance
Robinson cried
when he heard
that that dear, gentle, loving mother of his had died of grief He was a strong man now,
!
but the hot tears trickled down into his long beard, and for some time he could not control himself. Fri-
158
day, seeing his friend's great distress, began to weep too but the parrot that was intended for a present to
;
the old
last
dame did not know what
to
make
of
it.
At
Robinson controlled himself enough to ask after
his father. " He was

retired
still alive, the gentleman said, but he had from business and lived in a small house near the harbor, where he sat, lonely and forsaken, to watch the ships coming into and leaving the harbor. Robinson thanked the gentleman kindly for the information, and left the old house to look up his father. After many inquiries along the wharf, he found the
house where his father
lived.
They hurried
upstairs,
and in a tidy little room they found the old man. His hair had become white, his eyes dim, and his voice Robinson threw himself on his knees trembling.
before
boy.
him and
told
him he was that
bad,
runaway
been saved and had come back to him never to leave him again. The old man laid his hands on his son's head and thanked God for having given
He had
him back
"
'
his boy.
My readers may believe me if I say the pupils sat there spellbound, tears in their eyes, and many of The teacher had told the story so them sobbing.
touchingly that the children's sympathy had been Not an incredulous smile, not a sneer was aroused.
seen,
not a word was heard from them for some
moments after the teacher had closed his narrative. It was one of those moments in which it is said an At last the teacher angel walks through the room.
roused the children from a deep reverie by asking them to repeat this part of the story, which he termed

'
159
Robinson's Bitter
Repentance'
It
was done with
touching simplicity and great accuracy. Again the entire lesson was reviewed, partly by questioning the
class, partly
by allowing them
to narrate portions in
a connected manner.
and when
concerned.
incidents were added, at last the lesson closed, the story of Roball
Many new
inson Crusoe was finished to the satisfaction of
"This narration furnishes the
'
'
Gesinnungs-Stoff
class as other (material for the sentiments) of this does in higher, tales do in lower, and as Biblical history
Besides offering food for the sentiments, grades. these lessons increase the pupils' knowledge, give
opportunities for employing their hands, and polish Much of what is offered in a contheir language.
nected manner in the above account was given in conversation, but a verbatim repetition might have
been tedious to the reader."

as
outline of nature- (and object-) study concentrated about the ethical core, shows that the principle of presentation is by no means to be sought in the subject-matter itself, but that it owes
it is
The following
its
place to suggestions arising from the fairy tales, about which everything is to be concentrated. The
sequence of topics
is
determined wholly upon psycho-
as inlogical grounds, the apperception of the pupil fluenced by instruction in culture subjects being the
Professor McMurry's plan of concentration found in Chapter IV, Part II, will fully illustrate the manner in which these object lessons are related
sole guide.
to the central culture study.
160
OBJECT LESSONS FOE FIRST YEAR

Boom.
Bed.
4 walls
rain,
(names), ceiling and wind, and cold.
floor.
Protects from
We lie in bed when tired sick. We will not be sluggards.
Soft and
warm
in bed.
wear clothing, (1) Clothing. Names of parts of clothing. that we may not freeze, (2) that we need not be ashamed,
(3) for
We
adornment, (4) for carrying things.
Food.
(1)
There
is
much
that
we can
eat.
(2)
We
eat
many
things raw, many boiled, roasted, baked. (3) There are foods from flour, flesh, milk, fruits, leaves, roots.
The Garden. (1) Shape of the garden (some particular garden) (2) Cannot live in the garden, for there are no walls and no roof. There are vegetables, grass, fruit, pleasure gar.
dens.
All gardens should be well kept.

(1)
The
and meadows. (2) and food. (4) But we can(3) In the field grows also food for man. not live in the fields, for we should not be protected from rain and cold.
Field.
There are cultivated
fields
The
field
gives
the field-animals living-place
The Wood. woods it

keep
off
(1)
is
Many
trees stand close together.
(2) In the
pleasant and cool (in summer). (3) The trees the rain. (5) (4) The trees keep off the wind.
Berries and nuts
grow
in the woods.
(6)
One can
easily
hide in the woods.
The Heavens.
a shield
(Sun, moon, stars.)
Form,
color, height, clouds.
Sun by day.
shines makes
Twilight.
Moon and
stars
by
night.
light,
warmth
Dawn.
sparks
Moon,
like
no warmth, changing forms
some
larger than others
man in moon. Stars, like cannot count them

know
the
sun
rises,
setting, sets light

rising.
Sun, round like
some men know them and
their places (children
OBJECT LESSONS FOR FIRST YEAR
101
evening star and the Pleiades, the North star, and the Dipper)
twinkle.
Directions.
(2) (1) Towards where the sun rises is East. Towards where it sets is West. (3) Towards where the sun stands at midday is South. (4) Towards where the sun never goes is North. (The children turn and point to
various directions.)
Schoolhonse.
(2) In (1) Our schoolhouse has three stories. the first story are 4 rooms, in the second 3, in the third 2, etc. learn in (4) (3) School is held in the school-rooms.
We
the School.
The Well (Hydrant). and to cook with.
Well gives us water to drink, to wash, The well gets water from the earth. (3) Fountains, wells with pumps, windlasses, etc., and
(1) (2)
hydrants.
Flock of Sheep. (1) The sheep is a mammal, for the little lambs suck milk from the mother sheep. (2) The sheep a good and patient animal, for it does not kick or bite, and does
not become angry even
useful animal, for
it
when
beaten.
its
(3)
The sheep
is
gives us
(2)
wool and
coal
its flesh.
Coal.
(1) Coal is a fuel.

(3)
With
we
heat the room

coal,
cooking-stoves.
coal.
We
have charcoal, soft
and hard
The Bean. (1) Shape of the blossom of the bean. (2) The beans oval shape and sharp-pointed. (3) Beans grow in pods. (4) The pods open into two parts. (5) Beans serve
us as food.
Waters of the Neighborhood. (1) The river is a great flowing water. (3) The (2) The brook is a small flowing water. The river has two banks, is a still-standing water. pond (4)
the
pond a bank
and
all
around.
(5) Bridges are built over

fishes.
rivers.
(6) In the
water are
(7)
The
river drives
mills
floats ships
and
boats.
Chickens.
(1)
their eggs
and
Chickens are useful animals. (2) They give us their flesh. (3) The cock crows when the
102

day begins
little
to break.
(4)
The hen
is
a good mother to the
chickens.
It
The
Squirrel. (1) The squirrel is a lively little animal. (2) jump and climb well. (3) It is a gnawing animal.
lives
can
(4) It
best.
mostly in
(1)
trees.
(5) It likes pine seeds

is
and nuts
The.
Duck.
ful.
The duck
its
a swimming bird.
(2) It is use-
(3) It gives us (1)
eggs, feathers,
is
and
flesh.
The Mouse.
The mouse
little
mammal.
(2) Is a
gnaw-
ing animal.
The Goat.
(1)
The goat is a
split
useful animal.
(2)
Has two
ruminant
horns and a
hoof (cloven hoof).
(3) Is a
(chewer of the cud).
The Wolf.
prey.
(1) Is a wild, ravenous beast.

(3) (1)
(2) Is a beast of
Sometimes attacks man.
The Fox.
The fox
is
a sly, cunning animal.
(2)
He
catches poultry and kills other small animals.
The Farmyard. (1) Yard, (2) house, (3) barns, (4) granaries. In the house the farmer and his family live, the animals
in the stalls, in the loft
is
the hay, in the granary the grain.

ice glittering, first thin
Snoio and
thick,
Ice.
Winter
cold
then
Ice
sliding,
skating.
Don't go on
ice too
soon.
flowers on the windows.
Christmas.
all little
(1)
Christmas tree, presents, etc. (2) Christ wishes children to be good. (3) He desires to have them
of prey.
come
Tlie
to
Bear.
him when they die. (1) The bear is a beast

(3)
(2)
He
is
a car-
nivorous animal.
He
is
is
a cave-dweller.
(4)
What
(2)
flies,
tricks he can perform.
The Wren.
(1)
The wren
the smallest singing-bird.

(3) Eats
Likes best to stay in hedges and thickets.
(4) Sings his little spiders, caterpillars, and berries. in summer and in winter. (5) Is a cunning bird.
song
The Hunter.
(1)
What
animals does he shoot
(2)
How
does he load his gun ? (3) Guns dangerous for children to handle. (4) What good do his dogs do ?
OBJECT LESSONS FOR FIRST YEAR

The Church.
(1)
163
The Church
is
a large house.
(2)
Many
benches, altar, steps, organ. (3) In the Church people (4) On Sundays sing, the preacher prays and preaches. people should go to Church.
The Donkey.
(1) The donkey single hoof. (3) Used for
is
a useful animal.
(2)
Has a
(4) Is
drawing and carrying.

animals.
slow hut sure.
(5) Brays.
Dog and
(3)
Cat.
(1) Useful
is
home
(2)
Are mammals.
a watcher, our servant, companion, playThe cat is our mouse-trap. (4) The dog fellow, trickster is true, the cat treacherous.
;
The dog
The Horse.
a whole hoof.
Horse our largest home animal. (2) Has Is a beautiful, clean, and wise ani(3) mal. (4) His food is grass, clover, hay, oats, and corn. (5) Used for drawing and carrying.
(1)
Schuljahren, containing elaborate of the Herbart-Ziller theories of selection, expositions concentration, and methods of presenting the various
studies of the curriculum, and at the same time setting forth the entire content of what is to be taught, are to
Though the Acht
be regarded as the masterpiece of Professor Rein's activity, yet he has published many works of a less
comprehensive nature. In connection with a report of the Practice School
Rein gives us a detailed program of concentration for the sixth grade of an elementary school, a sample of which is given as follows
at Jena, Dr.
:
1 One of the latest, his Grundriss der Piidagogik, has been recently translated by Dr. C. C. Van Liew, of the Illinois State Normal School at Normal, 111., under the title Outlines of Pedagogy. It
may
be obtained of C.
W. Bardeen,
Syracuse, N.Y.
164
w o
02
W q
i
&
H
i
i
Sz;
&
p J. p o O
Q a
EH
ii
O o
o
COORDINATED CURRICULUM
165
cc
g G H cc
i
i
W H
o
o Q
Pi
O O
CHAPTER
DR.
VII
1
KARL LANGE
APPERCEPTION
It is the incomparable service of Dr. Karl Lange, Director of the Higher-Burgher School, at Plauen, Germany, to have shown in a genial, concrete manner
the close dependence of education as an end upon psychology as a guide. To him belongs the credit of
elucidating a psychological method by "which every problem of the school-room can be directly examined.
Hitherto most of our attempts to make psychology applicable to teaching have been at the best formal
as a
and mechanical, because we have presented psychology sum of more or less isolated theories or doctrines
Going into the school-room
of special phases of mind.
with a schematized body of psychological distinctions (true enough it may be, but unimportant as a guide to education), our teachers for a time try to be psychological; but they soon
abandon complicated systems
1 Apperception, a Monograph on Psychology and Pedagogy. By Dr. Karl Lange, translated hy Elmer E. Brown, Charles De Garmo, Mrs. Eudora Hailmann, Florence Hall, George F. James, L. R.
Klemm, Ossian H. Lang, Herman T. Lukens, Charles A. McMurry, Frank McMurry, Theo. B. Noss, Levi Seeley, Margaret K. Smith, and edited by Charles De Garmo. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1893.
166
DR.
for simple
KARL LANGE APPERCEPTION

sense.
167
But Lange opens up new by sending the teacher into the class-room with all his psychological knowledge concentrated focussed upon one point, the mental processes of the
possibilities
common
All learning is apperceiving. living child. I select the subject-matter of the studies ?
best apperceives. tion ? Study the
How
shall
Study the
ends of education and the manner in which the child
How
shall I articulate the instrucfor the relations of
same problem
knowledge. How shall I present the lesson and conduct the recitation ? See what order will best conduce
to understanding and interest. What means shall I take to impart high ideals, or to secure right disposiGo to the same tion, or reliable habits of conduct ?
fountain of pedagogical guidance mind of the child.
the
apperceiving
successfully than any of his fellow-workers, perhaps, Lange has succeeded in showing how this pedagogical insight may be acquired. How important
entific
More
modern teachers should have this truly sciguidance in their work is set forth in the folextract from the introduction to the translation lowing
it is
that
of Lange's Apperception : " It is now evident that if
progress in education
we are to make further we must add to this initial im-
pulse given by Pestalozzi something of the scientific number of facts spirit of the age in which we live. In the first place, the curricpoint to this conclusion.
ulum
in
no longer the simple thing it was Study after study has been added in obedience to some popular demand or because
of studies
is
Pestalozzi's
time.
of the esoteric interest of the schoolmaster.
What
168

constitutes our curriculum
is
now
a chaos of isolated
which are allowed, not from any demonstrated psychological need, but because of some popular or professional demand. The only proper way to determine which shall be eliminated, which abridged, is to submit the whole to a thorough investigation
subjects,
according to the well-developed psychology of the present time, since the primitive systems are wholly Such an investigation will inadequate to the task.
necessarily take into consideration the educational value of each subject, when it has received the best
possible coordination with other branches it will consider the natural interests of the child, his power of
;
comprehension, the effect of his present acquirements,

disposition and leading purposes upon his acquisition of new knowledge, for all of these things will help to
decide how the curriculum shall be made up. This is a problem not to be solved by efforts aroused merely by emotion or instinct, for the problem is essentially
scientific in its nature.
meet this same need for the scientific application of psychology to education in another direction. As long as only the well-to-do classes were educated, there were many influences to which we could appeal
to
"
We
obtain the desired results.
Were
the child
in-
clined to evade our instruction in order to follow his
own
devices,
we might appeal
;
lation, to pride, to
to his ambition, to emushame, to regard for the reputation
of family, and the like
but
when
the
streets, the
mines, the factories, the tenement districts, send their children to school, these indirect means of securing
attention to study are mostly futile.
We
stand face
DR.
to face
169
with naked ignorance and indifference, and mnst make our impression in a few short years or We can no longer rely on indirect suffer defeat. means for arousing the mind to educational effort, but must contrive to awaken a deep, permanent, and growing interest in the acquisition and possession of knowlThis is a psychological problem involvitself. ing the child's acquirements, his natural instincts and interests, the content of the studies, together with edge
an investigation into the time, order, and manner of

presenting them. It appears self-evident, therefore, that to the primal inspiration for the uplifting of humanity, we must now add the intelligent direction
of psychological science." 1 The Monograph consists
of three
1.
parts
The
Doctrine of Apperception; (a) Nature and Kinds of Apperception (6) Conditions of Apperception; (c) Significance of Apperception in the Mental Develop;
of Man. The Theory of Apperception in its Application to Pedagogy, (a) The Object that is apperceived (Choice and Arrangement of the Subject-matter of Education) (b) The Subject that apperceives (Investigation, Extension, and Utilization of the Child's Experience) (c) The Adequate Union of these Two
2.
;
ment
Factors in Instruction (Methods of Instruction). 3. History of the Term Apperception, (a) Leibnitz,
thal (/)
Kant, (c) Herbart, (d) Lazarus, (e) SteinKon-Herbartian Psychologists, (g) Wundt. The following citations from the discussion of
(b)
1
the nature and kinds of apperception show to some

Lauge's Apperception,
p. 6.
170
extent
tion
:
the
spirit
and
method
of
the
investiga-
" Man enters life as a stranger he knows nothing of the world that receives him it is to him a new,
;
:
unknown
must conquer.
country, which he must explore, which he How is this to be done? Nature
assails his senses
with a thousand allurements
she
sends the rays of light that she may open his eyes to the innumerable things of the outer world, she
knocks upon the door of the human spirit with excitations of tone and touch and temperature and all the
admission.
other stimulations of the sensitive nerves, desiring The soul answers these stimuli with senit
sations, with ideas;
masters the outer world by
perceiving
it."
perceiving mind, however, It is a well-known explains another important fact. experience that one and the same object seldom occasions precisely similar perceptions in the minds of dif-
" This activity of the
Of the same landscape the poet's image greatly from that of the botanist, the painter's from that of the geologist or farmer, the In stranger's from that of him who calls it home.
ferent people.
differ
would
the same way, one and the same speech is often understood in as many different ways as there are
hearers.
What
does not the child see in his toys, the

!
What devout mind in the objects of its devotions does not the experienced reader of human nature see
in the wrinkles
and
folds,
the wilted and weatherface

!
beaten features of a
human
ip.
How much
do the
gestures, the play of features, the glowing or fading

l.
DR.
fire

him
171
of the eye, tell

!
of the battles and storms of
the soul
work
the artist, does he not perceive in a of art a thousand things that escape the closest
And
attention of the ordinary observer ? Has not each of us the sharpest kind of an eye for the objects with which our calling makes us best acquainted ? In the
voices of nature
the
youthful lover of
of
birds, like
man
in the state of nature, hears the emotional
and
the
volitional
utterances
of
his
related beings,
while
forests, Malay says branches the wind entices the most manifold tones:
bamboo
from
whose
1
'The forest organ plays for each

" In order that a sensation
rule, a fusion or union of
his favorite tune.'

arise, there
is,
may
as a
its
content with similar
ideas and feelings.
With the
assistance of the latter,
held in consciousness, elevated into greater clearness, properly related to the remaining
the sensation
is
fields of thought,
and so truly assimilated.

second act in distinction from that
"
We
call this
of simple perception or the reception of a sensation, apperception, or mental assimilation. This is a
psychical process which has a validity beyond mere subjective perception, and is of the greatest signifi-
cance for
spiritual
all
2
life.
knowledge, yes, even for our Avhole Let us see, therefore, the laws accordis
ing to which this process

IP.
2
completed.
3.
:
The inquiring mind is likely to ask at this point Is it possible have perception without apperception ? We may say in general that knowledge is necessary for the assimilation of knowledge, and this is the side of apperception of most importance to us as teachers, hut some are curious to know how, according to this, knowledge gets a start. The author has shown at the beginning that a sponto
172
HERB ART AND THE HERBARTIAXS

Suppose we have the rare phenomenon of an eclipse
"
Rays of light of varying strength come from the lighted part of the sun's disk, and fall upon
of the sun.
the retina of the
eye. physical process arising outside of the body affects at once our nerves of sight. Hereby the peripheral ends of these nerves are stimuto an activity that is conducted as a nerve excitation to the central ends of the nerves and there
lated
causes a specific change (excitation of the ganglion cells), which is characterized as the release of the
nerve-excitement.
This
is
physiological process,
and cause seems bound up with the physical one, but which is in its nature entirely disTo these external processes, and tinguished from it. conditioned and occasioned by them, is now added a pure inner activity, which seems to have nothing in
which
in time
common
either with vibrations of ether or with nerve
taneous activity on the part of the soul in accordance with its own nature must be presupposed in order that we may have any experience at
all.
In the case of the hell, for instance, the vibrations of
the air are contributed by the object, but the mental response that we know as sound comes from the mind itself. In this way it is
knowledge of sounds to start, without there having been any previous experience of sounds to serve as interpreting ideas. We have thus in distinction from the apperception in which knowledge is involved a primary apperception, without which we
possible for a
never know anything. As a rule, Herbartian writers emphasize the cognitive phases of apperception, in which new knowledge is assimilated by the products of our former experience,
should
in the form of knowledge, feelings, purposes, interests, etc., partly because these are the phases of the subject of practical importance to pedagogy, and partly from the implications of the Herbartian
system of psychology. A careful study of the historical sketch at the close of Lange's book will reveal to the reader the attitude of
the various thinkers in respect to this topic.
DR.
currents
tion.
it

is is
173
This
the reaction of the soul, a sight-sensathe psychical act with which the
perception closes. naturally receive from the continually changing disk a variety of sensations, which, united and related to the same object, give us
We
a picture of the eclipse of the sun

perception. " a new-born
this
is
a subjective
Only
infant, in so far as it
may
be sup-
could stop at this stage in the perception of the outer impression. During the first months of life a human being would perceive this rare
all,
posed to see at
phenomenon with dulness and indifference, and without understanding or interest. He will at this stage have nothing to add to the given impression he will indeed not be aware of all that is to be
celestial
;
seen, so that he can take away none particularly. " It is very different with the adult. He gains
from
the same phenomenon of nature a far richer, sharper, and clearer perception. We notice not only the gradual eclipse of the sun, but we recognize also its cause. see a dark disk enter the sun's field of light, and
We
say to ourselves that this is the unilluminated side of the moon, which in its passage around the earth, is
passing between us and the sun, and whose cone shadow hides from us the star of day. To this we add the comforting certainty, that all this has to do
of
now
cording to
with right things, that the eclipse known and fixed laws
a proceedingthat thought
is
ac-
goes far to remove a large part of the emotion-stirring power of this unusual occurrence.
"
Whence comes
this perception, so rich in content

It
and
clear in outline ?
has evidently arisen under
174
the influence of the related thought content, with which we have met the outer impressions, and under
the influence of the observations and knowledge that
we have formerly
gained through instruction, readand personal observation of the heavenly bodies ing, and their movements. It was with the help of what
we
already
knew
of this
keenly expected natural
event, and of similar reproduced ideas, that we created this new perception and placed it in an orderly
now forms
position in the organism of our knowledge, so that a clear and definite part of the same.
it
We
apperceived
dered by the
feelings.
it.
Not
unessential
is
the service ren-
will, which is here led by intellectual As we were viewing the astronomical
event with close attention, it not only correctly adjusted the sense organs for the observation, but it
removed disturbing ideas as far as possible from consciousness and admitted only such as were favorable This was accomfor the assimilation of. the new.
panied by a corresponding physical
tension,
effort, viz.,
that of
which made
of
itself felt in
the sensation.
as
At
the
moment
successful
apperception,
would
appear from Wundt's investigations, the sensory nerve current was transferred from the central ends
of the nerves to a region lying in the front part of the large brain, which is reckoned to be the apper-
ception center. From here the excitation was partly directed back to the sensory centers, whereby there
was a strengthening of the perception, and partly conducted further to the muscles of the eye, in
which certain feelings of tension
"
arose.
Reviewing now
the parts of the process to be ob-
DR.
175
served in the act of perception, we find an extraordisense and motor stimuli, nary number of them
:
sensations of sight and muscles, reproduced ideas, all these are exercised activities of feeling and will
in the production of
an apparently simple result with-
out our being conscious of the action simultaneously. There are, however, two chief activities to be distin-
guished in the whole process. We perceive in the eclipse, first, just what the original constitution of
our minds necessitates, even if they were no more developed than the mind of an infant. In this way
a perception arises.
skill
But through the ideas and
obtained by former experience, we observe much that remains hidden to the inexperienced, and we add
to the subjective perception
numerous psychical
ele-
ments from our well-stored minds, which were not

immediately given in the observation.
The mind
ap-
prehends outer impressions in accordance with the wealth of knowledge gained through former activity.
The process of perception becomes one of apperception."

*
Even the moral nature is largely dependent upon the apperception of ideas, as the accompanying citation
shows
"While the
child
is
growing
intellectually,
he
is
making progress ethically as well. seen that the ruling sphere of ideas
We
have already and emotions
determines in the main the moral insight of the human being. He usually judges his own moral
worth and that of others according to what he himself loves, or what he wishes and longs for for himself.
i
Pp. 5-8.
176

is,
that in early youth, the feelings and interests of as infancy, sense influence to a considerable extent the moral conwell as in
There
therefore, no doubt
sciousness of man.
Indeed they can become the one
controlling group of ideas among bad and uneducated with these anything is permissible that children On the other hand, in the case of the wellpleases.
;
trained child, they are subordinated more and more He no longer to the ideal example of the parents. this authority, to which he has always follows blindly
been subject. But by comparing them with other persons and with his own imperfect being, he comes
an unlimited reverence for his which makes voluntary obedience toward parents, them a duty, and causes their example to be regarded
gradually to feel
as a model.
with theirs
leaders
soon other authority is associated namely, that of teachers, near relatives,
And
school companions, and masters with their servants. Especially in sacred history does Perfect and Just One, appear as the highest God, the
among
authority,
whose supreme will and control impress These themselves indelibly upon the pupil's mind.
are the examples ivhich especially determine his moral on conceptions, and hence control his apperception are vividly in mind when he moral questions. They
acts
;
they are his conscience.
ISTot
unable to distinguish for himself bad. He knows unworthy deeds or
as though he were what is good or
worthy motives in themselves very well, entirely apart from all thought of what his parents, or teacher, or God would say on
the matter.
pure, independent moral feeldo not appear at this stage of ings and judgments
But such
DR.
177
development in the abstract, but rather in connection with certain model examples. Just as the thought
of a child in all spheres of
knowledge deals
in part
with very imperfect general pictures, not with general

concepts, so in the field of ethics his morality does not
show
itself effective
the principle,
but
in the abstract
in
the concrete
When
one observes closely
form of the idea, form of the ideal. what guides the moral
judgment in early youth, one finds that, in most cases, the example of some real person closely related to the child consciously or unconsciously exerts a deciding influence in the apperception, and thus
1 largely determines the will." In his discussion of the selection
and arrangement
in important par-
of the studies
Lange gives a thoroughgoing critique of
Zillers position, differing from

ticulars, yet
him
acknowledging much
citation
truth in his presen-
tation.
:
The following
position " Let us
summarizes Lange's
now sum up briefly the requirements that have revealed themselves in reference to the object of
In general this direction holds good apperception. Offer to the child always that knowledge for whose thorough assimilation the most favorable conditions
:
are present or easy to create. " How can this be
done
" 1.
lie
Such materials of knowledge must be chosen as close to child experience in general, and likewise
the consciousness of the people,
i.e.,
to
the subject-
matter of national culture.

"
2.
They must,
as regards content
1
and form, take
Pp.
79, 80.
178
into consideration certain peculiarities of the child's intellectual development.

"3. They are to be arranged in such a manner that every topic shall create for the following ones numerous strong aids to apperception; i.e., according to historical sequence (Law of Propaedeutics).
4. The various parallel subjects of the curriculum are to be arranged in such a manner that in each grade as many as possible allied topics may be associated, so that what is related in fact, may be related in the
"
consciousness of the child
(Law
of Coordination, or
Concentration of Studies). " In so far as the simultaneous realization of the foregoing requirements does not meet insurmountable difficulties
they
may
be regarded as valid.
And
indeed
most cases they will support and confirm one another. Yet the possibility is by no means excluded
in
that one or the other of these requirements will clash with the rest. .Certain material may be chosen in
accordance with the historical principle, which in content and form expects too much from the child at a
certain epoch of his development. Or the unequal rate of historical progress in the different branches does not admit of a useful concentration in the instruction.
And
sic
the case
is
also conceivable that, in the realiza-
and fourth requirements, the intrinvalue of the subject-matter for instruction might not receive its full due. In all these cases it is advistion of the third
able to limit one requirement
by another, as far as is necessary, and not to lose sight of the chief principle
while considering special applications. This refers to the last two directions; while the first two, which
DR.

facts,
179
have reference to given, unchangeable
cannot
be subjected to any limitation. It does not lie within the province of this discussion to sketch a complete
curriculum of studies in accordance with the foregoing Only a few principles, even for one grade of school.
practical conclusions
may
be permitted to us in con-
nection with these general requirements." x With the Herbartian conception of certain necessary stages in all rational methods of teaching Lange is in
substantial accord, though his fine perception of the eternal fitness of things warns seriously against allow-
ing teaching processes to be conducted mechanically according to formulas, however excellent in themselves. His book closes with a brief history of the term Apperception as it has been used in the history
of philosophy. Were there no other useful book
among
the myriad
Herbartian publications, this one gem would justify the existence of the whole number, so genial, so true,
so helpful, so inspiring is it in main problems of education.
i
its
treatment of the
Pp. 132, 133.
CHAPTER
DR.
VIII
KARL VOLKMAR STOY LEADER OF THE CONSERVATIVE HERBARTIANS
Professor Stoy was born
year 1815. He At ied at the universities of Leipzig and Gottingen. he attended the lectures of Herbart, the latter place
in Pegau, Saxony, in the attended school in Meissen, and stud-
who
inspired hirn with a love of philosophy and pedaAfter closing his work as a student, he began gogy.
teaching in Weinheim in 1839, going to Jena in 1842, where in the following year he qualified as privat About the same time he took clocent in Philosophy.
charge of a local private school, which under his leadership attained a high reputation. Pupils gathered to it from all over Europe, the survivors among them
in the thoughts of their school rejoicing even yet 1 In the year under their beloved principal. days Dr. Stoy was made a Professor at the univer1845, In 1865 he moved to Heidelberg; during the sity.
normal school at Bielitz year 1867 he established a in accordance with Herbartian principles, returning to Jena in 1874, where he remained until his death
in 1885.
1
Compare Wiessner, Herbart's Padagogik,

180
p. 105.
DR.
KARL VOLKMAR STOY

of his
its
181
The
school,
greatest
monument
work
in
Jena
is
the
pedagogical seminary, with
accompanying practice so ably presided over by Dr. Rein. One of the* peculiarities of this seminary is that it is an
now
organic part of the university, receiving a yearly pend from the state.
sti-
of Pedagogy is the real head of both and practice school, though there is a headseminary master in the practice school who presides in the absence of the Professor. There are three distinct meet-
The Professor
ings held each week at which the presence of all the students belonging to the seminary is required. The
first
is
called a Pratikum, which, consists of one or

recitations conducted
two model
by student-teachers
This exercise is not to be an of the practice school. examination of the pupils, but a typical illustration of
the art of instruction.
Each member
of the seminary
makes
upon the exercise, one of the number being appointed to bring in later a written critique The Pratikum is held on of the whole performance.
full notes
Wednesdays.
The second meeting, called TheoretiJeum, is held in a classroom of the university, being conducted by the At this conference the time, usually one Professor.
hour,
is
devoted to the discussion and elucidation of
such technical or special questions as have arisen in the practice school during the week. Many of these
concern the principles of methods, the treatment of special difficulties in discipline, the mental condition
of
individual
pupils
further,
the
examination of
special books on methods, of school text-books, and Often a student the laying out of programs of study.
182
appointed beforehand to bring in a written paper upon an assigned topic.

is
The
Stoy
writer well remembers the
first
task Professor
set him,
when
:
as a student with small
knowledge
It
of German, he entered the university of Jena. " read as follows Psychological Analysis of
the
Observation of Natural Objects." After long labor over English psychologies, and the greater labor of putting the results into German, even with the assistance of Herr Theo. Storch, a charitable fellow-mortal, the paper was at length read before the wondering The Professor was very kind in his total students. rejection of the whole as a mechanical and valueless
He finally dismissed the paper by piece of work. saying that it was merely an observation about a psychological analysis of the observation of natural objects, not an analysis at all.
The
TJieoretikum
was held from seven
to eight p.m.
on Fridays.
Immediately upon adjournment, the seminary reassembled in a room of a neighboring hotel, where an apartment was always held in readiness for This meeting was it on this evening of the week.
called the Conference.
In Dr. Stoy's time, some twenty persons were usually assembled at that hour, seated about long tables arranged in the form of the capital letter T.
Behind the
cross-table at the
head of the room sat Dr.
Stoy upon the inevitable German sofa. The purpose of the Conference was to hear the reports of the critics
upon the
previous
had been conducted on the After a few preliminaries the person who presented the model
recitations that
Wednesday
at the Pratikum.
DR.
KARL VOLKMAR STOY
183
recitation read a written self-criticism of the effort, telling what he had tried to do, his methods of procedure,
and his own judgment as to the degree of success he had obtained. This was followed immediately by the
report of the appointed critic,
who
usually went into
details, fortifying his conclusions
ments.
As soon
by facts and arguas the reading of this critique had
been concluded, the person whose work was under examination replied to his critic, either acknowledging
the justice of his criticisms, or showing reasons why he did not regard them as valid. At this point, the discussion was thrown open to students and teachers
each speaking upon whatever point seemed to him most worthy of comment. The Conference lasted until 11 o'clock, when it was closed by Professor Stoy
alike,
himself with a masterly review of the whole discussion.
work.
The Encyclopedia of Pedagogics The first edition was issued
is Stoy's chief in 1861, and the
Besides second, enlarged and amended, in 1878. these may be mentioned School and Life, 1 House Ped-
agogy in Monologues and Addresses,- House and School Police (Government), 3 Two Days in an English Gym-
nasium (1860), Organization of
the
Normal School*
Home Geography and

many
articles
Instruction in Language, 5 and in the Sclmlzeitung, whose editor he
was from 1870

1
to 1882.
is
Stoy's service to the cause of didactics

Schule ttnd Leben, 1844.
2 3
*
more a
Hauspadagogik,
1855. 1856.
Haus-und SchulpoUzei,
Organization des Lehrerseminars, 1869.
Heimatskunde und Spruchuntcrricht.
184
vigorous restatement of Herbart's doctrines than a contribution of new ideas. The subject of instruction he treats under three heads,
tics,
1.
Statics, Propaedeu-
and Concentration. Of the Statics of instruction, he says that there
must always be provision made for intellectual, ethical, and religious training, and that food for these three chief interests must always be provided in the program. We must care for soundness of heart quite
as
much
as for soundness of head.
certain propor-
tion
must consequently always be observed among
the three kinds of material

2.
a
it
static consideration.
Since only by the utilization of Propaedeutics. present stores of knowledge and experience can any
instruction hope to succeed,
follows that he
who
law of apperception " plays on a harp without strings." Every step taken must, therefore, be a preparation for the next one,
forming its indispensable basis. Everything that could lessen the activity and association of ideas
instructs without heeding this
must consequently be vigorously avoided.

cial principles of this
The
spe-
forward (dynamic) view of instruction must be sought in the psychological study of apperception and apperceiving interest.
3.
Concentration.
If the statics of instruction de-
termines the juxtaposition of studies, and the propaedeutics the succession, both together constituting "the two dimensions of instruction,'.' there yet lies
enormous extent of possible and even needful subject-matter a necessity of a peculiar kind, at first There arises the necessity of a negative character. of repelling everything that could disturb the rein the
DR.
KARL VOLKMAR STOY
185
awakening, the facility and connectedness of ideas, so

that the problem arises of promoting to the greatest possible degree, unity of basal knowledge, connection of that
which
is
related,
supplementary ideas, so that time
and the association of and strength may

is
be economized. To explain how this can be done the business of concentration.
But with concentration
in Ziller's sense, Professor
Stoy, with the partisanship known only to rival German He regarded professors, would have nothing to do. the whole plan as an exaggerated and visionary
To his friend Dr. Bartel in Gera he wrote "I should be thankful to you if, in the interest of truth, you would take occasion to say that I have nothing to do with Ziller's novelties. I regard them as harmful exaggerations, as wrecks from the great
scheme.
:
structures of Herbart.
am
in
harmony with you

final
is
when,
in conclusion,
express
my
new."
judgment:
not good,
Everything new
in this Ziller business

in it is not
and everything good
As a summary of Stoy's position, together with that of his sympathizers, the following points may be
recapitulated 1. He holds fairly to the Herbartian basis of meta:
physics, psychology,
2.
and
ethics.
He
accepts in the
main the idea of
historical
development as a guide to the culture subjects.
presentation
of the
3. He rejects unconditionally Fairy Tales and Robinson Crusoe, which with the disciples of Ziller form the core of concentration for the first and
second years.
186

He
rejects
4.
with even greater emphasis

all
Ziller's
scheme of concentration, whereby

jects of the curriculum are to be
the other sub-
ethical core of concentration, consisting for the
grouped about an most
part of Biblical and profane history, with au introduction of Volks lore and Robinson Crusoe.
5.
He
believes in the formal steps of instruction as
a rational guide to teaching. Stoy Himself was small of

feature, eccentric in behavior
stature,
;
homely of
but kind of
to those
and dress
heart, earnest of purpose,
who sought him, by many hearts.
a man whose memory
and helpful always

is
held dear
CHAPTER IX
DR.
OTTO FRICK, LATE DIRECTOR OF THE FRANKischen stiftungen in halle
Application of Herbartiax Ideas to Secondary
Education
If to Dr. Rein and his co-workers belongs the credit of applying Herbartian principles to the work of the elementary schools, it is to Dr. Otto Frick and his
fellow-laborers that
we must
ascribe
the credit of
applying them to secondary education. What Rein does on the Ziller basis for the Yolks schools, Frick has done on the Stoy basis for the gymnasiums.
Nor
is
it
strange that Dr. Frick should with Stoy
reject the Ziller plan of concentration, for in the ad-
vanced classes of the gymnasium, to conduct natural science as subordinated to literature, history, and
religion,
would be to caricature the whole subject of
making it conform to principles not its own. Men made a dismal failure of science when they taught it by literary methods if in addition to this they had selected and arranged it according to the laws of literary selection and sequence, it would have
science,
;
presented a sorry spectacle.

187
Natural science, at least
188
in its higher stages, is not amphibious, living as well in one element as the other.
Dr. Otto Frick was the son of a preacher in Brandenburg, and was bora at Schmitsdorf in the year 1832. After completing his university education at Berlin and Halle, he became Director of the Gymnasium at Burg.
In 1880 he was appointed Director of the Frankischen Stifiungen at Halle, a most responsible position and
one offering a wide range for pedagogical observation and experiment. This school, founded for the poor,
especially orphans,
now comprises
tions of
life.
two hundred years ago by Francke, a series of schools having some four
all
thousand pupils and students of
grades and condi-
Almost every variety
of school
German system is here Real Gymnasium, Xormal

the
gher-schools,
represented,
Gymnasium,
Schools,
known to
School, Volks Schools, Bur-
Higher
Girls' Schools,
Orphan
and the
like.
It was the writer's good fortune to be associated with Dr. Frick for two years in a local branch of the
Verein fur Wissentschaftliche Padagogik, which met two evenings in each month for the discussion of pedagogical topics from the Herbartian standpoint.
He was
Whenever he
a large, fine-looking man, of grave demeanor. spoke, one listened as to a master.
Although independent in thought, he was yet generous to opponents, and not slow in recognizing their strong From Herbart he differed mainly on psychopoints.
logical grounds.
He
the soul as the
empty meeting-place
could not join him in regarding of ideas, but was
disposed to ascribe a considerable content to the soul

itself,
aside
from ideas gained through experience.
APPLICATION OF HERBARTIAX IDEAS

There
itself,
189
is, he thought, a distinct constitution of mind which should be recognized in education. It
was a
this able, industrious
serious loss to the teaching profession when man was cut off in the prime of
his usefulness
by sudden death,
in
January of the year
1892.
In educational theory Dr. Frick agrees so nearly with Professor Stoy that a separate exposition of their views is hardly needed. His opinions may, however, be found in his two monographs, Didactic Principles, and
1
Dr. Frick's service to the cause Unity of the School. of education is not to be measured, however, by these
monographs, but rather by the quarterly magazine, Lehrproben und Lehrgdnge aus der Praxis der Gymnasien icnd Realschulen, 3 which he and Gustav Eichter
established in 1884, and which he edited until his death in 1892. This magazine, as its name indicates,
is
and
devoted to the selection and arrangement of studies, to extended expositions, of the methods to be purIt constitutes a rich
all
sued in every variety of subject.
mine of didactic treasures,
bearing more or less
clearly the Herbartian stamp.
and theoretical
in the
Dr. Frick's contributions, especially upon historical topics, greatly enrich the magazine. After eight years of constant discussion, he presented
twenty-eighth number what he calls the outline
of an organically arranged course of study for a classical gymnasium, in which each subject or group of
1 In wieweit sind die Herbart-Ziller-Stoy 'schen Didactischen Grundsatze fur den Unterricht an den hohern Schulen zuverwerten.
Einheit der Schule.

Yerlag der Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses, Halle, Germany.
190
subjects has a rational development, and in which there is as much coordination as the age of the pupils and the nature of the subjects demand. In his view
the
gymnasium
is
an institution whose domain
lies in
the three great fields of education denominated with us as elementary, secondary, and higher. Dr. Frick
divides the
lows
gymnasium course
of nine years as fol-
1. Elementary. First two years, age of pupils from 10 to 12 years. 2. Secondary. Next four years, age of pupils 12
to 16 years.
3.
Higher.
Last three years, age of pupils 16 to

stage is looked upon as a preparaserious work involved in the Sec-
19 years.
tion for the
The Elementary more
ondary one, while the Higher stage
is regarded as the proper one for the systematic, rational coordination of related studies. It is hardly worth while to try to
make
practicable, but
infant philosophers, the task being not only imalso undesirable. Children readily
form a network of associations among various studies

if
we must
the connections are brought to consciousness but wait until the stages of higher education are
;
reached before there can be any intelligent grasp of
This being the case, the far-reaching interrelations. course of study laid out by Dr. Frick, though by his wish to be regarded as tentative and illustrative, may
be regarded as one of the most carefully planned programs ever printed. It purports to be rather an orIn it he ganization than an aggregation of studies.
has had three things constantly in mind,
viz.:
COURSE OF STUDY FOR A GYMNASIUM

The Selection of Material. The Sifting of Material. 3. The Articulation or Coordination of The courses as arranged by Dr. Frick
1.
191
2.
Material.
will
now
be
noted that form studies, like represented. mathematics and grammar, are not inserted, not beIt will be
cause they do not have to be taught, but that they may not obscure the view of the other subjects. Fol-
lowing the course will be found some expository marks.
re-

A.
Elementary Studies
SEXTA
Two
FIRST
Years
Age
10 to 12
TEAR
Geography.
(1st Semester.) The typical geographical concepts illustrated by the home environment. Introduction to understanding of Relief, and the reading of a map.
General lessons upon the globe.

(2d Semester.) Division of the earth into land and water. General descriptive view of all the continents. Natural History. First introduction into systematic observation of plant and animal life, according to chief types
as found in the child's environment.

studies.)
In
summer
(Biological home the plants, in winter the animals,
are brought to the front. Enlivening of the geography heretofore presented. Opening up of the home environment. The awakening and
cultivation of the feeling for nature
History.
Preparatory introduction into the chief typical forms

life.
and home surroundings.
of historical
(1st
(The simplest social communities.) The Odyssey (Grecian heroic age). First opening up of the antique world and its geographical
Semester.)
theatre.
192

(2d Semester.)
age).
its
Niebelungen
Tales
(German
heroic
First opening
up
of the
German
ancient world and
German.
geographical theatre. (The center of instruction.)
National Reading
(with an appendix of the local or home environment), for extending and deepening the impression and concepts obtained in local geography and natural his-
Book, Part
tory.
Latin.
Meurer, Pauli
Pictures illustrating local traditions. Sextani liber (that is, connected read;
ing material concerning home regions extension into the Roman world or connected lessons from Roman History,
perhaps a history of the kings, standing midway between tradition and history, or between patriarchal and heroic
times). Biblical History of the Old Testament. Religion. (Time of the Patriarchs, Heroes, Judges, Kings.) Personal relation of the same (the community) and of the whole Israelitic
people to God. The most general facts of the Catechism are learned from the Bible History, especially the first Article and the Ten Commandments.
QUINTA
SECOND YEAR
description (with an em-
Lands. Geography.
(1st Semester.)
More minute
phasis of geographical types).
Home province, and
state,
and the whole
of
Germany.
Natural History.
animal
life
(2d Semester.) The remainder of Europe. Extension of observation to neighboring regions in order to enlarge the observation of plant and
according to important types.
Extension of
study to foreign lands. In summer and winter as in Sexta.

History.
closed
circle
of
typical
pictures from ancient,
middle, and especially modern national history. (Preparatory excursion through German history for a general conception of the whole
;
essentially the history of kings

of
cities,
emperors,
with
pictures
state,
and and national
organization.)

German.
Part
193
A National Reading Book, Part

I for
II,
corresponding to
Sexta, but with stronger emphasis
history, legends,
and
historical
upon national poems from ancient and
mediaeval
German
history.
Characterizations of great his-
torical personalities therein considered.
Religion.
Bible history of the New Testament, the middle point to be the life of Jesus as well as his personal relation to God. General conception of the kingdom of Heaven as
the highest social community. The Catechism as in Sexta, especially the second Article, the Lord's Prayer, and the
formulas used in baptism and at the communion service.
B.
Secondary Studies
Four
Years
Age
12 to 16
QUARTA
Geography.
THIRD YEAR
Land divisions.
types)
of
phasis of
Extended description (with emnon-European countries. Especial

General.
(1st Semester.)
study of
German
Natural Science.
Elementary and
colonies.
Physical geography.
(2d Semester.) Geology (according to the scope and treatment of the subject in the books of Geikie-Schmidt). Grecian history in thoroughgoing manner. A careHistory.
ful selection
historical life.
and a rounded period of the elements of (Types of historical observation and con-
ception.)
German.
The
;
Franco-Prussian
War
of
1870-71, in a form
prepared for schools. A few of the most important war poems then furnished with material from Grecian history
and
culture, e.g. Geibel, Schiller

.
(Ring des Polykr., Kraniche
des Ibycus) Latin. Cornelius Nepos. Chosen lives of warriors and statesmen, particularly of Grecian history (or a suitable preparation of the same material).
Beligion.
Characteristic types of heroes, evangelists, apostles,

and apostolic
in accordance with evangelical
history, in the
194
HERBART AND THE HERBARTlANS

center Paul (his personal relation to Christ and God). The beginnings of the Church and a general idea of the same.
Catechism, third Article.

ration of the
first
Systematic treatment and elabo-
three.
TERTIA B
Geography.
FOURTH YEAR
From General Geography. (1st Semester.) The atmosphere, air currents, temperature and rainfall. Climost important lines of commate. The sea currents
merce (from Commercial Geography) (2d Semester.) Plant and animal distribution according to characteristic types and differences. N.B. Always (1 and 2) with repetition and utilization of
.
Natural Science.
previously obtained knowledge of the various countries. Systematic connected view of the most im-
portant organisms and laws.
(1st Semester.)
Plants.
(2d Semester.)
History.
Animals.
Roman history as in Quarta. As a new type for observation and study we have the forming of the empire
(Imperium Romanum). German. Reading Book with complete
selections.
The Ger-
man
Latin.
Napoleonic Wars (with especial utilization of local
traditions),
Caesar, Bello Gallico (the personality of Csesar, the oldand German races in
.
and the songs
of this period.
est conditions of the Gallic
their con-
nection with the
Roman world)
Struggle for independence,
with a background of
facts.
geographical and ethnographical
(Preparation for Tacitus,
Ovid, Metamorphoses. Greek.
Germanica and Annals.) Choice of complete selections with
a view to historical and culture epoch. Xenophon, Anabasis. Background of military and
world's historical view

ties
interest
in individual personali-
tion (as
civilizageographical and ethnographical pictures of in involving regions through which the

is
pupil
and apostolic history, the Trojan legend, Herodotus, Curtius, and the Crusades.
Caesar), led in Bible

French.
195
A reading material as
of the
in the
French Reading Book

Chr.
upon the history
German Napoleonic Wars, by
Ufer, Altenburg, 1887. French sources.
Illumination of the epoch through
Religion.
(1st Semester.) The history of the Apostles read. (Elaboration of the matter presented in Quarta.) (2d Semester.) View of the wider extension of the Chris-
tian
Church (Augustinus, Bonifacius, Luther). The Catechism completed and review of the organization of the whole (compare L. Schlutze, Katechetische Bausteine, 1887).
TERTIA A
FIFTH YEAR
(1st Semester.) Miner-
Geography.
alogy,
From General Geography.
where
possible, with utilization of
home
observations,
together with an introduction into the most elementary ideas in chemistry.
(2d Semester.)
life
;
Consideration of the earth as a seat of
its
relations to the other heavenly bodies.
Natural Science.
Introduction
to Physics.
Employment
of
knowledge acquired in Quarta. History. (Through Secunda B and A.)
German
history in
elaborate presentation.
presented.
The
in
Elaboration of the separate epochs historical observations and conceptions
obtained
deepened,
Quarta
and
Tertia
are
in
through
careful
elaboration
enlarged and the develop-
ment
of the German people. The opposition between Church and state is new, as is also the growing worldcommerce the entire instruction has intimate regard for
;
the geographical background.
German.
Archenholt's
Seven Years'
War.
Frederick
thf-
Great (a group of selected situations and types), exhibited through materials chosen from the history of this war.
Schiller's Ballads (in
arrangements and groupings as con-
nected wholes). Latin. Curtius, Rufus.
sonalities of
world-wide renown
Alexander the Great (individual pergeographical and ethno;
196

logical
background).
;
Ovid, Metam.
Selections (pictures
of inner life
psychological motive, cosmogony and age of
the world).
As in Tertia B, the preceding class (in all events a glance through the whole up to the arrival in Trebizond) French. Michaud I and (or) III, Croisades (selections). Further elaboration of the preceding. Mceurs et Coutumes
Greek.
des Croisades.
Religion. Synthesizing outline. (1st Semester.) General view of the divisions and subdivisions of the Scriptures, the
and origin), the important religious and dogmas. (2d Semester.) The idea and essence of God's kingdom. Its embodiment in the Church (organization of the Church extension and activities of misyear of divine service
(species
ideas, doctrines,
;
Church songs
sions)
always with temperate treatment based upon written
testimony.
SECL'NDA B
SIXTH TEAK
Not a subject to be taught, but a principle to be Geography. observed at every opportunity. Natural Science. Physics with the closest possible association
with the geographical conception to be further impressed

History.
or newly learned. See preceding class.
German.
(1st
Semester.)
Tell.
Goethe,
Hermann und Dorothea.
Schiller's
Wilhelm
(2d Semester.) Schiller, Jungfrau von Orleans, and Maria

Stuart.
Latin.
Livy, History of the Kings and the beginning of the Free State (the development of a state). Cicero, de imperio Cn. Pompeii (the first preparations
for the
monarchy), pro Ligario (Caesar
dictator).
Virgil, ^Eneid.
Greek.
Xenophon,
Selection (Fall of Troy).

Hellenica, chosen selections.
ning of Athenian power. outline of the whole.
The Odyssey.
The beginSelections for an

French.
197
(1st Semester.) Jeanne d'Arc, by Borante (as a preparation for Schiller's drama and for introduction into a significant era of French. English history. Wars for
.
freedom)
reason).
(2d Semester.)
Religion.
Maria Stuart, by Lebran (for the same
(1st Semester.) Lessons from selected historical portions of the Old Testament (the personality of Abraham, Moses, Joshua, the Judges, and the Kings).
(2d Semester.) The Gospel of Luke in the original, -with synoptical side views of the other Gospels. N.B. Compare with Secunda A, the next
class.
C.
Higher Education
SECUNDA A
Age
from
16 to 19
SEVENTH CLASS
Not a subject to be taught, but a principle to be Geography. observed at every opportunity. Natural Science. (1st Semester.) Elements of Chemistry. (2d Semester.) Physics. See Tertia A. History.
German.
(1st Semester.)
Niebelungen Lied (und Gudruu).
Semester.) Heliand, Walter von der Vogelweide natural feeling, knightly service, Kaiser songs, (selections
(2d
God's service).
Latin.
Livy.
Selections for an outline of the Second Punic

;
War.
Cicero, pro Archia, de Amicitia Virgil, JEneid. Outlook into the Rule of (Selection, Shield of .Eneas.
Greek.
Augustus. Eclogue IV.) Herodotus. Selections to give an outline of the whole Persian War. Odyssey. Selections for an outline of the
whole.
French.
Suitable
selections
for
an introduction
into
the
history of the French Revolution
(Mignet) and of Naetc.,
poleon (Thiers, Bonaparte en Egypte,

frey).
and from Lan-
198

Semester.) Lessons chosen from poetic and philosophic portions of the Old Testament.
(2d Semester.)
Religion.
(1st
N.B. As
tion of
Lessons from the easier Epistles of Paul. Secunda B, careful presentation and associafundamental Biblical and Christian ideas.
in
PRIMA B
EIGHTH TEAK
None taught. See preceding class. Geography. Natural Science. (1st Semester.) Outlines of Mathematical
Geography.
(2d Semester.)
History.
(For
Physics.
this
and
last class.)
Mediaeval and
modern
Synthesis of the important conceptions of historical life. Use of the preceding treatment, together with
history.
various lessons from original sources, supplementing of the

latter.
German.
(1st
Constant review of geographical knowledge.

Semester.)
View
of the inner
development of
German
Odes
literature.
Parzival.
Klopstock's Messias, and
(selections).
(2d Semester.) Lessing. Latin. (1st Semester.) Tacitus Germania, and Selections from the Annals, Lib. I and II (the German struggle
for liberty).
(selections).
Germanicus and Arminius.
Horace, Odes
(2d Semester.)
Cicero, de Oratore (selections:

;
nature
and purpose
Greek.
cilian
Semester.) Thucydides. Pictures from the SiExpedition, Funeral Oration of Pericles, and as contrast and reverse, glimpses of the downfall of the Hellenic world,
III,
(1st
of oratory)
Horace, Odes (selections).
82,
83.
Writings of Thucydides con-
cerning his conception of the
end and purpose

the
Iliad,
of history.
The
Iliad.
(2d
Semester.)
Demosthenes,
Sophocles'
Antigone. French. (1st Semester.)
(2d Semester.)
Montesquieu, Considerations. Racine, Athalie.

Beligion.
199
(1st
Semester.)
Lessons on the Gospel of John
(the personality of Christ).
(2d Semester.)
Lessons upon the Epistle to the Romans

.
(personality of Paul)
PRIMA A
NINTH
AND LAST YEAR
Geography. Not
Natural Science.
(1st Semester.)
taught.
See remark in Secunda B.

Physics.
(2d Semester.) Conception and nature of the Cosmos ("Nature as a whole moved and quickened by an inner
power").
History.
German.
See preceding (1st Semester.)
class.
Goethe.
Impressive gathering up of the important fundamental ideas presented in the instruction

(2d Semester.)
in
Schiller.
Latin.
Cicero, pro Sestio (Fall of the Roman Tacitus, Annals, Selections from Liber I (Rise of the Caesar rule. Augustus, Tiberius, and the royal Horace, the Roman and Kaiser Odes. house).
(1st Semester.)
German.
Empire).
(2d Semester.) Cicero, de Natura deorum,

onis,
Somnium
Scipi-
Greek.
(1st Semester.) Plato, Apology and Crito (the pedagogical mission of Socrates to the people), the Iliad.
Horace, Ars Poetica.
(2d Semester.) Phaedo, the Iliad, Sophocles' Ajax. French. (1st Semester.) One classical comedy (Moliere).
(2d Semester.)
literature.
history of literature.
Oratorical prose and an article on the Outlines of the development of French
Religion.
(1st Semester.) Selections from Luther's writings. His Catechism.
(2d Semester.) Careful review and synthesis of matter already learned, particularly Biblical and Christian funda-
mental conceptions.
200
Remarks on the Course of Study

1.
The
historical interest is the

;
backbone of the
the interest in body of higher education of first, and that in ancient national history being
history of secondary, importance. This being the case, it is natural that the environment of the pupil, local,
whole
and national, should receive the chief emphasis and that next to this the Greek and Roman culture
state,
;
should be emphasized. It is to the instruction in history and to that of native and foreign literature
that
we
are to look for the cultivation of this interest.
The reading matter in the mother tongue is depended upon to preserve the unity of the course through the studies touching the home environment
of the child.
Literary selections
first
emphasize the
last great German war (1870-1), and then go back to the Napoleonic, the Seven Years', and the Thirty
Years' wars, the Reformation, etc., the object of the whole being that a clear understanding of German
manners and customs, German homes, history, legends, and poetry, shall be placed in the center of the whole
realm of instruction.
the substance of the
This,
it
will be
remembered,
is
demand
of the
German Emperor,
young Ger;
when he
said the schools should produce
mans, not young Greeks and Romans

advocated this plan long before the
2.
yet Dr. Frick
Emperor spoke.
sifting of the material of instruction can be obtained only by confining it to that which
A thorough
and epochs, to really great pertains to great periods to the typical and characteristic, the personalities,
REMARKS ON THE COURSE OF STUDY

truly classical
201
Such a limitation results in dropping whole subjects at certain stages; thus, for example, Geography is omitted after Tertia A, Latin Grammar
after
3.
Secunda B, and Greek Grammar after Secumla
A.
In addition to the coordinating influence of history and literature, the following aids to the same end may also be named
:
(1) Unity of treatment is preserved within each important subject or groups of subjects. Thus, for
is to be taught manifold relations clearly in view, a technical isolation of the various topics, like botany, zoology,
instance, the whole of natural science

its
with
geology,
(2)
etc.,
being avoided.
existing between such and natural science, and between these and literature, and that between physics and mathematics, is continually brought to the consubjects as geography
The natural intimacy
sciousness of the pupil. (3) The favoring of such subjects as involve at once a wide range of events and a broad stretch of
country, the Odyssey, the Niebelungen Lied, the Seven Years' and the Thirty Years' wars, for illustration. Almost every part of Germany has a local
interest in
(4)
The search
some phase of the Thirty Years' war. for and the selection of organic
bodies of
knowledge pertaining to individuals, to communities and states, are to be constant so, too, is the emphasis of middle or turning points in the
;
events pertaining to individuals or communities, to whole historical epochs; or even to the development
of important ideas.
(5)
The constant regard
for the
mind and
feeling
202
of the pupil, which is the true center of instruction, is to be ever held in mind. His apperceptive capacity must be observed, his permanent inherent interests
developed. Scores of prominent

sors have done
Germany
German schoolmen and professervice in the work of adapt-
ing the Herbartian pedagogics to the needs and It would not, conditions of the German schools. however, add to the value of this exposition to confuse the typical work of the leaders already presented with a host of variations. It must suffice to mention
appendix the chief works of others who have become noted on account of contributions to the cause, whether in psychology, ethics, or general and special
in the
theory of education.
Part
III
HERBART1AN IDEAS IN AMERICA
CHAPTER
THE HERBART CLUB

This Club was organized at the Saratoga meeting of the National Educational Association in 1892, and
consists, for the
most
part, of teachers
who have made
a special study of Herbartian principles of education. The purpose of the Club is to facilitate the spread of these ideas, and to promote their rational application in school work under American and English conditions.
The Club has made a beginning by the

1
trans-
lation of Lange's Apperception, already mentioned in Part II, Chapter VII, and by the translation of Ufer's 2 Introduction to the Pedagogy of Herbart.' These works
are translated
by members of the Club, and edited by
the writer of this volume.
Previous to the formation of the Club, however, the Herbart. present writer issued two books based on
The first, Essentials of Method, an analytical treatment of the formal stages of instruction, was issued
in 1889
;
while the second, a translation of Lindner's
8 Empirical Psychology, appeared in 1890.

i Apperception, a monologue on Psychology and Pedagogy, by Dr. Karl Lange. Boston D. C. Heath & Co., 1893. 2 Boston: U. C. Heath & Co., 1894. 8 De Garmo's Essentials of Method ; Lindner's Empirical Psy:
chology.
Boston: D. C. Heath
&
Co., 1893.
205
206

:
1.
Other important translations are as follows Herbart's Psychology, by Margaret K. Smith,
Oswego,
2.
Van
3.
New York State Normal School, 1891 .* Rein's Outlines of Pedagogics, by C. C. and Ida J. 2 Liew, Illinois State Normal University, 1893.
Herbart's General Pedagogics and Moral Revela-
tion of the World,

3 England, 1893.
by Henry M. and Emmie Eelkin, of
beginning has been made in the work of adaptHerbartian principles to American conditions. A ing course of illustrative lessons arranged according to the
Ziller plan of Concentration, prepared
by Dr. Frank
McMurry while professor of pedagogy in the Univerin Chapter sity of Illinois, has already been presented
VI
of Part II.
The most extensive contribution of this kind has been made by Dr. Charles A. McMurry, of the Illinois In 1892, he State Normal University, at Normal, 111.
work
This published The Elements of General Method} is a sympathetic exposition of the principles of Herbart as interpreted by Ziller and Eein, with copious use of fitting illustrations
Saxon history and experience.
drawn from AngloIn his discussion of the
relative value of studies he has the following to say of
the fetish of formal culture, or discipline of the a few studies like grammar and arithmetic
by
mind
International Education Series.
New York
N.Y.
;
D. Appleton
&
Co., 1892.
2 C.
&
Co.,
W. Bardeen London.
&
Co., Syracuse,
also
Swan Sonnenschein
Co.,
8 D. C. Heath London. *
&
Co., Boston; also
Swan Sonnenschein &
Bloomington,
111.
Public School Publishing Co.
THE HERBAKT CLUB

"
207
The second
article of faith is a still stronger one.
The
better class of energetic teachers
would never
have been won over to formal studies on purely utiliA second conviction weighs heavily tarian grounds.
on
is
The discipline of the mental faculties,'' a talisman of unusual potency with them. They prize arithmetic and grammar more for this than for
their minds.
'
any
direct practical value. The idea of mental disciof training the faculties, is so ingrained into all pline,
our educational thinking that it crops out in a hundred ways and holds our courses of study in the beaten track of formal training with a steadiness that
is
These friends believe that we are takastonishing. the backbone out of education by making it intering
reached
esting.
is
The culmination of this educational doctrine when it is said that the most valuable
it is
thing learned in school or out of
to do
and
to
do vigorously that which is most disagreeable. The training of the will to meet difficulties unflinchingly
their aim, and Ave cannot gainsay it. These stalwart apostles of educational hardship and difficulty
is
are in constant fear lest
we
shall
make
studies inter-
esting and attractive and thus undermine the energy of the will. But the question at once arises Does not the will always act from motives of some sort ? And is there any motive or incentive so stimulating
:
to the will as a steady

est in studies.
It is able to
and constantly increasing intersurmount great difficulties.
"We wish
to assure our stalwart friends that

'
we
still
adhere to the good old doctrine that there is no royal road to learning.' There is no way of putting aside the great difficulties that are found in every study, no
208
and tunnelling through monotony of a railroad or mountainous parts of edutrack through the rough cation. Every child must meet and master the diffiThere are no palace of learning for himself. culties chairs to carry him to the summit cars with reclining
of grading up the valleys the hills so as to get the even
way
of real difficulties.
The character-developing power that lies in the mastery of hard tasks constitutes one of their chief merits. Accepting this as a fundamental
truth in education, the problem for our solution is, how to stimulate children to encounter difficulties.
Many
children have little inclination to sacrifice their
ease to the cause of learning, and our dull methods of teaching confirm them in their indifference to educational incentives.
Any
child,
who, like
Hugh
Miller
or
Abraham
Lincoln, already possesses an
insatiable
thirst for knowledge, will allow no difficulties or hard-
This original ships to stand in the way of progress. which the select appetite and thirst for knowledge
few have often manifested in childhood is more valuaWith the ble than anything the schools can give. we can certainly do nothing betmajority of children
ter
than to nurture such a taste for knowledge into vigorous life. It will not do to assume that the average of children have any such original energy or momentum to lead them to scale the heights of even
ordinary knowledge."
1
The chapter
is
summarized
as follows
"History in the liberal sense surveys the field of human life in its typical forms and furnishes the best
illustrative
moral materials.
1
Nature study opens the

45, 46.
General Method, pp.
THE HERBART CLUB

door to the real world in
law.
all its
209
beauty, variety, and
an indispensable of useful and disciplinary knowledge, but they part should occupy a secondary place in courses of study because they deal with the form rather than with the
studies constitute
The formal
content of the sciences.
It is a
fundamental error
to
place formal studies in the center of the school course and to subordinate everything to their mastery. His-
tory and natural science, on the contrary, having the richest knowledge content, constitute a natural center
for all educative efforts.
They make possible a strong of will-energy because their interesting development materials furnish strong and legitimate incentives to
mental activity and an enlarged
aims."
l
field
to voluntary effort in pursuit of clear
and opportunity and attractive
most suggestive portions of the General " the part of the chapter on " Culture Epochs that discusses the function of history in an American
of the
is
One
Method
program constructed on the

ing
"
is
a citation
Ziller plan.
The
follow-
are
The Jewish and German historical materials, which made the moral-educative basis of the common
school by the Herbartians, can be of no service to us except by way of example. Xeither sacred nor Ger-
man
history can form any important part of an American course of study. Religious instruction has been to the Church, and German history touches delegated
us indirectly,
if
at
all.
The epochs
of history from
which American schools must draw are chiefly those of the United States and Great Britain. France, Ger1
General Method, pp.
47, 48.
210

Italy,
many,
and Greece may furnish some
collateral
matter, as the story of Tell, of Siegried, of Alaric and Ulysses, but the leading epochs must be those of our
own
"
national history.
Has the English-speaking
race of
North America
passed through a series of historical epochs which, on account of their moral-educative worth, deserve to
stand in the center of the
this
common
school course ?
Is
history adapted to cultivate the highest moral and intellectual qualities of children as they advance
from year to year ? There are few if any single nawhose history could furnish a favorable answer to this question. The English in America began their
tions
career so late in the world's history, and with such ad-
vantages of previous European culture, that several of the earlier historical epochs are not represented in our country. But perhaps Great Britain and Europe will
furnish the earlier links of a chain whose later links
were firmly welded in America.

"
The
ments
less
history of our country since the first settlethan three hundred years ago is by far the
best epitome of the world's progress in its later phases that the life of any nation presents. On reaching the new world the settlers began a hand-to-hand, toothand-nail conflict with hard conditions of climate, soil, and savage. The simple basis of physical existence
had
to be fought for
on the hardest terms.
The
fact
that everything had to be built up anew from small beginnings on a virgin soil gave an opportunity to
trace the rise of institutions from their infancy in a Puritan dwelling or in a town meeting, till they spread
and consolidated over a continent.
In this short time
THE HERBART CLUB

the people have
rial
211
grown from
little
scattered settlements
to a nation, have experienced an undreamed-of mate-
expansion, have passed through a rapid succession
of great political struggles, and have had an unrivalled evolution of agriculture, commerce, manufactures, in-
ventions, education, and social
life.
All the elements
of society, material, religious, political, and social, have started with the day of small things and have grown
up together. " There is
little in
below the fourth grade, that from the beginning of the

history
is
our history to appeal to children but is, below ten years

;
fourth grade American rich in moral-educative materials of the best
quality and suited to children. 1. guish four principal epochs

:
We
are able to distin-
of pioneers, the ocean navigators like Columbus, Drake, and Magellan, and the explorers of the continent like Smith,
The age
Champlain, La
Indian
Avars.
Salle,
and Fremont.
2.
The period
life
of
settlements, of colonial history, and of French and

3.
The Kevolution and

till
under the
Articles of Confederation
stitution.
4.
the adoption of the ConSelf-government under the Union and
growth and strengthening of the federal idea. While drawing largely upon general history for a full and detailed treatment of a few important topics in
the
each of these epochs we should make a still more abundant use of the biographical and literary materials
furnished by each. The concentration of school studies, with a historical series suggested by the culture
epochs as a basis, would utilize our American history, biography, and literature in a manner scarcely dreamed
of heretofore.
212 "
We
shall attempt to illustrate briefly this concen-
tration of studies about materials selected
from one
of the culture epochs. Take, for example, the age of from which to select historical subject-matter pioneers
for children of the fourth
and fifth grades. It comand prehends the biographies of eminent navigators land and sea. It describes the explorers, pioneers on
important undertakings of Columbus, Magellan, Cabot, leaders Raleigh, Drake, and others, who were daring The pioat the great period of maritime discovery. neer explorers of Xew England and the other colonies
in the preparabring out strongly marked characters Smith, Champlain, tory stage of our earliest history.
WashWinthrop, Penn, Oglethorpe, Stuyvesant, and De ington are examples. In the Mississippi Valley and Robertson are Soto, La Salle, Boone, Lincoln, Still farther west Lewis, and Clarke, and the
types.
this historical epoch pioneers of California, complete in a series of great enterprises. " Most of them are with pioneers in new regions beset few of wild beasts, savages, and sickness.
dangers
are settlers, the first to build cabins and take possession of the land that was still claimed by red men
and
covered with forests. The men named were leaders of small bands sent out to explore rivers and claimants at the point forests, or to drive out hostile
still
of the sword.
Any one who
has tried the effect of
these stories upon children of the fourth grade will native interest. But this grant that they touch deep interest to be of and must be a
genuine
permanent
educative value.
is its
virtue.
The moral quality in this interest rest Standish, Boone, La Salle, and the
THE HERBART CLUB
213
were stalwart men whose courage was keenly and powerfully tempered. They were leaders of men by Their deeds virtue of moral strength and superiority.
have the stamp of heroism, and in approving them the moral judgments of children are exercised upon known
material.
These
men and
stories constitute
in civilization because they represent that state
an epoch which
In fact just precedes the first form of settled society. some of the stories fall in the transition stage, where
men
axe, or turned to the
followed the plough and wielded the woodman's warpath as occasion required.
In every part of the United States there has been such a period and something corresponding to it in other We are prepared to assume, therefore, that countries.
these historical materials arouse a strong interest,
implant moral ideas, and illustrate a typical epoch.
These men, especially These are also very real. the land pioneers, were our own predecessors, traversing the same rivers, forests, and prairies where we now live and enjoy the fruits of their hardihood and
labor."
l
Following the outline of his historical material
is
general scheme of concentration for remainingbranches. Dr. MeMurry has exemplified his theories by compiling two volumes of pioneer history stories, and pre-
paring the
first
two numbers of a
series of
monographs
on Special Methods. 2 His monograph on Geography is noteworthy from the fact of its full recognition
General Method, pp. 9.5-98. Special Methods, (1) History and Literature, (2) Geography, also Pioneer Stories, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington,
2
111. 1
214
of the value of commercial geography in elementary
education.
volume gives in that have thus far detail most of the contributions been made in the effort to adapt Herbartian ideas to
at the close of this
A bibliography
American conditions.
CHAPTER
II
THREE PLANS FOR THE CORRELATION OF STUDIES
That
the rational articulation of studies
is
a press-
ing problem in American education cannot be doubted. It is a consummation everywhere demanded but no-
where achieved by the celebrated Report of the ComTen on Secondary Education. 1 Why there is no coordination in this Report it is not difficult to see. Nine independent bodies of specialists meeting in different places and having no correspondence could
mittee of
not be expected to produce a course of study in which

the various branches should be organically connected. Dr. Frick and his hundred or more associates upon
Lehrproben unci Lehrgange worked upon the special branches for eight years before they ventured to offer
an organic course of study. The problems arising from the attempt at rational articulation being so difficult, it would be a cause of astonishment, had
to do at a stroke
these independent conferences been able by intuition what can only be effected by much
reflection and experiment. The central committee did not attempt to modify the reports of the specialists
1
This Report,
made
to the National Council of Education in
1894, is published
by the Bureau
of Education, Washington, D.C.
215
216
HERBART AND THE HERBARTIAXS
except to the extent of diminishing the time demanded, so that a workable program might be obtained. But
though the final work of coordination remains a pious wish so far as the Report is concerned, it must not be
inferred that the conferences have
in this direction.
made no progress There has been an honest attempt to fix upon a rational selection and sequence of topics And it for each important study or group of studies. be conceded that a rational unity of treatmay easily
ment
sided,
for each branch
or visionary
is preferable to a crude, oneconcentration of all subjects.
Furthermore, each important group of related subjects is justified in presenting its claim for its own
principle
Ziller,
we
of sequence, unless, indeed, according to grant that some subjects are so important
that they form a Procrustean bed to which all others with conflicting principles of development must be
fitted.
If this claim is not admitted,
it
follows that
most important progress has already been made toward the coordination of the studies of Secondary
Schools.
That the importance of coordination
is
seen also in
the department of Elementary Education may be inferred from the following questions put to hundreds of leading superintendents and teachers by the Committee of Fifteen from the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association
:
Correlation of Studies
1.
Should the elementary course be eight years, and

Or,
the secondary course four years, as at present ?
CORRELATION OF STUDIES
217
should the elementary course be six years and the secondary course six years ?
2.
Has each
of the
grammar
school studies
lan-
tion),
guage (including reading, spelling, grammar, composimathematics (arithmetic, algebra, plane geomgeography,
history, natural
etry),
science
zoology, mineralogy),
penmanship, drawing,
If so,
(botany, etc., a
what is it ? 3. Should other subjects than those enumerated in the second question, such as manual training (including sloyd, sewing, and cooking) physical culture, physics,
distinct pedagogical value ?
,
music, physiology (including the effects of stimulants and narcotics), Latin, or a modern language, be taught
in the elementary school course ?
4.
If so,
why
Should the sequence of topics be determined by the logical development of the subject, or by the
power to apperceive new ideas ? Or, to any extent by the evolutionary steps manifested by the race ? If so, by the evolution of the race to which the child belongs, or that of the human race ?
child's
5.
What
should be the purpose of attempting a

duplication,
effort ?
close correlation of studies ?
(a)
tials,
To prevent
eliminate non-essen-
and save time and
(b)
To develop the apperceiving power To develop

character ?
of
the
mind?
(c)
purely ethical pur-
pose
6.
all
Is it possible on any basis to correlate or unify the studies of the elementary school ?
If not,
7.
may
they be divided into two or more-
groups, those of each group being correlated ?
218

8.
Is there
in all the
any way of correlating the
results of
work
9.
What
groups ? should be the length of recitation periods
in each year of the elementary school course ?
What
considerations should determine the length ? 10. In what year of the course should each of the
subjects mentioned in questions 2 and 3 be introduced,
if
introduced at
11.
all ?
In making a program, should time be assigned for each subject, or only for the groups of subjects
suggested in question 7 ? 12. How many hours a week for
subjects ?
13.
how many years should be devoted to each subject, or each group of
What
topics
may
be covered in each subject, or
each group of subjects ? 14. Should any subject, or group of subjects, be

treated differently for pupils who leave school at 12, 13, or 14 years of age, and for those who are going
to a high school ?
15. Can any description be given of the best method of teaching each subject, or group of subjects, throughout the school course ?
16.
What
at
which the
17.
considerations should determine the point specialization of the work of teachers

?
should begin
On what
pupils
from grade
principle should the promotion of to grade be determined ?
Who
should make the determination
Not only do we have these
indications of the drift of
thought in the National Educational Association, but we have Col. F. W. Parker's inspiring volume of 491
pages on the Theory of Concentration
1
219
perhaps the
most thoroughgoing and extensive work ever written upon this subject. Although Colonel Parker makes no claim of being a Herbartian, his theory of concentration reminds us strongly of Ziller's in its purpose of unifying all knowledge. The principle on which this is to be effected, however, is totally different from Like the Herbartians, he takes the strongest Ziller's.
grounds against the idea of formal discipline, especially when sought through form studies alone, such as language, grammar, and mathematics. Actual, concrete knowledge of the same sort that has constituted the
ante-school experience of the child, shall be the material through which all form is to be taught. In the
center stands the child surrounded by energy working through matter. This matter is studied under the fol-
lowing heads
mineralogy,
geology,
geography, as-
tronomy, meteorology, botany, zoology, anthropology, This is a hierarchy of sciences, ethnology, history. and each is to be taught in its relations to its fellows.
Universal law
is
to be the principle of unification of
mind of the child. Next, we have knowledge the modes of attention called observing, reading, hearThen come the modes of expression ing-language.
in the
called
gesture, writing, speech, drawing, painting, modelling, making, music. Lastly, we have the modes of Judgment called form and number. Through
the expression of concrete related knowledge (chiefly of the natural world, it would seem) we are to develop
all
needed
skill in
the use of forms.
as such should not be taught, for this

i
Formal studies is an inversion
New York:
E. L. Kellogg
&
Co., 1894.
220
and a perversion of every sound educational theory. group of subjects such as history and literature on the one hand, or natural science on the other, is to form the core about which the other subjects shall be concentrated and to whose principle of
of nature
No
development the others shall be subordinated; but every subject shall have equal validity with every
other, except that thought shall precede expression, the principle of unification or concentration being the
rational, philosophical relation that exists
by nature
among The following
the various departments of

citation
"
:
human knowledge.
illustrates this
from pp. 27-8
natural coordination
of geograthat I give is this Geography is the knowledge or phy science of the present appearance of the earth's surface. This definition premises that there have been countfirst definition
:
The
other appearances in past aeons, that constant changes have been going on in the crust of the earth,
less
and that changes will be continuously made in the

future.
face
The present appearance of the earth's surthe result, or present effect, of countless changes in the earth's crust. Geologists teach us that the
is
earth's creation is going on to-day in precisely the same way and by the same causes as it has been going
on for countless
ages.
To know geography
is
to
know
the present appearance of the earth's surface. This definition gives geography a place as a branch of study and shows its relation to other studies. Any
definition
more comprehensive than
this
would include
other subjects. Thus the study of the surface of the earth is a study by itself, excluding by its definition all other branches."
221
Concentration based on the philosophic unity of all knowledge is a distinctly American contribution to
Some of its limitations will the theory of education. soon be pointed out. We have before us two general plans of Concenand Colonel Parker's, and one for that offered by Dr. Frick. coordination, Granting to each of the theories of concentration its strong points, it is still obvious that both have serious limitations,
tration,
Ziller's
some of which may be mentioned Ziller's scheme of concentration assumes, 1.

:
in the
that the past is always simpler, hence more interesting, to the child than the present, and that
first place,
consequently the culture epochs are the invariable guide to sequence in the culture subjects. This assumption, notwithstanding the unquestioned advantage presented by a historical sequence, can hardly be suc-
To cessfully maintained as an invariable principle. the finest historians are able to make begin with, only
such a picture of past conditions of life that the child can have any adequate understanding of the events narrated in history. Pioneer life, in spite of its seeming simplicity, may be really complex to the young because of its poverty of the means now surrounding
Think of the devices and roundabout every child. methods that had to be resorted to because of the
limitations of the people in the, means for transportation for obtaining and cooking food for erecting,
;
heating,
and
lighting
houses
for
manufacturing
clothing; for obtaining books, papers, magazines, works of art, and other means of culture. To portray the conditions under which ancient or for-
222

is
eign peoples wrought

task.
a correspondingly difficult
Again,
it
may
be that the elements for the explana-
tion of even complicated social or material relations lie in the environment of the child, so that there is
no need to go to the developments of history for an Suppose one wished to make a ten-yearexplanation.
old boy understand something of a self-binding harOne might indeed go back to the Book of vester.
Ruth
for a lesson on the use of the hand-sickle,
and
then show the development into the scythe, then into the cradle, then the back and forth movement of the
McCormick
sickle,
then the self-raker, the Marsh Har-
vester on which the binders rode, and finally the selfbinder itself. But though this tracing of the historical
evolution would be interesting and under some circumstances very valuable, it is not necessary to an Handunderstanding of the machine in question.
sickles, scythes,
to-day.
and rakes are used for some purposes In fifteen minutes an instructor could illus-
whole process with the elements at hand the cutting of the grain, the use of the reel in place of the hand for holding the grain to be cut, the platform for carrying and elevating the grain instead of
trate the
the old process of gathering into bundles, the binding by means of a steel arm and a twine, instead of the
old method of binding with straw by hand, and finally the grouping of bundles into winrows for shocking. The elements necessary for explanation are right at
torical epochs.
hand, and for clearness need no excursion into hisIn the same way, the elements for the proper comprehension of legal, social, governmental,
223
and economic organizations may all lie in the environment of the child, making it quite unnecessary to trace their development from antiquity through the various
culture stages of the race. Why, for illustration, cannot the modern German boy with his knowledge of railroads, steamboats, and bridges; of gunpowder, can-
non, and breech-loading rifles, understand the last war with France, as well as the guerilla warfare waged
with
antiquated weapons by his savage ancestors against the legions of Rome ? Is not the progress through the culture epoch of more value as a stimulant
to the imagination, as a
means
life,
for touching the fancy,
for enriching the social
sympathies than
it
is
standing? If this is to the environment of the child as great a value for apperception as is contained in progress through culture
epochs, even for culture subjects. The second limitation to which Ziller's plan is subjected, is that it is a scheme for subordination for most
and for broadening the as a necessary means for underthe truth, then we must grant
Non-culture branches, and not one of coordination. subjects, like the natural sciences, are compelled to accept a principle of development not their own, pro-
vided they are so fortunate as to be granted any at

It is to incidental suggestions arising
all.
from history
and
literature that the nature-subjects
owe
their ap-
It pearance at any given point upon the program. might perhaps be granted that, in the first years of school life, when scientific sequence is a matter of
small moment, such a method for selecting natureBut if the study topics is open to the least objection. of nature is to be seriously undertaken, it seems in-
224
evitable that, just as it has developed for itself the obserlaboratory method of verification and inductive
vation, releasing itself
treatment, so too
from the shackles of literary must be granted a correlated not from sequence arising from its own constitution,
it
that of subjects naturally alien to it. 2. Fascinating as Colonel Parker's scheme of concentration
may appear
at first sight, it involves
two
chief difficulties, one physical and the other psychical, tendencies. together with any number of undesirable
The two great difficulties involved arise from the fact that to make the philosophical unity of knowledge
the principle of concentration it is necessary to have an adult philosopher to teach and an infant philoso-
pher to
learn.
It is a physical
(and economic) impos-
prepare two hundred thousand philosophers, more or less, to do the teaching and it is a psychical
sibility to
;
infant philosophers to do impossibility to produce any the learning. Simple associations of facts children
can make, but they can see no far-reaching unifying To make them appear to do so leads to
principles.
worse formalism than any we seek to avoid.
Among
following
the undesirable tendencies of this plan the
may
be mentioned:
undue emphasis upon the mate(1) There seems an of rial facts of knowledge, and a corresponding neglect The topics in which inherent thought the culture side.
is to
be developed are mineralogy, geology, geography, astronomy, meteorology, biology, zoology, anthropology,
and history.
religion,
How
different
from
this is Ziller's
phasis of the culture subjects history, literature,
emand
which in
his
view are so important for the
225
spiritual and moral development of man that they are worthy to be the core of study to which all form and
The savage, nature study should be subordinated. even, learns much of nature, but his savagery exists
because he knows so
little
of
man and
his institutions.
The history
of the world indicates that civilization has

it
been possible without natural science, but that

not exist without culture knowledge.
therefore, to
can-
Were we
forced,
we should keep the

For
this reason a
abandon either in elementary education, culture and let the science go.
scheme of concentration that appears
heavy stress upon the facts of the material world is open to serious objection. (2) Another practical difficulty at once arises when
to lay such
the attempt
is
made
to teach all
modes of expression,
such as writing, speech, drawing, painting, modelling,
and making, incidentally, as the natural method of expressing the inherent thought gained in the knowledge subjects. Such modes of expression as arise naturally and inevitably in expressing thought may perhaps be
left to incidental care,
mechanical and mental

lected
but those that occasion great difficulties, like writing, draw-
ing, spelling, etc., are in

if
most cases
likely to be neg-
taught incidentally.
In the long run and
comes
with the majority of teachers, what is incidental to be regarded as unimportant, and suffers a
philosophical unity of knowledge as a basis (3) for concentration Lads inevitably to an emphasis of
corresponding neglect.
the logical at the expense of the psychological It is only after the separate principle of sequence.
sciences
are well
developed individually that their
22G
philosophical interrelations are clearly perceived. In making these late-seen interrelations the basis of concentration, the natural
tendency would be to make
the various sciences take the direction and sequence of topics indicated by their development as logically
completed wholes. The apperception of the child is not scientific, however, but depends upon the limits
and tendencies fixed by environment, experience, and childish tastes and fancies. The sequence of topics
in
knowledge must, therefore, be psychological before
it is logical.
The only scheme of true coordination of studies furnished by the followers of Herbart is that offered
by Dr. Frick. Its chief features are (1) that it places the present environment of the child at least on a par with the culture epochs as a guide to the selection and
arrangement even of culture-studies (2) that it allows the nature-studies to have their own principle of development so far as selection and sequence are
;
concerned
sible
(3) that it provides for the greatest pos-
each important subject; (4) that it takes advantage of natural and simple relations existing among the studies, so arranging and presenting the various topics that these relations may appeal with
unity in
In short, his plan is to depend upon simple associations among the ideas presented by instruction, leaving until the later stages of educafull force to the child.
tion all attempts to bring to view that unification of knowledge which comes through a grasp of under-
lying philosophical principles. Like other Herbartians, Dr. Frick divides studies
227
into two groups Culture- and ISTATURE-studies, each group having both form and content branches. Languages are, in general, the form side of culturesubjects,
studies.
and mathematics the form side of nature-
This classification has for the past half century been a good one, but a new spirit is coming into our civilization, which even if not yet recognized by the teacher Education has, will, however, soon force a recognition.
in its elements, at least, now become universal, and the conditions of life for the masses are rapidly chang-
We cannot multiply populations indefinitely without at the same time abandoning whole groups of
ing.
old ideals in every important field of activity, education included.

final chapter of this book can be written, forth the author's conception of a practicable setting principle of coordination of studies for English-speaking peoples, there must be an exposition of the new
Before the
ideals that should follow

life.
from the new conditions of

is
This exposition
it
the business of the next
chapter to set forth.
CHAPTER
III
A NEW" ERA IN EDUCATION
Nothing
is
older than
hostility
to
new
ideas.
"When, in important aspects of life, they have tended to dominate large numbers of men, their christening
has not unfrequently been a baptism of blood. This has been the history of religious and governmental
changes.
significant proposition to abandon the beaten of the fathers in whatever realm of thought is path sharply challenged by many people both as to purpose
Every
Not only is this true in Church and but it is equally true in education, which is at state, once a cause and a result of both.
and method.
large extent educational ideals arise from the conditions under which men worship their Creator,
To a
provide their food, and secure their civil liberty. But these conditions constantly change, sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly, whereas our ideas of education are
advance.
periodic, rather than constant in their corresponding Our imaginations become completely ad-
justed to one set of conditions, so that

cult if not impossible to readjust
228
we
find
it diffi-
them
to a
new
order
A NEW ERA
of things.
IN
EDUCATION
229
How slowly and reluctantly, for instance, have we reconstructed our religious imaginations to
meet the truths revealed by the new astronomy, the
science of geology, and the demonstrated portions of For 1350 years the developthe theory of evolution
!
ment of the Christian
religion
had been side by side
with the Ptolemaic theory of astronomy, in which the earth was the stationary center around which
revolved sun, planets, and stars. What more natural than that Heaven should be above, and Hell below ? But if the sun is to be the center, the image constructed by the imagination
stroyed.
literal
is
distorted
if
not deto the
Our youthful minds become adjusted
Mosaic account of creation, but the imagination will not accord with the science of geology as we
it
know
life
to-day.
come
Our early conceptions of primeval into conflict with the idea of an orderly
Slowly, reluctantly, and sometimes only we revise these old constructions
evolution.
in our children do
of an active imagination to demonstrated laws.
make them conform
to
Belated ideals are more to be expected in education than in government and religion, for the antithesis between inherited educational conceptions and the new
conditions under which
men must work
are not so
sharply accented here as elsewhere. Men have ample freedom to follow their notions in the higher education of their children, so that they do not feel called
upon
faith in civil
to defend their educational faith as they do their and church affairs. For this reason it
leaders,
often comes to pass that those who should be the become the retard ers of educational thought,
230
leaving the direction of it to practical men of the world, whose lives are in close touch with the economic
of the present, and whose minds are not arrested by ideals that were the products of an older state of civilization.
activities
Plato and Aristotle sought to get to the heart of the material world, to find the stuff of which things are made and the primal forces that produce them. Building upon the foundations laid by Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus sought to demonstrate to
to
the understanding the truths of revelation, that is, rationalize the Christian creed. Descartes and
Kant have changed the basis, and instead of founding philosophy upon the lowly earth, or suspending it from the vaulted sky, they rest it upon the fundamental truths of human consciousness. The standto
point of philosophy has thus shifted from material miracle and from miracle to mind, each stage
summing up and including all that had gone before. Closely analogous to this movement has been that of education. The oldest yet perhaps the most common
ideal of higher education to-day is that liberal training of the mind consists chiefly of ancient languages
and mathematics.
Vast indeed
is
The entrance requirements
of our
colleges are mostly adjusted to this idea.
the debt that civilization owes to
these incomparable instruments of education. Once they were wholly adequate to the educational needs
of the world. But should we forget that since the days when the classics obtained their ascendancy the world has become democratic, that higher education
from being the privilege of a small
class has
become
A NEW ERA
IN
EDUCATION
231
a necessity for the leaders of all classes ? Shall we ignore the fact that at that time the mother-tongue of
most countries was the vehicle of little or no learning ? It was near the middle of the last century before Wolff first taught philosophy to speak German.
Previous to that time Latin was the almost universal
language of learned works. The rise and growth of science is almost within the memory of men now
while the wonderful development of industrial enterprise, with its concentration of capital and orliving,
is confined almost to the present In short, the classics took their rise when century. they were the only receptacles of knowledge, when no natural science existed, when industry was undeveloped, when education was the prerogative of priests
ganization of labor,
and
literati,
yet risen to assert for themselves the rights of
and when the surging masses had not man.

it is
Under these circumstances
not strange that the
imagination of the scholar should have constructed a

picture of classical education in colors so bright that they still endure.
Mathematics won
its
prominent place in our cur-
riculum largely through the brilliant results obtained
by Xewton and his contemporaries.
To
it
owe our modern

half of our
development. has seen the rise and perfection of the natural sciences as instruments of edu-
scientific
The
chiefly we latter
own century
at
first
cation.
Taught
little
by
literary
methods, they
made but
impression, but during the last twentyfive years they have developed a method of their own that of inductive research and verification in the
laboratory.
So vast have been the conquests of
232
science in our own times that a large part of our educators have reconstructed their educational ideal, yielding to science an honored place side by side with the older linguistic branches.
The second grand movement

cation since the
in the history of edu-
The
first
Renaissance has now taken place. represents the supremacy of the humanities
;
form of ancient languages the second, the admission of the natural sciences as coordinate branches.
in the
To-day we are preparing to inaugurate a third and grander period, which shall be in itself the synthesis and final culmination of the other two.
Man, with only an introspective knowledge of himwhat the mediaeval monks thought him a citizen of Heaven wretchedly stranded upon this desert
self, is
island in the sea of Eternity.

learned, alternating ecstasy
This means for the and despair, and for the
masses, ignorance, poverty, disease, together with their attendant forms of wretchedness. Universal educa-
high standard of living, and at the same time dense population, are not to be thought of under such
tion,
conditions.
On the other hand, man can never know so much of nature that he needs to know nothing of himself. In
a broad sense Pope's dictum,
mankind is man," is still true. an introspective being, or man
"The proper study Not man simply
of
as
as smothered in the
dust of science, but man as a universal being whose spiritual ends are realized through the means that
science puts at his command. The classics were the beginning of modern education; natural science has
been the contribution of more modern times.
Both
A NEW ERA
IN
EDUCATION
233
of these enriched and focussed on life are to form a
new
era in education, that which in a broad and
lib-
eral sense
may
be called economic.
This term
may be
easily misconstrued to mean a narrow utilitarianism, a restricted physical aptitude and skill obtained by
the perpetual iteration of mindless exercises. Such a of the function of education, however, is conception
unworthy the times
in
which we
live.
The economic culmination
of the humanistic and
the scientific sides of our training, broadly considered, means the conscious direction of thought, power, and knowledge to the ends they are designed to accomplish.
To see how this is possible, it is necessary to point out a current illusion, generated by the old classical education. Many teachers have long thought, and still think, that a liberal education consists not in mastering knowledge, but in developing power through the medium of grammar and pure mathematics, the idea
being that if we can once develop the power, it may be applied, like a mechanical force, to any desired end.
Reflection will
pline of the
show that this supposed formal discimind by two kinds of study is largely
mythical, but that if properly directed they are rather rich and concrete as far as they go, being, however,
exceedingly narrow in range.

drill ?
gained by this grammatical keen, discriminating knowlof the laws of thinking, and a power to distinedge guish the most subtle phases of thought. Every page
is
"What
of the text abounds in concrete illustrations of the
things the classicist is trying to learn. Any sentence may illustrate the use of the dative case, or the intri-
234

mood, and this process of
cacies of the subjunctive

illustration
and
goes on day
year.
verification of the laws of language after day, month after month, year after
Were natural science half so persistent in the discovery and exemplification of her laws, she would
have new triumphs to boast. Latin and Greek may in the same way be concrete and practical. Their seeming formality is due to their psychological character. That alone is formal and abstract which is divorced
from the purpose it should and concreteness are found
serve.
The same richness
in pure mathematics, thou-
sands of problems being solved to exemplify a few rules. This explains to us the admirable results of classical
training for those whose future callings are largely introspective in character, such as the preacher, the
teacher, the statesman,
and even the physician. On the other hand, the psychological or subjective outcome of such an education explains the instinctive
hostility that practical men of the world have long Instead of the old manifested for this training.
maxim, "discipline first and knowledge afterwards," we must adopt the truer watchword, " discipline through knowledge." The chief defect of the old
education
is
not that
it
is
good for no practical pur-
pose, but that it is for so many callings in life a For the profespartial and one-sided preparation.
sional
man
or
woman
it
may
be economic in the true
has direct bearing on future occupation for all but the learned professions, however, it may be subjective and esoteric it may leave the mind
sense, since
;
it
steeped in the antiquated conceptions of by-gone ages, which taken as stages in a progress would be valu-
A NEW ERA
able,
IN
EDUCATION
235
but which as a substitute for the ruling ideas of to-day bear the same relation to developed truth that
the child does to the man.
In the words of the Ger-
young Germans, young Englishmen, young Americans, not young Greeks and
Romans. The truth is, as has been intimated, the old education was practical and economic for a small class to
man Emperor,
this age needs
whom
a concrete introspective training was the best preparation for life. Our problem, however, is the
education of
all classes.
The introduction
of the nat-
ural sciences has immensely broadened the scope of the usefulness of modern education. But the concepis comparatively new that, not only can science minister to the wants of a new class of our population,
tion
but that by a proper adjustment of subject-matter and the employment of right methods of teaching, all
minds can be trained, and

callings.
at the
same time be
pre-
pared for the best possible success in their several
The powers that we have can be trained

;
through the knowledge we most need as in the binocular microscope, trained mind and acquired knowledge
are focussed in the economic activities of every calling
in life.
Is drawing less educative when applied to the plans for a mighty temple, than when sketching the bust of a Pallas Athene to adorn one of its niches ?
Is
botany
less
noble
when discovering
the laws of
plant organization and investigating the conditions of healthy growth, than it is when it leads the youth of our land into field and forest in order to gather and
name
the flowers ? Are not chemistry and physics as interesting, instructive, and educative when quite
236
developed to the point of their economic application, as they are when arrested at their abstract stages out
of all felt relations to ultimate ends ?
In addition to the old narrow curriculum of classics and pure mathematics we have on the humanistic side, the English language and literature, modern foreign languages, modern history, together with the study of the rise and development of constitutional government and other democratic institutions. On the side of science, we have the marvellous development of pure and applied mathematics, of chemistry and physics, besides the modern biological sciences, whose principle of evolution has given interest of the human mind.
new
life to every great Besides these two lines
of study, enriched and fertilized as they are by application to practical ends, we have another large group of studies applicable to the economic activities in the
narrower sense.
They
are such branches as manual
training, industrial drawing, industrial art, civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering, and the still
greater subjects, finance and administration, together with economics, or the study of the laws that govern
the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. What have we to expect from the new spirit that
is
animating the educational world
Everything that
education can contribute to the progress of civilization. Once the world was in the hands of the monks. We
know
years
it
their ideals
it
and their deeds.
For a hundred
has been in the hands of the scientists.
We know
what they have done.
They have made
possible for many more people to live much betmade it ter; but at the same time they have also
A NEW ERA
IN
EDUCATION
237
possible for a few men with large brains and great capital so to dominate the people that though prosperity and high standards of living may in some
measure be within the reach of the masses, yet under adverse circumstances the most wholesale misery may
future, therefore, belongs neither to the nor to the scientist as such, but to both humanist, combined in the economist. The mental effort once
result.
The
lavished on the logic of the schoolmen, and now on the development of science, must in the future be set
to
work
I
in solving the economic problems of life.
have said that the
human
element, represented
still
measure by the classic languages, is an indispensable element in any comprehensive modern educain large
tion.
is
One
of the prominent results of the old studies
the appreciation of the beautiful generated in the soul. Beauty, if not the religion of the Greek, was its invariable attendant, beauty not as an adorner
and sweetener of life, but beauty as an end. the words of Emerson

:
Thus
in
"Tell them, dear,
if
Then beauty
is its
eyes were made for seeing, own excuse for being."

to consider
One
has, however,
but
what has been
accomplished in many new institutions of learning where industrial art is studied, to find that in this
Not respect also there has been a new combination. is weary toil sustained by the hope of ultimate only
its
rewards, but it is sweetened and illumined throughout course by artistic ideals. Beauty, therefore, from
being an idol before which we may bow, becomes a cheering spirit whose wand transforms drudgery into
238
pleasing labor.
Why
should not every workman be
dinner-table with only potatoes and bread for food, and water for drink may still be the
an
artist ?
center of pleasing intercourse. It need not be a stall The coarsest material can be made into for feeding.
becoming garments, humble homes may enjoy the gladness of beauty. All this is attained, not through the elimination of art as such, but by an application
of
Knowledge, thought-power, no longer isolated and held aloof from daily living, but are blended, harmonized, and utilized to make life more worth living. At the beginning of Western civilization, under favorable climatic conditions and with the minority
things.
artistic
taste, are
it
to
common
able to enslave the majority, it was not unfitting that art should become the supreme end for which the
educational forces of the time were organized. This stage of society may fitly be symbolized by the Apollo
Belvidere, the classic repose of whose well-rounded form suggests nothing of the modern spirit. The
symmetrical limbs are made, not for work, but for entrancing the eye. The placid features betoken no
moral struggle, no resolution to overcome difficulties they indicate rather a being made for sensuous enjoy;
ment, not for thinking or volition. During the great middle period of our civilization, when men were busied with revelation and subjective
analysis, educational agencies were directed to these ends. The symbol of those times is the Madonna.
Her upward straining eyes proclaim the renunciation of earth, the aspiration for heaven. Sense and will are dissolved in religious sentiment.
A NEW ERA
IN
EDUCATION
239
The antique brings the god to earth, the mediaeval translates the mortal to the skies, but the modern man
uses his godlike powers to realize the heaven within His symbol is Michael Angelo's statue of himself. the man who works out the destiny of his race Moses,
upon earth by means of his heaven-lent powers. On his brow there are written both thought and resolution. His rugged form, his starting tendons and swelling muscles betoken the man of action. His is the modern
spirit that focusses thought, sense, and sentiment upon the vital problems encountered in realizing the will of God upon earth. It is to these ends that our
modern education must be consciously organized. Unless the
thinking forces of this country are turned
from the subordinated ideals of the past to the vital ones of the present, hunger and economic servitude
will cause the
masses to change evolution into revolu-
tion as they have done before, when those who should have been their leaders became their masters.
shall, as in the past, need the poet to solace the and the artist to delight the eye, but most of all we shall need to have all the power of learning applied to Like the whirring dynamos prothe elevation of man. the hitherto unused power of Niagara, which pelled by loses no beauty in being useful, this new educational influence, brought to view by the necessities of an
We
soul,
economic age, has begun to generate a life current, which in the fulness of time is destined to warm, to
move, and to light the world.
CHAPTER IV
PROPOSED BASES FOR THE COORDINATION OF STUDIES
The
critique of the
Three Plaks for the CorreChapter II of Part III leads
lation of Studies
in
inevitably to the conclusion that the coordination of studies is greatly to be preferred to their concentration,
whether we consider culture-studies or nature-studies as the center about which all other branches should be arranged and to which they shall be subordinated, or
whether, with Colonel Parker, we accept universal natural law as the guide to presentation. Coordination allows each important subject, or group of subjects, to
have its own principle of development, contenting itself with natural and easy associations in the lower grades, and not attempting to give a philosophic grasp of the
highest unity of knowledge until the pupil is sufficiently mature to comprehend this phase of thought. Furthermore, coordination permits us to present one subject at a time, thus relieving us from the need of
abandoning important studies to the hazard of inciThe same discussion leads, too, to dental treatment.
the conclusion that the historical principle of sequence, though of unquestioned value, need not be followed
240
COORDINATION OF STUDIES
blindly, but that the
241
environment of the child is just an influence in his understanding and inas potent
terest
as
any adaptation of culture epochs
to his
periods of development can be. The discussion of Neiv Era in Education in the
preceding chapter gotten by the teacher,

of education
is
calls attention to
a fact often for-
to
fit
viz., that the highest function not the the pupil for life,
esoteric life of the recluse or the
dreamy
idealist,
but the
of affairs, who takes an active part in all that pertains to human welfare and Such a man is not merely subjecadvancement.
life of
the
man
tively but also objectively moral; he is a good parent, a good citizen, an efficient man of business, who is
able
to
advance his own interests through honest
promotion of the interests of others. Too many of our educational ideals are mediaeval in their origin;
they take as their model some worn-out conception
of culture, or they fix their gaze upon some special calling, forgetting that education is no longer the
prerogative of the few professional classes, but has become the just privilege of all classes. If, then, we
are in earnest about
universal education,
we must
abandon these one-sided
ideals, and, once for all, that our education succeeds just to the recognize extent that we make it focus upon the real activities
of
life.
Eosenkranz
is
fond of emphasizing the idea
of self-estrangement as a necessary
means
of culture.
He
says, "All culture, whatever may be its special of purport, must pass through these two stages and its removal. Culture must inestrangement tensify the distinction between the subject and the
242
object, or that of immediateness, though it has again to absorb this distinction into itself; in this way the
union of the two
may
be more complete and lasting.
subject recognizes, then, all the more certainly that what at first appeared to it as a foreign existence
The
belongs to it potentially as its own possession, and that it comes into actual possession of it by means of culture." 1 This view, exaggerated it may be, is one of the evils of modern education. The pupil is so sunk in the distant, foreign, and alien, and
submerged
long
for so long a time, that he often fails to come to himself at all, continuing to live in a land of dreams
after he should
have been in a land of
realities.
What-
may be in this theory is more safely Herbart in his doctrine of absorption and expressed by reflection, in which at one moment the pupil becomes
lost in the absorption of new experiences, but in the next comes to himself, and makes the alien his own through reflection. But these stages should not last
ever truth there
for long periods of time, as Rosenkranz implies they may, for in that case the student is in danger of be-
coming a
its
citizen of the alien land,
and an adherent of
dust-covered ideals.
For all these reasons, it is urged that modern schools should distinctly recognize in their curricula the presence of the economic idea, not only as a prinand pursuit of all knowlbut also as a distinct center for an important edge, group of school activities. In addition, therefore, to
ciple influencing the choice
the traditional
human and
nature groups,
we
shall
need to add the third or economic group of studies.

1
Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education, pp.
27, 28.
243
literature
Instead, therefore, of adopting Ziller's plan of using and history as a single core of concentra-
tion to "which all other subjects shall be

dinate,
ciple
made
subor-
and from which they must derive their prinof sequence or, on the other hand, of attempting
;
a similar concentration about the nature-studies, the proposition is here made to have three coordinate, but
more or less
distinct cores or centers of unification, hav-
ing constant cross-relations wherever the nature of the subject-matter and the convenience of the class-room
make them advisable. Literature and geography assume the nature of universal correlating studies, since
the concrete matter of
all
and geographical aspects.

follows
1.
:
three cores has both literary The three cores appear as

of studies having a disand history, and a
The humanistic group
tinct ethical content in literature
development as seen in the culture epochs which civilization has passed. through 2. The nature group of studies having no specific ethical content and no long progression from primitive to higher and higher truths, since for the most part these studies have all been developed during the
historical
present century. 3. The third core represents the two factors man and nature in interaction, and is at once a principle of
application for all studies, and a specific department, as seen in such subjects as manual training, industrial
art,
mechanical drawing, commercial geography, and

of these groups
the like.
Each
must now be
briefly discussed.
244
1.
The Humanistic Core

theories of education
However much the ultimate
may
differ, it
may
fairly be asserted that in elemen-
tary education our best thinkers unite in the opinion that concrete, interesting matter is far preferable to the dry bones of purely formal and mechanical instruction.
In place of the old motto of discipline and
knowledge, we have really adopted in practice the new
Furthermore, one, viz., discipline through knowledge. the present almost universal interest in ethical training leads to the conclusion that our former standpoint of mere intellectuality in school education is being gradually shifted to one that takes far more cognizance of the need of developing moral character. From these facts it may be presumed that the proposition to
fication,
make
literature
and history one core of
uni-
with which more formal linguistic studies
may
be associated, will be received as seasonable and
practicable. In the studies of this core,

to experience
ciple of
and with proper respect

Ziller's prin-
under modern conditions,
following in the main the chief epochs of Literature should becivilization is a workable one.
gin with the fable, which is of Asiatic origin, and which presents the economic or utilitarian standpoint
of action.
The
fables
represent virtuous action as
paying larger dividends of pleasure and advantage than These should be accompanied by vice or wrong-doing. folk-lore and fairy tales, which have taken their origin
in the primitive stages of society,
and which
intro-
duce moral ideas as ends of action.
It should
245
be
noted that modern works on primitive life may be most admirable material, as, for instance, Longfellow's Hiawatha ; the content, not the time of action or literary record, being the important thing. Following this stage, literature should show, in gradually broadening
relations, the chief situations in
which the individual
stand to organized society. Besides the literature already described we have also a literature of nature,
may
and to some extent of economic life. An illustration is found in Robinson Crusoe, which, according to Ziller's
plan, is taught in the second grade ostensibly as the center of the ethical group, whereas it is not essenIt develops in reality tially ethical, but economical.
the industrial instincts of the child, while the ethical element is dragged in or magnified out of due proportion in order to
fit
an
artificial
scheme of coordination.
The
effort to attach a
ently moral in ficial character

;
moral to those things not inhertheir nature is harmful rather than bene-
is not promoted by perpetual tinkering on the part of the teacher. Alongside of this ideal presentation of human acts and its results should stand the historical, and b}' following a like principle there
will be
no serious
difficulty
about unification.
Early
history will, as recommended by the Report of the Committee of Ten, begin with mytholog}', which will easily blend with the early literature, and will pro-
ceed to biography,
gradually merge
which
will
assume largely the

This will
the upper
in
literary coloring in the
mind
of the child.
into
history proper
grammar
grades.
Human
deeds, both actual and ideal, are the expres-
246

is
their preservation
Language study becomes, therefore, merely the formal part of literary and historical study. In the elementary grades it is
the mother-tongue that we must deal with, so that a sufficiently close coordination with these studies may
sion of ethical forces, but language and transmission.
necessary for
be brought about. Were instruction in this branch of elementary education nothing more than lessons in
composition, spelling, and penmanship, it might be made purely incidental to the other work. This is,
The mother-tongue has a system of grammatical forms which represent the method of Anglo-Saxon thought. To master these
however, not the case.
forms
of
is
tions they represent.
to be able to perceive the thought distincThe approach to a perception

distinctions,
these
or
grammatical
ideas,
must
be slow, and to the child almost unconscious.
By
means of carefully graded concrete language exercises whose content shall be taken from the material of literature, history, and nature study, it is possible to
make an easy approach

all
to English
grammar.
Nearly
the material for
composition-work proper
may
likewise be chosen from the same sources.
According to the view here presented, the literary and historical treatment of men, both in their individual and in their corporate or institutional capacity, together with the literary aspects of nature, are, in
large degree, fitted to reveal to the child the moral order of the world in which he must live. They form,
therefore, the
most natural core
for direct efforts to

dis-
impart moral ideals and to inculcate right moral

position.
247
2.
The Scientific Core
In the case of nature-studies, the leading purpose and unifying principle must be presumed to be scientific
rather than ethical in the narrower sense of the
term.
That
it
may
be clearly understood in what
and is not ethical, we should clearly disbetween an ethical instrument and an ethical tinguish
sense science
is
content. It is quite possible to give a boy a training in science that shall be ethical in a high degree, since
he
may
be taught to be careful, diligent, painstaking,

in all his
and truthful
cal lessons,
mental operations.
Blacking
boots or sawing
wood might also yield the same ethiwe should not ascribe ethical content yet
to the blacking, the brush, the wood-pile, or the saw. It is the boy's action that has the ethical quality, and in this case the things used are only the instruments
of an ethical deed. In the same way science studies have a high value as instruments in the training of
character, but since their content
fact,
is scientific,
material
cer-
having no quality of good or bad
will,
they
tainly are morally quite indifferent. Whereas, then, the content of literature and history is ethical, since these exhibit the good or bad will of men, the content
of nature-studies
is
in the last analysis non-ethical or
scientific, since it pertains solely to
the facts and laws
of nature.
For reasons already given

torical principle
it is
clear that the his-
has
little
group of subjects. We more practicable bases for unification.
or no applicability to this must therefore find other and

It can hardly
248
be said that scientists themselves are a unit as to
what should constitute the proper selection, sequence, and correlation of topics in nature-studies indeed,
;
not very
ject.
much thought has been given
to the sub-
Twenty years ago teachers were declaring that science has small value for education or discipline in
any
field.
Its
knowledge value was conceded, but
since nearly all sought to teach it in accordance with the methods common in languages, mathematics, and
philosophy, its own peculiar excellence as an instrument in education did not appear. In the higher education all this has been changed, so that science is
now valued by
liberal-minded
men
as
much
for its
educational discipline as for its useful information. Science has become a clear exemplification of the principle of discipline through
knowledge. The most, perwe can claim regarding nature-studies in elementary grades is that men are now ready to grant
haps, that
the priority of psychological grounds in sequence of The tendency parts and coordination of branches.
has been to a tandem arrangement of subjects and a This position has been, logical sequence of parts.
or
is
destined to be, abandoned.
The environment
of the child, his psychological needs, and the opportunities of season and situation, must determine in
large measure the selection of material in the earlier The Eeport of the Committee of Ten is rich grades.
in suggestions as to the selection and sequence of little or no topics, though for reasons already given
coordination has been accomplished Just as language constitutes the formal aspect of humanistic studies, on the one hand, so mathematics
is
249
relations,
the formal aspect of nature-study in its quantitative on the other. Hitherto our elementary work
number has been largely divorced from any conmatter and taught chiefly as an While nothing can make mathematics abstraction. easier than it is by nature, much can make it easier and more interesting than it has been in practice. Professor J ackman points out that about the only conin
siderable concrete
crete matter
we have used
has been the idea of value,
while Colonel Parker, in his Theory of Concentration, shows very clearly how numerical calculations may
be associated with distances, areas, volumes, weights, 1 densities, and sizes, to say nothing of time and forces.
The
chief reason, perhaps,
why
so
many
arithmetics
rela-
limit their concrete illustrations of tions to considerations of value,

is
numerical
that heretofore so
few content studies have been taught in the school. With their advent, however, arithmetic need no longer
stand as an unrelated part of the curriculum. It appears evident that number and culture subare practically incommensurable, beyond the barest beginnings of numerical relations. Three persons may be mentioned in a story, and it is not absurd
jects
that the primary teacher should use this fact to verify the idea of the number involved. Yet, at the most, this helps merely to associate number with objects.
Any
tions
attempt to establish important numerical relaby means of such material would be far-fetched
and
ineffective.
The
case
is
different,
however, with
natural science and with economic and business affairs.
Here quantitative
1
relations force themselves
upon
us,
Theory of Concentration, Chapter IV.
250
being often essential to complete comprehension of a subject. It is for these reasons that attempts to
correlate mathematics with literature
fantastic, while efforts to
and history seem

sci-
do the same with the
ences as well as with economic values appear natural
and
rational.
3.
The Economic Core
The
third core of instruction, here called the eco-
nomic, has been but partially recognized in our course of study. It is the purpose of the preceding chapter
to
of
show how significant for the welfare and progress mankind this phase of education is. A child not
trained for the social and economic environment in
which he must live is by no means rightly educated. Should we insist upon clothing the inhabitants of warm countries with bear skins, and upon feeding them
with blubber, we should commit no greater breach of the eternal fitness of things, than we may now easily
commit by failing to adapt the child's education to the needs of modern life. Universal formal education into the years of manhood as a basis for the special
preparation for callings is a schoolmaster's dream, unattainable even if desirable, and undesirable even
Education must fit for living, all along if attainable. the line, and the better it is adapted to this end the more the people will cherish and promote it.
The economic trend
of education must be observed
both as a principle for all stud}'', and as a department of As a principle, it seeks to focus all special work.
instruction
upon the
practical ends
it
should serve.
As
a department,
it
261
tion of nature to
has a double aspect, the adaptaman, and the preparation of man for
his conquest over nature.
two phases of
first is
There are, accordingly, in the curriculum. The appearance the direct physical training the child needs for
its
;
mastering and utilizing the forces of nature

other
is
and the
the more contemplative study of economic manifestations, such as are seen in industries, com-
The first of these merce, agriculture, and the like. two sides is the very important practical education now known in the elementary schools as manual or
industrial training, and the second is the view brought to light through economic and social literature, rein-
forced by the commercial and social aspects of geog-
raphy.
Many manuals describing the sequence and conduct of manual training work of all grades have been published. The principle of sequence depends for the
most part upon psychological and practical grounds. It is evident that no sequence, however philosophical
in itself, can be adopted that plainly transcends the capacity of the schools with respect to teachers, materials,
and appliances.
little serious
But
attempt has been made to select a
body of literature to stimulate in the mind an interest in the correlation between man and nature, and in fact
it
only in very recent times that a literature has begun to grow up that takes full account of modern
is
economic and social environments.

is
Robinson Crusoe
a classic upon the imaginative treatment of industrial evolution. Robinson Crusoe's constant thought
is
how he
shall preserve his life
and add to his com-
252 fort
by mastering nature with the slender means at his command. The surest evidence of the economic trend of this work is that most children are at once stimulated by their reading of Robinson Crusoe to dig caves, and to construct boats, pottery, huts and the like, the ethical element remaining mostly in the background.
The greatest
and
its
obstacle to the use of this book in the

its
schools has been
labored style,
its
heavy vocabulary,
introspective analyses.
A carefully edited edi-
tion has
now been prepared for the use of pupils in the third and fourth grades. 1 More advanced imaginative literature of this type may be found in Jules Verne's
books, the
Siviss Family Robinson, More's Utopia, The House that Jack Built, Lawrence's Adventures
the Glass Blowers,
like.
among
Rutledge's Every Boy's Book,
and the
literature fitted to the
modern
con-
growing up, a of which may be seen in the books of Louisa M. type Alcott for children.
ditions of social
and family
life is also
Just as language is the formal side of the ethical core, and mathematics of the scientific, so mechanical
drawing
is
the formal side of manual training and
industrial art, with
which
it
may be
closely associated.
have now three parallel-lying and somewhat independent cores of unification about which closely
We
The chief idea of the related subjects are grouped. taken in a broad sense, is ethical, representing first, the deeds of man as a free being, the principle of sequence being to considerable extent the historical;
the spirit of the second group
is scientific,
not ethical,
1 Robinson Crusoe, edited by Mrs. Lida B. McMurry, Public Scbool Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111.
and
253
it represents nature in its independent aspects, the principles of sequence and correlation being deter-
mined
by psychological grounds and outward circumstances, and only secondarily by the logical
chiefly
order of developed sciences
the third core of unifica-
tion represents man and nature in interaction, and lays the chief emphasis upon preparing the child through industrial training the better to master and
direct the forces of nature, providing at the same time a literary or imaginative contemplation of the eco-
nomic
field,
and
also a study of actual conditions in
commercial geography. Before concluding, it
may
be well to add a few
practical considerations regarding special means for coordinating the various subjects of the curriculum.
We have already seen how the reading in the form of literature pertains alike to culture, nature, and economics. It becomes, therefore, a possible means
for bringing about close associations among the various realms of knowledge. The most universal content subject, however, is perhaps geography, whose mani-
fold relations to the subject-matter of the curriculum may be briefly considered.
Heretofore geography seems to have been taught mostly from the political standpoint that is, it has
;
been used to show the present resultant of all the historical forces but our conception of the function
;
of geography is at once broadened when we look to it for a partial answer as to how the facts of political geography have come to be as they are. In other
words, while we stud}' the processes of history we look to physical geography to show us the conditions
254
and determining natural forces that have brought

results to pass.
is
This aspect of geographical science forced upon us in a measure when we consider such events as Napoleon's disastrous Moscow campaign,
but history as often taught is as unconnected with the earth as if all its events took place in the upper air. Since history must have a place in which
to
unfold,
and the unfolding
itself
is
largely
de-
pendent upon the physical features of the country

its
mountains, rivers, sea-coasts, forests,
and climate,
as
of the fact that geography, the physical basis of history, is now becoming The elean important study in the curriculum. of this relation should appear in the mentary aspects
we have an explanation
teaching of history and geography in the

schools.
grammar
Geography has
also the
most intimate connection
with the biological sciences, since conditions of soil, climate, elevation, and contour determine the character
and extent of the flora of a country. At the same time they determine the food supply of animals, thus forming the main condition for their multiplicaIn other words, tion, distribution, and migration. whereas science treats of plants and animals as individual things, we find in geography the chief external conditions of this existence in its manifold variations. To no small extent, furthermore, do we find in physical
geography a support for other phases of

study.
Finally,
science
perhaps one of the most important geography has been almost wholly neglected This in the schools, viz., commercial geography.
what
is
fields of
255
shows in a remarkable way the interaction of the two factors, man and nature, and forms an important The function in the economic education of the child. foundations for this study are easily and fairly laid
in the early
home geography.
While the child
is
out
of doors gathering the elements of his geographical concepts, he may at the same time study the forms
of industry at his doors, even if it be no more than line of questions as to the industry of the farm.
what is produced in the neighborhood and what comes of the product, what is received in return
it,
be-
for
will
open up a new world
to the child.
Then when
possible,
he comes to study the productions of other lands and

the geographical conditions that
make them
following this up by an investigation of the means whereby the productions of one land may be exchanged
he not only gets an enlarged conception of his own place and function in the world, but he learns practically the great ethical
for those of another,
lesson that every part of the world, and every man in every part, is trying to serve self through service
to others.
The coordinating value

geography
is
of
home and commercial

fifth
admirably developed up to the

in
grade of the elementary school in Dr. C. A. McMurry's
manual of Special Methods
Geography}
curriculum
The
of
specific detail-work of correlating a
study must be done, for the most part, in the school itself. The effort to do this is most stimulating to all the teachers engaged in the effort.
1 Special Methods hi Geography, Dr. Chas. A. McMurry, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomiugton, 111.
256
the basis already laid clown, and with the of such men as Ziller and Frick, each example superintendent of schools will find the way open, not only to the immediate improvement of his schools, but to
Upon
the invigorating of his whole corps of teachers.
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HERBARTIAN LITERATURE
GENERAL PEDAGOGICS
Ackermann, Formale Bildung. Langensalza. Ackermann, Padagogische Fragen. 2d series. Dresden. Halle. Frick-Meier, Samrnlung padag. Abhandlungen. Herbart, Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. v. Willmann. 2
Leipzig.
vols.
Kern, Grundriss der Padagogik.

Lindner,
Encyklopiid.
4th ed.
Berlin, 1887.
Handbuch
der
Erziehungskunde.
Vienna, 1884. Vienna. Rein, Padagog. Studien alte Folge. 2 vols. Schiller, Handbuch der prakt. Padagogik. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1889. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1878. Stoy, Encyklopadie der Padagogik.
;
Striimpell, Psychologische Padagogik.
Leipzig, 1880.
Strumpell,
Das System der Padagogik Herbarts.

v.
Leipzig, 1894.
Waitz, Allgem. Padagogik, hrsg.

wick.
Willmann.
3d
ed.
Bruns-
Willmann, Didaktik.
Ziller,
2 vols.
allg.
Braunschweig, 1882-89.
Padagogik.
Vereins
Dresden.
Leipzig, 1856.
Allg.
Einleitung in die
Padagogik.
Ziller-Vogt,
3d
ed., hrsg. v. Just.
Leipzig.
Jahrbucher des
24 vols.
fur
wissenschaftliche
Padagogik.
1
From Van
Liew's Translation of Rein's Outlines of Pedagogics.
257
258

I.
PRACTICAL PEDAGOGICS
(A) The Forms of Education
1.
Home Pedagogics
Langcnsalza, 1888.
ed.
Ackermann, Die hausliche Erziehung.

Stoy, Hauspadagogik.
salza, 1892.
2.
Leipzig, 1855.
Triiper, Die Familienrechte
an der Erziehung. 2d
Langen-
Special Educational Institutions

Education of
the
Deaf and Dumb
Oehlwein, Meine Erfahrungen u. Ansichten iiber das Wesen der Vier- und scliwachsinnigen, etc. Weimar, 1883.
3.
School Education
The People's Schools
(a)
Gutersloh, 1877. Dorpfeld, Zwei padagogische Gutachten. Leutz, Lehrbuch der Erziehung und des Unterrichts. 2d Tauberh isch ofsheim, 1 887
.
ed.
Ranitzsch,
(6)
Der Unterricht
in der Volksschule.
Weimar, 1888.
T7ie
Middle Schools (Burgher and Heal- Schools)
Dorpfeld, Der Mittelstand und die Mittelschule. Barmen, 1853. Ed. by Eberhardt. Mager, Die deutsche Biirgerschule 1840.
Langensalza.
Otto,
Der deutsche Biirgerstand und

Leipzig, 1871.
die deutsche Biirgerschule.
G. Wiget, Theorie
und Praxis des
Realschulunterrichts.
St.
Gallen, 1889.
(c)
Gymnasium
Halle.
Berlin.
Leipzig,
Frick-Meier, Lehrproben und Lehrgange.
Kern-H.
Schiller,
J. Miiller, Zeitschrift fiir
das Gymnasial wesen.
Handbuch der
1889.
prakt. Padagogik.
2d
ed.
APPENDIX
(d)
259
Girls
Schools
:
H. Grosse, Zur Reform des hoh. Madchenschulwesens, in Richter, Der prakt. Sckulmann, vol. 37, 1888. Leipzig.
Krusche, Uebersicht der Litteratur iiber weibliche Erziehung und Bildung in Deutschland von 1700-1886. Leipzig,
1887.
(B) School Administration

1.
School Legislation
Barth, Die Reform der Gesellchaft durch Neubelebung des
Gemeindewesens.
Leipzig, 1885.
Dorpfeld, Die freie Scbulgemeinde und ihre Anstalten auf dem Boden der freien Kirche irn freien Staate. Giitersloh,
1863.
Dorpfeld, Die drei Grundgebrechen der hergebrachten Schulverfassungen, etc. Elberfeld, 1869. Dorpfeld, Ein Beitrag der Leidensgeschichte der Volksschule nebst Vorschlagen zur Reform der Schulverwaltung.
2d
Dorpfeld,
ed. Barmen, 1883. Das Eundamentstiick einer gerecbten, gesunden, freien und friedlichen Scbulverfassung. Hilchenbach,
1892.
Herbart, Ueber, Erziehung unter offentlicher Mitwirkung.
XVII. Band XIX. Band. Mager, Padagog. Revue. VI. (Bruchstiicke aus einer deutschen Scholastik.)
;
1810.
Mager, Die deutsche Biirgerschule. (Ed. by Eberhardt, Langensalza.)

Rein, Zur Scbulgesetzgebung.
1892.
Deutsche Rundschau.
:
April No.
Sozialis-
(Comp. Grenzboten
Erziehung und
No. 24, 1891. Rolle, Die Selbstandigkeit der Schule inmitten von Staat und Kirche Piidag. Studien of Rein, 1889. No. 4.
:
mus.
Truper, Die Familienrechte an der offentlichen Erziehung.
2d
3
Langensalza, 1892. Truper, -Die Schule und die sozialen Fragen unserer Zeit. Nos. Giitersloh, 1890.
ed.
260

2.
Equipment of Schools
Jena.
Piltz, Thtiring.
Schulniuseuin.
3.
Supervision of Schools
Dorpfeld, Leidensgeschichte der Volksschule.

1882.
4.
2d
ed.
Barmen,
Preparation of Teachers
(a) Seminaries for Teachers in the People's Schools
Andrea, Zur iuneren Entwicklungsgeschichte der deutschen

Lehrerbildungsanstalten. 1891-92.
Kaiserslautern, 1890-91 to
Rein, Ueber die Organisation der Lehrerbildung in Deutschland. Padagog. Studien, 1881. 4th No. Dresden.
Stoy, Organisation des Lehrerseminars.
(6)
Leipzig, 1869.
University- Seminaries
Brzoska, Die Notwendigkeit padagog. Seminare anf der Universitat
und
ihre zweckinaszige Einrichtung.
2d
ed.
by
Rein.
Leipzig, 1887.
(For Bibliography v. p. 205 sqq.) Seminar, praeceptorum. Halle, 1883. Frick, Rein, Ueber padagog. Universitats- Seminare. Neue
4-5 Nos.
Rein, Die Ausbildung
fiir
d. Schule,
d.
Lehramt an hoher.
Schulen,
Nos. 1-4.
Grenzboten, 1890. 8th No. Rein, Aus dem Pad. Univers. -Seminare zu Jena.
Langensalza.
Von
Sallwiirk,
Das Staatsseminar.
f.
Schiller,
Padagog. Seminarien
1890.
d.
Gotha, 1890. hoh. Lehramt.
Leipzig,
Vogt, Das padagog. Universitats-Seminar. Leipzig, 1884. Zange, Gymnasial-Seminare und die padagog. Ausbildung der Kandidaten des hoh. Schulamts. 5th No. by Frick-
Meyer: Sammlung padagog. Abhandlungen.

1890.
Halle,
APPENDIX
THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS
261
II.
(A) The Fundamental Sciences of Pedagogics

I.
Ethics
Fliigel,
Das Ich und

2d
ed.
die sittlichen Ideen
im Leben der Volker,
Langensalza.
Fliigel,
Die Sittenlehre Jesu.

1844.
2d
ed.
Langensalza.
Leipzig,
Hartenstein, Die Grundbegriffe der eth. Wissensch.
Herbart, Allgem.
vol. 8
;
prakt.
Philosophie.
Ed. by Hartenstein,
vol. 4.
Gesamtausgabe, by Kehrbach,
Langen-
salza.
2d ed. Leipzig, 1885. Berlin, 1885. 2d ed. Langensalza, 1886. Ziller, Allgem. philos. Ethik.
Nahlowsky, Praktische Philosophie.

Steinthal, Allgem. Ethik.
II.
Psychology
2d
ed.
Ballauff,
Die Grundlehren der Psychologie.

1890.
Cothen,
Dorpfeld,
Drobisch,
Fliigel,
Denken und
Gediichtnis.
3d ed.
Gutersloh.
Emp.
Psychologie.
Leipzig, 1843.
Die Seelenfrage. 2d ed. Cothen, 1884. Hartmann, Die Analyse des kindl. Gedankenkreises. Annaberg,
1885.
Lange, Ueber Apprezeption.

References, page 198. Lazarus, Das Leben der Seele.
4th ed.
Plauen.
Berlin.
See English
3d ed.
u. ihre
Lukens, Die Vorstellungsreihen

Gutersloh, 1892.
piidagog. Bedeutung.
Mannel, Ueber Abstraktion.
Gutersloh.
Nahlowsky, Das Gefiihsleben.
2d
ed.
Leipzig, 1884.
Schoel, J. Fr., Herbarts philos. Lehre 1884.

Striimpell,
von der Religion. Dresden,

Probleme. Leipzig,
ed.
Gedanken
iiber Religion u. relig.
1888.
Volkmann, Lehrbuch der Psychologie.
3d
Cothen.
262

(B) Aid-Science of Pedagogics
Physiologt
{A) Teleology
(2?)
(see
(see
Ethics)
Methodology
I.
Psychology)
General Didactics
Dorpfeld, Der didakt. Materialismus. 2d ed. Gutersloh. Dorpfeld, Grundlinien einer Theorie des Lehrplans. Gutersloh.
Willmann, Didaktik
1889.
als
Bildungslehre.
ed.
2 vols.
Brunswick,
Ziller,
Willmann, Padagog. Vortrage. 2d Grundlegung zur Lehre vom

Vogt.
Leipzig, 1884.
1.
Leipzig, 1886.
erz. Unterricht.
2d
ed.
by
Aims of Instruction
Eisleben, 1883.
Grossler,
Das
vielseitige Interesse.
Vieth, Darf vielseitiges Interesse als Unterrichtsziel hingestellt
werden ? Bogasen, 1886. Walsemann, Das Interesse. Hanover,

2.
1884.
Means of Instruction
(a)
Choice of Material
:
Rein, Gesinnungsunt. und Kulturgeschichfce 2d No. Dresden. 1888.

v.
Padagog. Studien
Langensalza,
Sallwiirck, Gesinnungsunt. u. Kulturgeschichte.
1887.
(6)
Connection of Branches
:
Ackermann, Ueber Konzentration

Dresden.
Padag. Fragen, 1st
series,
Dorpfeld, Zwei dringl. Reformen im Real

Gutersloh, 1883.
und Sprachunt.
Loos,
Der
osterr.
tion.
Gymnasiallehrplan im Lichte der KonzentraVienna, 1892.
Merian-Genast, Ausfiihrungen
zum
Lehrplan.
Jena, 1892.
APPENDIX
Rein, Pickel, Scheller, Theorie u. Praxis.
Leipzig.
1st
vol.
263
4th ed.
Willmann, Pad. Vortrage.

(c)
2d ed.
Leipzig.
Treatment of 3Iaterial
Gleichmann, Ueber Herbart's Lehre von den formalen Stufen. 2d ed. Langensalza, 1892.
Reich, Die Theorie der Formalstufen.
Langensalza, 1889.
Chur, 1892.
Th. Wiget, Die formalen Stufen.

II.
4th ed.
Special Didactics
Halle.
Frick-Meier, Lehrproben und Lehrgange. Jahrbucher des Vereins fur w. Padagogik.
Dresden.
Rein, Pickel, Scheller, Theorie und Praxis des Volksschulunter. Vols, i.-viii. 4th ed. richts, etc. Leipzig.
Schiller,
Handbuch der
prakt. Padagogik.
2d
ed.
Leipzig.
Ziller-Bergner, Materialien zur spez. Padagogik.

1.
Dresden, 1886.
Instruction in Religion
Dorpfeld, Ein christl.-padag. Protest. Gutersloh, 1869. Reukauf, Philos. Begriindung des Lehrplaus des ev. Rel.-Unt. an hob. Schulen. - Langensalza, 1892.
Staude, Praparationen zu den bibl. Gesch. des alten und neuen Testaments. 3 vols. 5th ed. Dresden.
Thrandorf, Die Behandlung des Religionsunterrichts.

salza, 1887.
Langen-
Thrandorf, Kirchengeschichtl. Lesebuch.
Dresden, 1888.
Dres-
Thrandorf, Der Religionsunterricht.

den, 1890.
2.
(Praparationen.)
History
Dorpfeld, Repetitorium der Gesellschaftskunde und Begleitwort.
2d
ed.
Giltersloh, 1890.
Eberhardt, Ueber Gesch. -Unt. Padag. Studien. 4th No. Vienna. Staude-Gopfert, Praparationen zur deutschen Geschichte. Dresden, 1890.
Willmann, Der elem. Gesch.-Unt.
Leipzig, 1872.
264

1887.
Wohlrabe, Praparationen zu profangesch. Quellenstoffen. Gotha,

Zillig,
Der Geschichtsunt.
Padagogik.
3.
XIV. Jahrbuch
d.
Vereins
f.
w.
Drawing
Neuwied.
Menard, Der Zeichenunterricht.
Otto-Rein, Padagog. Zeichenlehre. 3d ed. Weimar, 1885. 2d ed. Rein, Geschichte des Zeichenunt. Gotha, 1889. Rein, Der Zeichenunterricht im Gymnasium. Hanover, 1889.
4.
Singing
Vols, i-
Helm, Gesangunterricht in " Theorie und Praxis."

viii.
Leipzig.
6.
Instruction in Language
Mager, Die genet. Methode des schulmiissigen Unterrichts in fremden Sprachen und Litteraturen. 3d ed. Zurich,
1846.
Mager, Moderne Humanitatsstudien.
3 Nos.
Zurich.
(a)
German
Dresden. Bliedner, Schillerlesebuch. Eberhardt, Die Poesie in der Volksschule.

gensalza, 1886.
Stoy,
3 vols., 3d ed.
Lan-
Der deutsche Sprachunt.

(b)
3d ed.
Vienna, 1868.
Other Foreign Languages
Batgen, Zur Neugestaltung des franzos. Unt. XIII. Jahrbuch Gtinther, Der Lateinunt.
d.
Eisenach, 1886. V. f. w. Pad.
Dresden.
6.
Geography
Das geographische Zeichnen. Dresden, 1887. Matzat, Methodik des geogr. Unt. Berlin, 1886.
Heiland,
APPENDIX
Natural Sciences
265
7.
Beyer, Die Naturwissenschaften in der Erziehungsschule.

zig, 1885.
Leip-
f. d. Physik-Unterricht. Dresden, 1889. Dorpfeld, Repetitor. d. naturkundl u. humanist. Unt. 3d ed. Gutersloh.
Conrad, Priiparationen
Schleichert, Anleitg. zu botan. Beobachtungen, etc.

salza, 1891.
8.
Langen-
Mathematics
Falke, Propjideutik der Georaetrie.
Leipzig, 1869. Fresenius, Die psycholog. Grundlagen der Raumwissenschaft.
Wiesbaden, 1868.
Fresenius, Raumlehre. Frankfurt, 1861. Hartmann, Handbuch des Rechenunterrichts. Hildburghausen, 1889.
Pickel, Die Geometrie der Volksschule.
16th ed.
Dresden.
9.
Manual Training
Knaben Handwerkbuch. 5th
ed.
Barth-Niederley, Des
zig, 1882.
d.
Leip-
Barth-Niederley, Die Schulerwerkstatt.

10.
Leipzig, 1882.
Turning
4th ed.
Hausmann, Das Turnen
in der Volksschule.
Weimar.
THEORY OF GUIDANCE
1.
Training
3d
ed.
Barth, Ueber den Umgang.
Langensalza.
Kindergottesdienst, Ev. Schulbl. von Dorpfeld, 1887 u. 1888; Erziehungsschule von Barth. II., 9.
Scholz, Schulreisen.
Aus dem
piidagog. Universitats-Seminar.
3d No.
Langensalza, 1890.
Leipzig, 1890.
Striimpell, Die padag. Pathologic
266

2.
Government of Children
f.
Nahlowsky, Ueber Herbarts reformator. Beruf. Zeitschrift
exakte Philosophie, VII., 391-97. Rein, Regierung, Unterricht u. Zucht. Padag. Studien. 1st No. 3d ed. Vienna.
Stoy, HausZiller,
und
Schulpolizei.
Berlin, 1856.
Regierung der Kinder.
Leipzig, 1857.
THE ENGLISH LITERATURE ON THE HERBARTIAN SYSTEM

The following references contain most of wbat has been written in English upon the subject of the Herbartian pedaNo attempt has been made to refer to works outside of gogics.
this field.
The English-speaking teacher

less
will, of course,
have a
more or
thorough acquaintance with the already extensive English literature on the subject of Pedagogy in general. He has but to refer to such sources as the Bibliography of Education
liography of
" by G. S. Hall and J. M. Mansfield, and the Bib" in Sonnenschein's Pedagogy Cyclopedia of Education (3d ed. 1892), to obtain the most comprehensive and
(Boston,-l8S6),
accurate directions to the literature of every possible department of education, or to Dr. W. T. Harris's Teachers'' Course
of Professional Beading for
Home Work and Beading
Circles,
for a general, profitable course of reading. The following list will be of service to those who desire to become more familiar
with the rising Herbartian views
Brown, G. P.
What
No.
is
1.,
:
Interest ? in Public School Journal,
vol. xii.,
Bloomington,
PL
; ;
Be Garmo,
of
Dr. Charles
Pol.
Essentials of Method, Boston, 1889
Ethical Training in the Public Schools
Am. Academy
delphia; Language
and Soc. Science, publication No. 49, PhilaWork below the "High Schools,
III.,
Bloomington,
since 1887
The Herbartian System
of Pedagogics, in the Educational Beview, New York, vol. i., Nos. 1, 3, and 5 ; The Relation of Instruction to
APPENDIX
267
Will Training, in the publications of the Am. Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1890 What does Apperception Mean ? in the
;
Public School Journal, vol.

ton, III. ;
x.,
No.
11, 1891,
Blooming-
popular View of Apperception, Public School Journal, vol. xii., No. 3, Bloomington, III. ; Coordination of Studies, Educational Beview, vol. iv.,
No. 5
;
The Educational Value

in
of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools,
Teachers,
i.,
Ed. Papers by Illinois Science
1889-90.
Donaldson : Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and England, Edinburgh, 1874, mentions Ziller's work briefly and favorably. Douglas, C. H. : Certain Views of Herbart on Mathematics and
Findlay, J. J.
Natural Science, Educational Beview, vol. iii., No. 5. : Herbartian Literature in English, School and
College, October and November, 1892. Hall, Dr. H. : Notes of tbe German Schools, contains refer-
ences to Herbart.
Harris, Dr. W. T.
versus
vol. xi.,
:
Perception, Nos. 2 and
Apperception Denned, and Apperception in the Public School Journal,

5.
Herbart
The Science
of Education,
tion of the World, translated
Felkin Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1892. Herbart: Psychology, translated by Miss M. K. Smith, International Education Series, Neio York, 1891.
and The vEsthetic Revelaby Henry M. and Emmie
Klemm,
L. B.
Pedagogics,
European Schools, mentions the Herbartian and gives some criticism, International
Education Series,
New
York.
Lange: Ueber Apperception, translated by the Herbart Club

in America, Boston, 1892. Lindner: Empirical Psychology, translated by Dr. Charles
De Garmo, New
York, 1890.
Lukens, Dr. H. T. : Herbart's Psychological Basis of Teaching, Part II. of Th. B. Noss's Outlines of Psychology and
Pedagogy, Pittsburgh, 1890.
McMurry, Dr. Charles A.
The Elements
of General
Method
268

based on the Principles of Herbart, Bloomington, III., 1892 A Geography Plan for the Grades of the Com;
mon
Schools, and Pioneer History Stories for the 3d and 4th Grade, Bloomington, III., 1891 How to Con;
duct the Recitation, Teachers' Manuals, No.
13,
New
York and Chicago. McMurry, Dr. Frank : The Moral Value
of Fairy Tales and Imaginative Literature for Children, in Public School Journal, Bloomington, III., vol. x., No. 11, and vol. xi.,
No. 3
Relation of Sciences to the other Studies, in
Ed. Papers by Illinois Science Teachers, i., 1889-90, Peoria, III.; Value of Herbartian Pedagogy for Nor-
mal Schools, in Proceedings of Nat. Ed. Assoc, for 1892. Prince, J. T. : Methods in German Schools, mentions the Herbartian Pedagogics briefly, and gives some criticism.
Bibot, T. : German Psychology of To-day, contains a digest of Herbart's psychology, Neio York, 1880.
Salmon, Lucy M.
The Teaching of History
in the
Elementary
York, vol. i., No. 5, contains brief reference to the principles of the historSchools, Educational Review,
ical stages of culture
New
and concentration.
Smith, Margaret K.
Ufer
Herbart's Life, three articles in the

1889.
New
England Journal of Education,

:
Introduction to the Pedagogy of Herbart, translated by D. C. J. C. Zinser, edited by Charles De Garmo
Heath & Co.
Van Liew,
C.
C.
Life of Herbart and Development of his
Pedagogical Doctrines
Swan
Sonnenschein
&
Co.,
London, 1893.
Ward:
Article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
on Herbart,
important psychologically.
J.
S.
dishing & Co.
Nottoooli llrcaa : Berwick
&
Smith.
BoBton, Mass., TJ.S.A.
%\xz CSvjeat gttxtcatovs.

Edited by
' '
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER.
Just in the right time to meet the needs of a large number of teachare casting about to find something fundamental and satisfying on the theory of education." Hon. W. T. Harris, U.S. Commissioner of Education.
ers
who
ARISTOTLE
F.
and the Ancient Educational Davidson, M.A., LL.D. 12010. $1.00 net.
Ideals.
By Thomas
Prof.
ALCUIN and the

WEST,
Princeton.
Rise of the Christian Schools. i2mo. #1.00 net.
By
Andrew
Early History of Universities. By Jules Gabriel Compayre. i2mo. $1.25 net. LOYOLA and the Educational System of the Jesuits. By Rev.
ABELARD and the Origin and

Thomas Hughes,
S.J.
i2mo.
#1.00 net.
FROEBEL
HERBART
and Education through Self-Activity. By H. Courthope Bowen, University of Cambridge. 121110. $1.00 net. and the Herbartians. By Charles DeGarmo, President of Swarthmore College. i2mo. $1.00 net.
Volumes
in Preparation.
ROUSSEAU
ment
in
and Education according to Nature. H. Hanus, Harvard.
By
Prof.
Paul
THOMAS ARNOLD
England. By Colleges in England.
and the Contemporary Educational MoveJ. G. FITCH, LL.D., Inspector of Training
PESTALOZZI,
The
the Friend and Student of Children.

States.
HORACE MANN and Public Education in the United
history of great educators is, from an important point of view, the history of education. These volumes are not only biographies, but concise yet comprehensive accounts of the leading movement in educational thought, and furnish a genetic account of educational history. Ancient education, the rise of the Christian schools, the foundation and growth of universities, and the great modern movements suggested by the names, are adequately described and criticised.
Copies, subject to the privilege of return, will be sent for examination to any Teacher upon receipt of the Net Price. The price paid for the sample copy will be returned, or a free copy inclosed, upon receipt of an order for ten or more copies for introduction.
Correspondence
sent free.
is
invited,
and
will be cheerfully answered.
Catalogue
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS,

153-157 Fifth Ave.,
1
New
York.
THE
SERIES.
ARISTOTLE.
of ancient pedagogy is Professor Davidson's subject, the course of education being traced up to Aristotle, an account of whose life and system forms, of course, the main portion of the and down from that great teacher, as well as philosopher, book, through the decline of ancient civilization. An appendix discusses " The Seven Liberal Arts," and paves the way for the next work
The whole
in chronological sequence, Professor West's, close relations between Greek education and
political life are
on Alcuin. The Greek social and

is
kept constantly in view by Professor Davidson.
special and very attractive feature of the chiefly in English translation, of passages
work
the citation,
from original sources
expressing the
spirit
of the different theories described.
ALCUIN.
Professor
tutions in
ity
West aims
to develop the story of educational insti-
Europe from the beginning of the influence of Christianon education to the origin of the Universities and the first beginnings of the modern movement. A careful analysis is made of the effects of Greek and Roman thought on the educational theory and practice of the early Christian, and their great system of schools, and its results are studied with care and in detail. The
personality of Alcuin enters largely into the story, because of his dominating influence in the movement.
ABELARD.
the well-known French educationist, has prepared in this volume an account of the origin of the great European
Universities that
is at
M. Compayre,
once the most
scientific
and the most
inter-
esting in the English language. Naturally the University of Paris is the central figure in the account; and the details of its early Its connection with organization and influence are fully given.
the other great universities of the Middle Ages and with
modern
university movement is clearly pointed out. Abelard, whose system of teaching and disputation was one of the earliest signs of the
rising
universities,
is
the
typical
figure
of the movement;
instructive.
M. Compayre has given a sketch of

an entirely
his character
and and work, from
new
point of view, that 2
is
most
LOYOLA.
and authoritative statement of the educational principles and method adopted in the Society of Jesus, of which the author is a distinguished member. The first part is a sketch, biographical and historical, of the dominant and directing personality of Ignatius, the Founder of the order, and his comrades, and of the establishment and early administrations of the Society. In the second an elaborate analysis of the system of studies is given, beginning with an account of Aquaviva and the Ratio Studiorum, and considering, under the general heading of "the formation of the master," courses of literature and philosophy, of divinity and allied sciences, repetition, disputation, and dictation; and under
is
This work
a critical
" that of formation of the scholar," symmetry of the courses pursued, the prelection, classic literatures, school management and control, examinations and graduation, grades and courses.
FROEBEL.
Friedrich
Froebel stands for the movement

in this country as the
Europe and
New
than any other single name.
The
known both in Education, more completely kindergarten movement, and the
whole development of modern methods of teaching, have been largely stimulated by, if not entirely based upon, his philosophical
so complete and exhaustive, as the author has for many years been a student of Froebel's principles and methods not only in books, but also in actual practice in the kinis
exposition of education. of Froebel and his work
It is
not believed that any other account
Mr. Bowen is a frequent examiner of kindergartens, of dergarten. the children in them, and of students who are trained to be kindergarten teachers.
HERB ART.
In this book, President
DeGarmo
in the English language, a systematic analysis of the in
has given, for the first time Herbartian
theory of education, which is now so much studied and discussed Great Britain and the United States, as well as in Germany. Not
only does the volume
contain
an exposition of the theory as
expounded by Herbart himself, but it traces in detail the development of that theory and the additions to it made by such distinguished names as Ziller, Stoy, Frick, Rein, and the American
Especially valuable will be found Dr. and systematic exposition of the problems that centre around the concentration and correlation of studies. These problems are generally acknowledged to be the most pressing and
School of Herbartians.
DeGarmo's
careful
important at present before the teachers of the country.

3
NOTICES OF THE SERIES.

Admirably conceived in a truly philosophic spirit and executed with unusual skill. It is rare to find books on pedagogy at once so instructive and so interesting. ... I hope to read them all, which is more than I can say of any other series. " William Preston Johnston, Tulane
University. " I am very glad to see this excellent contribution to the history of education. Professor Davidson's work is admirable. His topic is one of the most profitable in the entire history of culture. " W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education.
'
'
I have examined with much interest Professor West's work Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian School.' I cannot doubt that the series of
' ' '
Butler, will be of
' '
'Great Educators,' under the general editorial supervision of Professor much value." George P. Fisher, Yale University.
are rendering an important service to the cause of education in the production of the ' Great Educators Series. ' " Journal
The Scribners
of Education.
We have not too many series devoted to the history and the theory of education, and the one represented at the present moment by the two volumes before us promises to take an important place a leading place amongst the few we have." London Educational Times.
' '
" ' Aristotle ' is delightful reading. I know nothing in English that covers the field of Greek Education so well. You will find it very hard to maintain this level in the later works of the Series, but I can wish G. Stanley Hall, Clark you nothing better than that you may do so. "
University.
I have had great pleasure in examining the advance sheets of Davidson's 'Aristotle, and the Ancient Educational Ideals.' It is a book that appeals to the rank and file of teachers, and its reading is sure to give inspiration and pedagogical insight. Will S. Monroe,
' ' ' '
California.
Please forward at once twenty copies of 'Aristotle and the Ancient Educational Ideals,' by Thomas Davidson. It is a great book, and I must give my Senior Class a taste of it before they graduate." J. C. Greenough, State Normal School, Westfield, Mass. "This volume on St. Ignatius of Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits, by the Rev. Thomas Hughes, will probably be welcomed by others besides those specially interested in the theories and methods of education. Written by a member of the Jesuit Society, it comes to us with authority, and presents a complete and well arranged survey of the work of educational development carried out by Ignatius and his followers " London Saturday Review. "No one, in England or America, is fitted to give a more sympathetic or lucid interpretation of Froebel than Mr. Courthope Bowen. Mr. Bowen's book will be a most important addition to any library, and no Kate Douglas Wiggin, student of Froebel can afford to do without it. "
' ' .
' '
New
' '
York
City.
'
' a very interesting and scholarly treatProfessor West's Alcuin ment of an attractive and important theme. ' Edward H. Griffin, Johns
'
' Alcuin ' seems to me to combine careful scholarly investigation with popularity, and condensation with interest of detail, in a truly admirable way." Professor G. T. Ladd, of Yale. '
Hopkins University. ' I take pleasure in saying that
THE LIBRARY
The Ontario
Institute
for Studies in Education
Toronto, Canada
__
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370.92 H534D317C.1 DeGarmo # Herbart and

Herbartians.
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y*

f L THE ONTARIO INSTITUTE HON FOR STUDIES IN E

\\t (Bvtiit gdxvcatnvs

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER

PRESIDENT OF SWAKTHJIOEE COLLEGE, PENNSYLVANIA

furthermore, the beginner in every

rigorously refrains ments of doctrine.

from introducing confusing

It confines its attention strictly

Only epoch-making men and

many men worthy

The ultimate purpose

said to be the development of character, not in a nar-

the child for every important phase of

accomplishing this end, so devoutly to be desired for

harmony with the

nature of the child's mind, and especially Avith his

moral and intellectual apperception, or assimilative

HERBART'S CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

Pestalozzi left for Herbart to do

Guide to Educational Ends

Materials, Course, and Method

EXTENSION AND APPLICATION OF HERBART'S EDUCATIONAL IDEAS IN GERMANY

TUISKON ZlLLER AND KARL VOLKMAR StOY

Theory of the Historical Stages of Cul107

Theory of Concentration of Studies

HERBARTIAN IDEAS IN AMERICA

Three Plans for the Correlation of Studies

Proposed Bases for the Coordination of Studies

HERB ART'S CONTRIBUTION TO

HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS

PESTALOZZI LEFT FOR HERBART TO DO

education were long to

for present purposes to

great reforms, that begun by Pestalozzi

emotional rather than scientific in

its initial stages.

Exact and logical thought does not

was a true reformer.

to be reached, he could rouse all

could see the end Europe to the sore

HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS

sources in the heart rather than

in the head, enables us to

understand that there was

knowledge out of themselves 'some

PESTALOZZI LEFT FOR HERBART TO DO

method of investigation seems

been the kind mentioned

looked into his

"In these laws

certainly find the

"Further, bring together in thy mind

HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS

the effects of physical

through instruction, workest upon thy

be elevated to a like phys-

ical necessity, so that in all of

these individual principles," he again respin out the threads of a universal