PAPER-II SOCIOLOGY

DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY The term Sociology was coined by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, in 1839. The teaching of sociology as a separate discipline started in 1876 in the United States, in 1889 in France, in 1907 in Great Britain, after World War I in Poland and India, in 1925 in Egypt and Mexico, and in 1947 in Sweden.

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? Sociology is the youngest of all the Social Sciences. The word Sociology is derived from the Latin word 'societus' meaning 'society' and the Greek word 'logos' meaning 'study or science'. The etymological meaning of 'sociology is thus the 'science of society'. Prof. Ginsberg accordingly defines it "as the study of society, that is of the web or tissue of human inter-actions and inter-relations. In other words, Sociology is the study of man's behaviour in groups or of the inter-action among human beings, of social relationships and the processes by which human group activity takes place.

DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY To understand more fully what Sociology is about it shall be in the fitness of things to study some of the definitions given by some Important- sociologists, and then to conclude about the subject matter of this science, as agreed upon by most of them. Some of the definitions of Sociology are as follows:

1. Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena L.F. Ward 2. The subject-matter of sociology is the inter-action of human minds L.T. Hobhouse 3. Sociology is the study of human Inter-action and inter- relational their conditions and consequences. -M. Ginsberg 4. Sociology is the science that deals with social. groups; their internal forms or modes of organisation,the processes that tend. to maintain or change these forms of organisation and relations. between groups. -H.M. Johnson 5. Sociology is a special social science concentrating on inter-human behaviour, on processes of sociation, on association and dissociation as' such. - Von. Wiese
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6. Sociology is the study of the relationships between' man and his human Environment -H.P. Fairchild

7. Sociology may be defined as a body of scientific knowledge about human Relationships J. F: Cubet 8. Sociology is a body of learning about society. It is a description of ways to make society better. It is social ethics, a social philosophy. Generally, however, it is defined as a science of society.' - W. F. Ogburn

9. Sociology asks what happens to men and by what rules they behave, not in so far as they unfold their understandable individual existences in their totalities, but in so far as they form groups . and are determined by their-group existence because of inter-action.' . -Simmel 10. Sociology is the science of collective behavior. R E. Park and F. W. Burgess 11. General sociology is on the whole the. theory of human living together;' Ferdinand. Tonnies 12. 'Sociology is a body of related generalizations about human social behaviour arrived at by scientific method.' Ciiridberg, G .. A.

NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY, IS IT A SCIENCE OR NOT?

Two opposite views about the nature of science. There is a great controversy about the nature of Sociology as a science. There are some critics who deny Sociology the claim to be regarded as a science. But there are others who assert that Sociology is as much a science as other social sciences like Political Science, History, Economics, etc. Before we form any opinion on the subject we must enquire into what constitutes a "science".

The Meaning of Science

A science is "a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws". It gathers facts and links them together in their causal sequence with a view to draw valid

inferences. Scientific knowledge is based on reason and evidences. It is' therefore variable and communicable.
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The chief characteristics of a science are 1. the possibility of a concise consistent and concrete formulation. 2. the capacity to form generalizations and make predictions. and 3. the possibility of verification of the data as well as of the generalizations.

The various 'steps used in the scientific method are observation, recording, classification, hypothesis, verification and prediction. According to William Esslinger, however what distinguishes a science. is that "it is exclusively and methodically based on reason!'. .Experimentation and prediction are not its requirements. It only signifies the existence of systematic methods of enquiry.

According to Huxley also, science is a systematic body of knowledge based on reason and evidence.

Sociology cannot be regarded as a Science , Those who deny the claim of sociology to be designated as a science advance the following objections:

(i) Lack of experimentation

If science is used in the same sense in which it is used for physical sciences; then sociology cannot claim to be a science. The term science as used for physical sciences includes the twin processes of experiment and prediction. Sociology in this sense is not a science because its subject-matter, the human relationships, we can neither catch nor see, neither weigh nor analyse in the: test-tube of the laboratory. It does not possess the instruments like the microscope and the thermometer to measure the human behaviour. Sprott has remarked, "If you cannot experiment, if you cannot measure. if you cannot establish broad unifying hypotheses and if you cannot be confident in your social engineering you cannot be said to be engaged in scientific study at all".

There is no denying the fact that sociology cannot experiment and predict in the same way in which physical sciences do, because the materials with which society deals i.e.,
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human behaviour and relationships are so peculiar and uncertain. There are sentiments not to be questioned. They are not even to be studied dispassionately; for instance, subjects like sex life and religion evoke great controversies. An investigator dealing with a controversial subject becomes the victim of censure by those who hold different views. If it is prohibition, cow-slaughter, abortion, birth control or untouchability he must be either for or against them. Any dispassionate analysis by him ~s likely two antagonize both the sides. Furthermore, Society is so complex and variable that it is not possible to separate and analyze its different elements as can be done in physical sciences. We can analyze the composition of water as two parts of hydrogen and. one part of oxygen and illustrate by means of experiment in any laboratory of the world. But such experimentations in the laboratory sense in sociology is often difficult and impossible.

(ii) Lack of objectivity. The second difficulty of sociology in employing the scientific method is that he cannot maintain complete objectivity with the objects of his experiment as does a physicist. Man has his own prejudice and bias. It is, therefore, not possible for him to observe his subject with complete detachment, It is really difficult to dissociate ourselves from the assumptions which we have absorbed from childhood with regard to any objects. Our valuations are consequently bound to be prejudicial. Moreover, if a person tries to maintain objectivity in the study' of human behaviour, he is quickly branded as an agnostic, traitor or worse. Instead of public support for his work, he may be faced with public hostility. To protect himself then he accepts certain social values and eliminate from his study the phenomenon that form a sociological point of view and are the most "fundamental basis of social existence. Thirdly, social relationships cannot be studied through physical senses; What We see in social relationships is only an outward expression of our inner life. A sociologist has, therefore, to concern himself also with the working of the inner mind of his subject in order to understand his external actions properly. A physicist is not "confronted with such a complex phenomenon.

(iii) Lack of ex-activity Another characteristic of science is that it should be able to frame certain laws on the basis of observation and hypothesis and such laws should also enable us to predict accurately. From this point of view also Sociology cannot be called a real science
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because firstly its laws and conclusions cannot be expressed in precise terms and secondly its prediction might not come true. Its findings are often limited in time and space. Owing to the fact that social phenomenon is too' vast, human motivations are complex it is difficult to make predictions about human behaviour. In view of the above obstacles confronting social science it is said that there is no such things at best there are merely 'social studies'. Others believe that dispassionate study of social phenomena is not possible, the investigator cannot be neutral and he must take sides. Without neutral analysis science is impossible.

(iv) Terminological Inefficiency It has also been argued that Sociology suffers from inexact and clear terminology. Same words convey different meaning to different persons, for example, the terms 'caste' and 'class' have not yet acquired exact meaning. The recent judgment of the Supreme Court in the Mandal case has held that the concept of class cannot be separated from caste. Is caste a class? The confusion has not yet been removed. Words are essential tools of thought, scientific or otherwise. Sociology has not yet developed an adequate set of scientific terms. Many of our terms like religion, caste, class, group are words found in everyday use. Until we cease to employ terms with vague meanings, our terminological inefficiency will remain an obstacle in the way of sociology developing into a science.

Sociology is a Science
There is an element of truth in what the critics say; indeed, a scientific study of social phenomena is not free from difficulties. Social studies, by their very nature, cannot perhaps be as exact or natural as physical sciences. But the critics overlook their case when they deny any possibility of sociology becoming scientific. Perhaps they assume that exactness of conclusions and capacity to predict alone makes a study scientific. This betrays. a rather inadequate comprehension of the nature of science. Meteorology fails to make accurate prediction. Shall we deny it the designation of Science? In other words universal validity of conclusions and' a complete accuracy of prediction are not the criteria of science 'what determines the scientific character of a discipline is its methodology. If the methods of a study are Scientific, the subject deserves the rank of a science. Sociology does make use of Scientific methods' in the
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study of its subject-matter and it is therefore entitled to be called a science.

Firstly. though Sociology cannot experiment with. men directly in' a laboratory, its social behaviour is amenable to scientific investigation as any other natural phenomenon. It is conducting many experiments indirectly with their consent in certain specific fields. particularly, in the fields of industry. Moreover. Sociology does employ scientific methods as scales of Sociometic, Schedule Questionnaire. Interview and Case History which apply quantitative measurements to social phenomenon and which are therefore comparable to the method of experimentation. For instance. if we want to know whether families with low incomes have more infant deaths. We collect statistics. Sociology has quite adequate methods. The difficulty lies in getting the data for the process is very costly.

Secondly. two other basic methods of scientific investigation observation and comparison are. readily available to the sociologist and he uses them all the time.

Thirdly. all the physical sciences do not employ laboratory experimentation. Astronomy. For example, cannot experiment with Its materials. The heavenly bodies cannot be induced to put in an appearance in the laboratory. If astronomy inspite of its inability to experiment With its material in laboratory; could be termed as-a science. there is no justification to deny the title of science to Sociology. Newton and Archimedes did not invent their laws In the laboratories. The obstacles placed in the way of sociologist come not from the subject-matter itself but from the . limitations placed on him by his own society.

Fourthly. Sociology does frame laws and attempts. to predict. It endeavors to discover laws that are generally applicable. regardless of variations in culture; for instance. the law that the social practices of a community are considered right by the group because they are in the 'mores'; not that the practices are in the 'mores' because they are right; that people always regulate marriage in such a manner as to prevent incest. These are the principles whose validity can be examined by anyone. They are universal. More over no science can boast of making infallible predictions. Many of the theories established by the other sciences had to be modified with the change of time. As remarked by Sprott. 'The changes in theory which have followed one' another so swiftly
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have made us less certain that what 'science teaches' today will be what science will teach tomorrow"; In some areas of social life prediction to a limited extent has been possible. According to Cuvler, the predictive value of sociology is being improved. There is a good deal of approximate information on family relationships and the personality of children. As sociology matures and comes to. understand more fully the principles underlying human behaviour it will be in a better position to make accurate prediction. . .

Fifthly, Sociology delineates cause-effect relationships. In its study of family it has traced the relationship between family disorganization and divorce, between urbanization and family disorganization as one of the causes of divorce. Thus Sociology traces cause-effect relationship in social disorganization. It tries to find an answer to 'how' as well as 'why' of social processes and relationships.

Lastly. if we accept "science" in the sense in which it has been defined by philosophers like Cuuter; Pearson. Giddinqs and others it will invalidate objections to Sociology being regarded as a science. According to Cuvier, J .F.. "The science is the method of discovery of the uniformities in the universe through the process of observation and re-observation, the result of which eventually comes to be stated in principle and arranged 'and organized into the fields of knowledge". 13. According to Pearson. "The classification of facts the recognition of their sequence and relative significance is the function of science" According to Giddings, "Science is nothing more or less than the getting at facts and trying to understand them. and what science does for us is nothing more nor less than helping us to face facts" .15 One simple definition of science is that it is simply organized commonsense involving objective observation followed by cautious interpretation of the observed facts. Science is further described in a traditional way as a mass of knowledge concerning a particular subject acquired by systematical observation experience and study and analyzed and classified into a unified whole. It is approach rather than content that is the test of science.

According to Lundberg. "Science is a procedure for discovering the conditions under which events occur". 16 According to Weber. "Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its cause and effects". Sociology then is a scientific discipline which
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obeys the demands of validity implied by the word science. It studies, its subject matter scientifically. It tries to classify types and forms of social relationships especially of institutions and associations. It tries to determine the relations between different parts or factors of social life. It tries to deduce general laws from a systematic study of its' material and the conclusions drawn from the study of sociological principles are applied to the solution of social problems. Sociology is thus as much a science as social psychology, clinical psychology and other sciences concerning man. Though it has not reached perfection, the sociologist is searching for the instruments which will add to the minuteness of the study and exactness of its principles. Come described it as Social Physics.

Robert Bierstedt has in his book 'The Social Order" mentioned the following characteristics of the nature of sociology:

1. Sociology is"" a Social and not a Natural science. 2. Sociology is a categorical or Positive and not a Normative Science. 3. Sociology is a Pure or theoretical Science and not an Applied Science. 4. Sociology is an Abstract science and not a concrete one. 5. Sociology is a Generalizing and not Particularizing Science. .

6. Sociology is both a Rational and an Empirical Science.

Importance of Sociology

It is quite natural to ask about the value of sociology the purpose that it serves and the gain' that is derived by studying it. There are some critics like Pareto who assert that Sociology is hardly of any value because it does not deal with realities of life and it is concerned with ideas only which devoid of scientific discoveries, are of very little importance in social life. But it is not a correct view about the value of Sociology. A study of the important concepts of Sociology will convince us that this science is of immense value.

(i) Sociology makes a scientific study of society. Prior to the emergence of Sociology the study of society was carried on in an
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unscientific manner and society had never been the central concern of any science. It is through the study of Sociology that the truly scientific study of the society has been possible. Rather. Sociology because of its bearing upon many of the problems of .the present world has assumed such a great importance that it is considered to be the best approach to all the social sciences and the key study for the present situations. Scientific knowledge about society is pre-requisite to any marked improvement in the state of human affairs.

(ii) Sociology studies role of the institutions in the development of the individuals. Again it is through Sociology that scientific study of the great social institutions and the relation of the individual to each is being made. The home and family, the school and education, the church and religion, the state and government, industry and work, the community and association, these are the great institutions through which' society functions.' Furthermore, they are conditioners of the individual. Sociology studies these institutions and their role in the development of the individual and suggests suitable measures for re-strengthening them with a view to enable them to serve the individual better.

(iii)The study of Sociology is indispensable for understanding and planning of society. Society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude of intricacies. It is impossible to understand it' and to solve its various problems without study of Sociology. It is rightly said' that we cannot understand and mend society without any knowledge of its mechanism and construction just as no man in his senses, would dream of trying to mend a motor car without knowing anything about its machinery and the way the different parts fit in with one another. Sociology bears the same relation to the solution of social problems as say. Biology and bacteriology bear to Medicine or Mathematics and Physics to Engineering. Without the research done in the theoretical and experimental sciences modem techniques for curing disease or those for bridge-building would' be impossible. Similarly without the investigation carried on by Sociology, no real effective social planning would be possible. It helps us to determine the most efficient means for reaching the' goals agreed upon. A certain amount of knowledge about the society is necessary before any social policies can be .carried out. Suppose. for example, that a policy of decreasing the birth-rate is considered desirable: the best means, for achieving this goal cannot be determined in exclusively economic terms because, matters of family
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organization, customs and traditional values must be taken into account and these require a sociological type of analysis. .

(iv) Sociology is of great importance in the -solution of social problems. The present world' is suffering from many problems which can be solved only through scientific study of the society. It is obvious that social evils do not just happen and everything has its due cause. It is task of Sociology to study the social problems through the methods of scientific research and to find out solution for them; The scientific study of human affairs will ultimately provide the body of knowledge and principles that will enable us to control the conditions of social life and improve them..

(v) Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man. Sociology has been instrumental in changing our attitude towards human beings. In a huge specialized society, we are all limited as to the amount of the whole organization arid culture that we can experience directly. We can hardly know the people of other areas intimately, In order to have Insight into and appreciation of the motives by which others live and the conditions under which they' exist. a knowledge of sociology is essential. Now we have begun to realise the intrinsic worth of man as man and the futility and hollowness of the differences of caste, colour, creed and other factors. The racial or social differences which once separated man from man are now with the study of sociology, losing their' significance and we are gradually moving to the ideal of common brotherhood of man.

(vi) Sociology has changed our outlook with regard to the problems of crime etc. Again it is through the study of Sociology that our whole outlook on various aspects of crime has changed. The criminals are" no longer treated "as degenerated beasts. On the contrary, they are regarded as human beings suffering from mental deficiencies" and efforts are accordingly made to rehabilitate them as useful members of the society. The sciences of Criminology and Penology and" Social Work and Social Therapy which are rendering commendable service in understanding social situations and solving individual problems are but handmaids of sociology.-

(vii) Sociology has made great contribution to enrich human culture. Human culture has been made richer 'by the contribution of Sociology. It has removed
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so many cobwebs from our minds and social phenomenon is now understood in the light of scientific knowledge and enquiry. According to Lowie, "Most of us harbor the comfortable delusion that our way of doing things is the only sensible if not only possible one". Sociology has given us training to have rational approach to questions concerning oneself, one's religion, customs, morals and institutions. It has further taught us to be objective, critical and dispassionate; It enables man to have a better understanding both of himself and of others. By comparative study of societies and groups other" than his existence which would otherwise escape his notice, his life becomes richer and fuller than it would otherwise he. Sociology also impresses upon us the necessity of overcoming narrow personal prejudices, egoistic ambitions and class hatred. In short, its findings stimulate every person to "render a full" measure of service to every other person and to the common good.

(viii) Sociology' is of great importance in the solution of international problems. The progress made by physical sciences has brought the nations of the world nearer to each other. But in the social field the" world has been left behind by the revolutionary progress of the science. The million dollar question facing the world today is what will be the use of all the technological developments and scientific progress if men continue to be blood thirsty of each other. The effects of modern .war upon society are varied and profound. The social costs of a modem "war are many and impressive, While there are various causes of war, the underlying cause is the marked" functional disequilibrium between the political organizations of the states and their relationships. We live in/ twentieth century world that is politically divided in terms of eighteenth century conditions. The consequence is that stresses within and between political

units lead from time to time to war and conflict. Given the worship of" the nation-state, men have failed to bring in peace. The study of sociology' of war will help in understanding the underlying causes of war and remove all such causes which promote tensions between nations and ultimately lead to war.

(ix) Sociology is useful as a teaching subject. In View of its importance Sociology is becoming popular as a teaching subject also. It is being accorded an important place in the curriculum of colleges and universities. It is also developing belatedly' in Teachers' Training Colleges because the teacher need not only know his subject and his pupils as individuals but also understand the group-life
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for which he is fitting them. By diffusing knowledge about society socialised thinking will emerge socialised behaviour will develop social planning will be furthered and a new social order will be evolved.

The importance of Sociology is further proved by the fact that the subject of Sociology is also included in the subjects to be offered by candidates competing for the higher examinations such as I.A.S. and the like. It is rightly felt that without the study of Sociology the training and knowledge of the candidates aspiring to hold a high post in the administrative set up of their country will be incomplete and imperfect.

(x) Sociology as a Profession. The students of Sociology can get jobs in the following fields. (a) In factories and government as labour welfare officer human relations officer personnel officer. (b) In the field of social security like employment exchange unemployment insurance scheme social security schemes. (c) In the field of reformation of criminals as probation officer superintendents of juvenile homes reformatory schools etc. (d) In. the field of social welfare as social welfare officer youth welfare officer. rural welfare officer. child welfare officer. Harijan welfare officer, tribal welfare officer, etc. (e) In the field of social education and adult education as adult education officer. . social education officer or

(f) In the fields concerning widow welfare. as superintendents of Nari Niketan. . (g) In the homes established for. the welfare of the old. disabled, destitute as their superintendents. (h) In the fields of family planning as social worker or researcher.

To sum up the value of Sociology lies in the fact that it keeps us up-to-date on modern situations: it contributes to making good citizens: it contributes to the solution of community pr6blems; it adds to the knowledge' of the society; it helps the individual find his relation to society; it identifies good government with community and it helps one to understand causes of things and so on. The study of social phenomena and of the ways and means of promoting what Giddings calls social adequacy is one of the
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most urgent needs of the modern society. As Professor Beach says, "Sociology has a strong appeal to all types of minds through its direct bearing upon many of the initial problems of the present world". Prof. Giddings says that just as "Economics tells us how to get things we want to have,' Sociology tells' us how to become what we want to be". Clearly, Sociology has both social and individual advantages. The question of the importance of Sociology is today not a question of whether or not we should have it but a question of how the knowledge acquired by it can be used.

UNIT II - Basic Concepts

In the previous chapters we have studied the meaning: nature, scope and importance of sociology. Therein we had the occasion to remark that sociology is the science .of society. In the present chapter we shall try to explain the meaning of society and other fundamental concepts used in sociology.

1. SOCIETY Meaning of society In common parlance the word 'society' is usually used to designate the' members of specific in-group, persons rather than the social relationships of those persons. Thus we speak of a Harijan society. Sometimes the word is used to designate institutions when we speak of Arya Samaj (society) or Brahmo Samaj. Thus used it refers to tangibles rather than observations, to specifics rather than norms. In Sociology, the term 'society' refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of the norms of interaction that arise among them people are valuable only as agencies of social relationships. They are "things". A society is intangible; it is "a process rather than a thing, motion rather than structure". The important aspect of society is the system of relationships, the pattern of norms of interaction by which the members of the society maintain themselves. Some writers include in society only' those relations between men which have been embodied in associations, possessed of definite structure and organization: Thus the' relations which are not organized in definite associations are excluded from the definition of society. Such a conception of society, however, is incomplete since unorganized personal relations, that constitute the cavity out of which organizations emerge, cannot be ignored in the study of Sociology.
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Some Sociologists say that society exists only when the members know each other and possess common interests or objects. Thus if two persons are travelling in a train, their relationship of co- existence in the same compartment of being at the same time in the same place does not constitute society. But as soon as they come to know each other. the element of society is created. This idea of reciprocal awareness is implied in Giddings' definition of society as "a number of like-minded individuals. who know and enjoy their like-mindedness, and are therefore able to work together for common ends." But this restriction of reciprocal awareness appears to be inconvenient since indirect and unconscious relations are of very great importance in social life. Some Definitions of Society 1. "Society is a system of usages and procedures authority and mutual aid, .of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and of liberties." - MacIver and Page 2. "Society is the union itself the organization, the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together." - Giddinqs 3. "A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour." -Ginsberg 4. "A society may be defined as a group of people who have lived long enough to become organized and to consider themselves and be considered as a unit more or less distinct from other human units." -John F. Cuber

5. "The term society refers not to group of people but to the complex pattern of the norms of interaction that arise among and between them." -Lapiere.

6. "Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationship in so far as they' grow out of action in terms of mean-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic." -Parsons 7. "Society is a complex of forms or processes each of which is living and growing by interaction with the others the whole being so unified that what takes place in one- part affects all the rest." . Cooley 8. "Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions within the community." -G. D. H. Cole 9. "Society includes not only the political relations by which men are bound together but
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the whole range of human relations and collective activities." -Leacock: 10. "Society is any permanent or continuing group of men women and children, able to carry on independently the process of racial perpetuation and maintenance on their own cultural level." - Harkins. 11. "Society is not a group of people it is the system of relationships that exists between the individuals of the group. -Prof. Wright 12. "A society is the larger group to which any individual belongs". - Green. Thus, there are two types of definitions of society, (i) the functional definition and (ii) the structural definition. From the functional point of view, society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationship, interacting upon one another, enabling human organisms to carry on their life-activities and helping each person to fulfil his wishes and accomplish his interests in association with his fellows. From the structural point of view, society is the total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions; of habits, sentiments and ideals. Ginsberg. Giddings, Cole and Cuber take a structural View of society while MacIver, Parsons, Lapiere, Cooley and Leacock have given functional definition of society. The latter include in it different activities of the individuals and their relations with one another. Thus, society is to be interpreted in a wider sense. It is both a structural and functional organisation. It consists in the mutual interactions and mutual interrelations of the individuals but it is also a structure formed by these relations. It is a pattern, a system and not the people. Those who define it as a group of people interpret it in terms of 'A society' as distinguished from 'Society'. Society is a web of social relationships According to MacIver, society is "a web of social relationships, which may be hundreds or thousands of types. To formulate catalogue of social relationships would be an uphill task. The family alone is said to have as many as fifteen relationships based on age, sex and generation. Outside the family, there is no limit to the number of possible relationships. Wright says, "Society in .essence means a state or condition, a relationship and is, therefore, necessarily an abstraction" In the words of Reuter. 'Just as life is not a thing but a processor living so society is not a thing but a process of associating.'

(i) Society means likeness Likeness therefore is an essential pre-requisite of society. As MacIver says 'Society
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means likeness. The sense of likeness was focused in early society on kinship that is real or supposed blood relationships. In modem societies the conditions of social likeness have broadened out in the principle of nationality or one world. "Comradeship, intimacy, association of any kind Or degree would be impossible without some understanding of each by the other and that understanding depends on the likeness which each apprehends in the other.

(ii) Society also implies difference But this sense of likeness does not exclude diversity or variation. Society also implies difference and it depends on the latter as much as on likeness of all people were exactly alike their social relationships would become very much limited. They would contribute very little to one another. There would be little reciprocity little give and take. All our 'social systems involve relationships in which differences' complement one another for example. Family rests upon the biological difference between the sexes. Besides the 'difference in sex there are other natural differences of aptitude of interest, of capacity. In social life there is an indefinite interplay of likeness and difference, of' cooperation and conflict of agreement and dissent. Thus difference also is necessary to society.

(iii) Inter-dependence. In addition to likeness inter-dependence is another essential element to constitute society. Family the first society with 'which we all are closely associated, is based on the biological inter-dependence of the sexes, none of the two sexes is complete by itself and. therefore each seeks fulfillment by' the aid of the other. This fact 'of inter-dependence is very much visible in the present world. Today not only countries but also' continents depend upon one another. The world has shrunk to such extents that if communications are interrupted at one end it makes all suffer. 'The history of man," as MacIver has observed, "is in one aspect the history of the growth of an organisation which diversifies the work of each, making each more dependent on others, in order that by the surrender of self sufficiency he may receive back thousand fold in fullness of life. This interdependence is both extensive as well as intensive. With the growth of the area of interdependence, its forms also multiply manifold. The N.A.T.O., S.A.A.R.C., UNESCO testify to the growing inter-dependence of the people of the world.

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(iv) Co-operation Lastly, co-operation is also essential to constitute society. Without co-operation no society can exist. Unless people cooperate with each other, they cannot live a happy life. Family rests on co-operation. The members of the family cooperate with one another to live happily and joyfully. Cooperation avoids mutual destructiveness' and results in economy. For want of co-operation the entire fabric of society may collapse.

Thus likeness, inter-dependence' and co-operation are the essential dements to constitute society. Besides these elements MacIver has also mentioned some other elements of society when he defines it as a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and of liberties. This definition contains seven elements of, society. Firstly, in every society there are some usages concerned with marriage, education, religion, food and speech etc. which differ from society to society. Secondly, there' are procedures, i.e. the modes of action in every society which maintain its unity and organisation. Thirdly, the presence of- an authority is necessary to maintain order in a society. Fourthly, no society can be stable unless there is a feeling of mutual aid among its members. Fifthly, in a society there are several groupings and divisions such as family, village; city etc. Sixthly, controls are necessary for the organisation of society. Seventhly, liberty and control go together in a society. Without liberty man cannot develop his personality. Control upon an individual's behaviour is not meant to destroy his liberty but to promote and protect it. It may, however, be noted that society involves more a state or quality of mind than a mere structure. The beings who constitute- society must realize their likeness and their interdependence. They must have a community of feeling. Society is not a mere agency for the comfort of the beings but it is the whole system of social relationships. The social relation of mother and child, for instance, is revealed in their attitude towards each other. It is this social fact and not the biological fact which constitutes society. The true sometimes the exact line between society and aggregation may be difficult to draw, when the society may be of exceedingly low grade, i.e., the element of mutual awareness may be weak.

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II. Community
Meaning of Community MacIver defines community as "an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence." He further says, "Whenever the members of any group, small or large, live together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest, but the basic conditions of a common life, we call that group a community 32 We know that a person rarely 'exists alone. He is linked in many ways to his fellows who form a group. We cannot, however, expect a man to become the member of all the groups existing in the .world. He can establish his relations only with the people who reside near him in a definite part of the territory. It is inevitable that people who over any length of time reside in a particular locality should develop social likeness, should have common social ideas common traditions and the sense of belonging together. This fact of social living and common specific area gives birth to community.

Some Definitions oj Community. (i) Community is "a human population living within a limited geographic area and carrying on a common inter-dependent life." -Lundberg. (ii) Community is "any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only, but a whole set of interests." Mannheim. (iii) Community is "a social group with some degree of "we feeling" and "living in given area." -Boqardus (iv) Community is "a group of people living in a contiguous geographies area, having common centres of interests and activities, and functioning together in the chief concerns of life." -Osborne and Neumeyer (v) Community is "the total organization of social life with a limited area." -Ogburn and Nimkolf. (vi) Community is "the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life." Kingsley Davis (vii) "Community is "a group of social beings living a common life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which result from that common life or constitute it." -Ginsberg
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(viii) "By a community I mean a complex of social life, a complex including a number of human beings, living together under conditions of social relationships, bound together by a common, however constantly changing stock of conventions, customs and traditions and conscious to some extent of common social objects and interests." - G. D. H. Cole (ix) Community' is "a unit of territory within which is distributed a population which possesses the basic institutions by means of which a common life is made possible . -Dawson and Gettys

(x) "A community is a local area over which people are using the same languages, conforming to same mores, feeling more or less the same sentiments and acting upon the same attitudes -Sutherland

In the above definitions, we find two approaches to the meaning of community, while some writers have given the really based conception of the community 'emphasizing its ecological aspect, others have adopted psychological emphasis in- their thinking about the community. Don Martingale is most explicit writer who has dented the necessity for a really based conception of community; He has spoken of the community "not as term for an area where people live but for a kind of integrated system of social life in which geographical area is secondary or irrelevant." However, the general consensus is that the areal connotation should be retained when speaking of communities.

Elements of a Community The following are the elements on the basis of which we can decide whether a particular group is a community or not:

(1) Group of people. Community-is a group of people. Whenever the individuals live together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life, we call them forming a community.

(ii) Locality. The group of people forms a community when it begins to reside in a definite locality. A community always occupies a territorial area. The area need not be fixed for ever. The people may change their area of habitation from time to time just

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'as nomadic community does. However most communities are now well settled and derive a strong bond of solidarity from' the conditions of their locality. Among the village people there is unity because they reside in a definite locality. Though due to the extending facilities of communication in the modem world the territorial bond has been weakened, yet "the character of locality as a social classifier has never been transcended"

(iii) Community Sentiment Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. It is 'we feeling' among the members. In modem times this sentiment very much lacks among the people occupying a specific local area. For example, in- big cities a man does not know even his next door neighbour. Mere neighbourhood does not create a community, if community sentiment is, lacking. Therefore, to create a community the sentiment of common living must be present among the residents of the locality. (iv) Permanency A community is not transitory like a crowd. It essentially includes a permanent life in a definite place. (v) Naturality Communities are not made or created by an act of will but ate natural. An individual is born in a community.

III. ASSOCIATION Meaning of Association. An association is a group of people organised for a particular purpose or a limited number of purposes. According to MacIver, an association is "an organisation deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of some interest or set of interests. which its members share." According to Ginsberg, an .assoctation is "a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or have' Instituted in common an organisation with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends." G. D. H. Cole writes. : By an association I mean any group of persons pursuing a common purpose by a course of cooperative action extending beyond a single act and for this purpose agreeing together upon certain methods of procedure, and laying down in however rudimentary a form rules of common action." According to Bogardus,' "Association is
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usually a working together of people to achieve some purposes." To constitute an association there must be Firstly, a group of people : Secondly these .people must be organized ones I.e., there must be certain rules for their conduct in the group, and, . Thirdly, they must have a common purpose of specific nature to pursue. Thus family, church, trade union, music club all are the instances of association. Associations may be formed on several bases, for example, on the basis of duration i.e. temporary or permanent like Flood Relief Association which is temporary and state which is permanent, or on the basis of power, i.e., sovereign like state, semi-sovereign like University and non- sovereign like clubs, or on the basis of function, I.e. biological like family, vocational like Trade Union or Teachers' association, recreational like Tennis club or Music club, philanthropic like charitable societies.

IV. INSTITUTION Meaning of Institutions In ordinary speech or writing people often use the word institution to mean an organization with some specific purpose as a public or charitable institution. Sometimes it is used to denote any set of people in organized interaction as a family or club or government. For the purposes of sociology a more precise definition is required. Institutions have been defined by MacIver as the "established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity."

According to Sumner, "An institution consists of a concept (Idea, notion. doctrine or interest} and a structure."

According to Woodward and Maxwell. "An institution is a "set or web of interrelated folkways. mores and laws which enter in some function or functions."

According to Green. "An institution is the organisation of several folkways and mores into a unit which serves a number of social functions."
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According to Gillin and Gillin "A social institution is a functional configuration' of culture pattern (including actions,. Ideas, attitudes and cultural equipment which possesses certain permanence and which is intended to satisfy felt social needs."

According to Ginsberg, "Institutions are definite and sanctioned forms or modes of relationship between social beings in respect to one another or to some external object. Institutions are forms of procedure. Every organization is dependent upon certain recognized and established set of rules, traditions and usages. These usages and rules may be given the name of institutions. They are the forms of procedure which are recognized and accepted by society and govern the relations between Individuals and 'groups. Thus marriage, education, property and religion are the main Institutions.

The following characteristics may be noted in the concept of an institution. (i) (ii) (iii) Institutions are the means of controlling individuals. Institutions depend upon the collective activities of men.

The institution has some proceedings which are formed on the basis of customs and dogmas.

(iv) (v)

Institution is more stable' than' other means of social control. Every. institution has some . rules which must be compulsorily obeyed by the individuals.

(vi) (vii)

Every institution has got a symbol which may be material or non-material. ' Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of men. It has social recognition behind it.

V. NORMS Norms are standards of group behaviour. An essential characteristic of group life is that it is possessed of a set of values which regulate the behaviour of individual members. As we have seen already, groups do not drop out of the blue with stabilized relationships among members. Groups are the products of interaction among individuals. When a number of individuals interact, a set of standards develop that regulate their relationships and modes of behaviour. These standards of group
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behaviour are called social norms. That brothers and sisters should not have sexual relations; a child should defer to his parents and an uncle should not joke with his nephews and nieces are the illustrations of norms which govern relationships among kinsmen. Norms incorporate value judgments. Secord and Buckman say "A norm is a standard of behavioural expectation shared by group members against which the validity of perceptions is judged and the appropriateness of feeling and behaviour is evaluated." Members of a group exhibit certain regularities in their behaviour. This behaviour is considered desirable by the group. Such regularities in behaviour have been explained in terms of social norms. Norm, in popular usage, means a standard. In sociology our concern is with social norms; that is, norms accepted in a group. They represent "standardized generalizations" concerning expected modes of behaviour. As standardized generalizations they are concepts which have been evaluated by the group and incorporate value judgements. Thus it may be said that norms are based on social values which are justified by moral standards or aesthetic judgement. A norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behaviour. As defined by Broom and Selznick, 'The .norms are blueprints for behaviour setting limits within which individuals may seek alternate ways to achieve their goals." Norms do not refer to an average or central tendency of human beings. They denote expected .behaviour, or even ideal behaviour. Moral values are attached to them. They are model practices. They set out the normative order of the group.

Norms are related to factual (realistic) world. It may not, however, be presumed that norms are abstract representing imaginary construct. Sociologists are interested mainly in "operative" norms, that is, norms that are sanctioned in such a way that violators suffer penalties in the group. For example, most of the norms of the Sermon on the Mount, although often referred to as norms, are not sanctioned; one is not punished socially for refusing to "turn the other cheek": Norms in order to be effective must represent correctly the relations between real events. They must take into account the factual situation. A rule requiring all men to have two wives would be valueless if the sex ratio did not permit. Therefore, the normative system, since it is meant to achieve results in the factual world, should be related to the events in the real world.

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IMPORTANCE OF NORMS A norm less society is impossibility. Norms are of great importance to society. It is impossible to imagine a norm less society, because without norms behaviour would be unpredictable. The standards of behaviour contained in the norms give. order to social relations, interaction goes smoothly if the individuals follow the group norms, The normative order makes the factual order of human society possible. If there were no normative order there could be no human society. Man needs a normative order to live in society because human organism is not sufficiently comprehensive or integrated to give automatic responses that are functionally adequate for society. Man is incapable of existing alone. His dependence on society is not derived from fixed innate responses to mechanical social stimuli but rather from learned responses to meaningful stimuli. Hence his dependence on society is ultimately a dependence upon a normative order. Norms give cohesion to society. We can hardly think of a human group apart from norms. A group without norms would be to use the words of Hobbes, "Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." The human organism in order to maintain itself must live in a normatively regulated social system. The normative system gives to society a cohesion without which social life is not possible. Those groups which cannot evolve a normative order and maintain normative control over their members fail to survive because of the lack of internal co-operation. Norms influence individual's attitudes. Norms influence an individual's attitudes and his motives. They impinge directly upon a person's self-conception. They are specific demands to act made by his group. They are much more stable. They have the power to silence any previously accepted abstract sentiment which they' may oppose. They take precedence over abstract sentiments. Becoming a member of a group implies forrr1ing attitudes in' relation to group norms. The individual becomes a good member to the extent he abides by the norms. The norms determine and guide his intuitive judgments of others and his intuitive judgments of himself. They lead to the phenomena of conscience, of guilt feeling of elation and depression. They are deeper than consciousness. Becoming a member of a group consists of internalizing the norms of the group. Through internalization they become a part of himself automatically expressed in his behaviour. VI. VALUES In sociology our concern is with social values. Social values are cultural standards that indicate the general good deemed desirable for organized social life.
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These are assumptions of what is right and important for society. They provide the ultimate meaning and legitimacy for social arrangements and social behaviour. They are the abstract sentiments or ideals. An example of an important social value is "equality of opportunity". It is widely considered to be a desirable end in itself. The importance of such a value in social life can hardly be exaggerated. A social value differs from individual value. An individual value is enjoyed or sought by the individual which, a man seeks for himself: Even though these values are commonly shared, They do not become social values. As distinct from individual values, a social value contains a concern for others' welfare. Social values are organized within the personality of the individuals. They regulate his thinking and behaving. The process of socialization aims to include these values in his personality the ethos or fundamental characteristics of any culture are a reflection of its basic values. Thus if the American culture is dominated by a belief in material progress, the Indian culture is marked by spiritualism, the forgetting of self, abandonment of personal desire and elimination of the ambition. The "Indian way" is different-from the "American way".

VII. SOCIAL ORGANISATION The term 'organization' means an' arrangement of persons or parts. Thus family, church, college, factory, a play group,-a political party, a community, an empire, United Nations all are examples of an organization. In all these cases there is an arrangement of persons or parts that compose the organisation. In this arrangement the persons or parts are inter-related arid interdependent. They function in a coordinated manner, to accomplish a goal. The members of on organization are assigned fixed tasks and responsibilities according to their status and role.

There are many kinds of organizations. A state is called a political organization because it is concerned with political matters. A factory is called an economic, organisation because it is concerned with production and distribution of wealth. A church is a religious organization. A bank is a financial organization. A college is an educational organization. But all these organizations are also social organizations, that is, organization of society. Thus in sociology the term social organization is used in a-wide sense to include any organization of society. An organization differs from a group or association in the sense that group or association refers to two or more persons held together for the pursuit of some specific objective, while organization refers to the coordinated social
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relationships among interdependent 'parts or groups. .

Elements of Organization The word 'organization' can be used in different senses. It can mean the process of getting organized as in the sentence, "the Union held an organization meeting"- a meeting to organize itself. It can also refer to the quality of being organized as in the sentence, "This group has a high degree of organization." In sociology, as said above, it refers to the coordination of social relationships. An organization has a social structure and so it may be said that organization. and social structure have the same meaning. No doubt, the two words are closely related, but there is a difference of emphasis. "Organization" emphasizes the coordination of social relationships while "social structure" emphasizes position and the fixed rules that go with them. It may be easy to see a group but it is harder to see its organization and it may be still difficult to see its structure. The following are the essential elements of organization:-

(i) A Goal The members of an organization are inter-related to each other for the pursuit of a common goal. They have unity of interest. In the absence of such unity they would fall apart and-the organization will come to an end. In a family all the members are interrelated to each other for the realization of the family happiness. They act united and as soon as this unity is lost, the family disintegrates. A political party can survive only so long as its members are united.

(ii) Preparedness to accept ones role and status. Organization is an arrangement of persons and parts. By arrangement is meant that every member of the organization has an assigned role" a positron and status: In sociology these three words, role, status and position have got definite meanings. To illustrate them we may take an example, A college includes principal, professors, clerks, teachers, students and so forth. The word 'principal' designates a position. He is assigned a role that is to carry the administration of the college. Role is the behaviour expected of him. In accordance with the value of his role the principal enjoys a status, a rank in society. Man enjoys status in proportion to the' social value of his role. In an organization
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all the members have an assigned role. and status. They should be prepared to accept their role and do acts which the role assigned to them expects of them. Just as a human structure can function smoothly only when its different parts perform their roles similarly role performance is very important in an organization.

(iii) Norms and mores. Every organization has its norms and mores which control its members. Norms are the socially approved ways of behaviour. The norms define the role of an individual. An organization can' function smoothly if' its members follow the organization norms. A college can realize its 'objective i.e. imparting knowledge when its different parts the teachers and the students follow the college norms. The students should attend the lectures regularly the teacher should reach the class punctually discipline should be maintained in the class room as well as outside, are some examples of college norms. A family has its norms. The father, the mother and the children have their assigned roles and are expected to behave according to family norms. What a person is or is not supposed to do is laid down by the norms of the group to, which he belongs. .

(iv) Sanctions Every organization has a system of sanctions which support the norms. If a member does not follow the norms, he is compelled to follow them through sanctions which may range from warning to physical punishment. A student may be expelled if he violates the college norms. A worker may be dismissed from service in case he acts against the factory norms. A child may be thrashed for coming late in the night. It may thus be concluded that 'organization' incorporates the concepts of goals, norms; sanctions, roles and positions.

VIII. STRUCTURE Social structure is a basic concept in sociology. Since long several efforts have been made to define social structure, still there is no unanimity of opinion on its definition. Herbert Spencer was the first thinker to throw light on the structure of society,
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but

he

could not- give a clear cut definition. Durkheim also made a futile effort to define it. Some definitions of social structure are the following: (i) "We arrive at the structure of a society through abstracting from the concrete population, and its behaviour. the pattern or . network (or 'system) of relationship obtaining between actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to one another." -S. F. Nadel (ii) Structure is the term' applied to the particular arrangement of the inter-related institutions, agencies and social patterns as well as' the statuses and roles which each .person assumes to the groups." -Talcoti. Parsons (iii) "Structure is the web of interacting social forces from which have arisen the various modes of observing and thinking." . . -Kari Mannheim.

(iv) "Structure is concerned with the principal forms of "social organization. ie,' types of groups association sand institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies." -Ginsberg (v) 'The components of social structure are human beings. The structure itself being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally defined and regulated." Radcuffe Brown (iv) "The various modes of grouping together comprise the complex pattern of social structure. In the" analysis of the social structure the role of diverse attitudes and Interests-of social beings is revealed. -MacIver On the basis of the above definitions it may be said that social" structure is an abstract phenomenon. It refers to the external aspects of society. Its units are groups, institutions, associations and organizations. As we know all men live with other men in societies. Each society has a pattern of organization composed of the structures resulting from the associations of men with each other. When men relate themselves to each other they establish a structural form. It may be a group an association or art organization. Social structure is made up of these structural forms which are arranged in an interrelated way to enable the society' to function in a harmonious manner. Society functions through these structural units. Institutions, associations, groups,

organizations, community all are parts of social structure-instruments through which it functions.

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The meaning of social structure can be easily understood if we take the example of organic structure. An organic structure known, as body is an arrangement of different parts like hands, legs, mouth, nose, ears etc. These parts are arranged in a particular and systematic way so as to create a pattern. The body" works through these parts which are inter-dependent and inter-related. Though the parts of organic structure are the same in every case, yet the form of organic structure of the people differs. Some are longer; others are short, some are fat, others are lean and thin. Similar is the case with social structure. The parts of all the social structures are the same that is every social structure has a family, religion, political organization, economic institutions, land. area etc. But the forms of social structure differ as the forms of body differ, for example, the form of family is not similar in all the social structures. Some have families of one husband, one wife and their children. Others have families of several wives one husband and their children. Thus the parts of social structures being the same, their specific forms vary. It may, therefore. be concluded that social structure is a arrangement of human relationship structures. These structures are (i) ecological entities, (ii) human groups, (iii) institutional agencies (iv) organizations and (v) collectivities. .

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