# 2007 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk,

Pretoria PST201F/1/2008-2010 PFC102R/2/2008-2010 98156284 3b2 Karin Style

CONTENTS
DEAR STUDENT INFORMATION ON THIS MODULE GENERAL OVERVIEW (v) (v) (vii)

SECTION 1
Teaching mathematics: foundations and perspectives Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5: Chapter 6: Chapter 7: Chapter 8: Teaching mathematics in the era of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Standards Exploring what it means to do mathematics Developing concepts in mathematics Teaching through problem solving Planning in the problem-based classroom Assessment in mathematics instruction Teaching mathematics equitably to all learners Technology and school mathematics 1 2 6 8 12 15 18 21 22

SECTION 2
Development of mathematical concepts and procedures Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Chapter 11: Chapter 12: Chapter 13: Chapter 14: Chapter 15: Chapter 16: Chapter 17: Chapter 18: Developing early number concepts and number sense Developing meanings for the operations Helping children master the basic facts Whole-number and place-value development Strategies for whole number computation Computational estimation with whole numbers Algebraic thinking: generalisations, patterns and functions Developing fraction concepts Computation with fractions Decimal and percent concepts, and decimal computation 23 24 30 33 36 40 42 44 46 49 52

PST201F/1/20082010 PFC102R/2/20082010

(iii)

Chapter 19: Chapter 20: Chapter 21: Chapter 22: Chapter 23: Chapter 24:

Proportional reasoning Developing measurement concepts Geometric thinking and geometric concepts Exploring concepts of probability and data analysis Exploring concepts of probability Developing concepts of exponents, integers and real numbers

56 59 67 69 71 72 73 95

APPENDIX A: Learning outcomes and assessment standards for grades 4 to 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

(iv)

DEAR STUDENT
This study guide is intended for mathematics teachers in the Intermediate and Senior Phases (grades 49). It is a wrap-around guide for the prescribed book Van de Walle, JA. 2007. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally. 6th edition. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. It covers the whole syllabus, which is subdivided into number learning and spatial learning. The aim of the study guide and the textbook is to prove to you and your learners that mathematics makes sense and that you are capable of making sense of it yourself. Please note the following: . I use the same chapter titles and sectional divisions as the ones in the textbook. I believe this will be easier for you. . The page numbers referred to throughout this study guide are those in the textbook, unless stated otherwise. . The assignments are based on the textbook. . The assignments are formulated in Tutorial Letters 101 and 102. . The study guide has been adapted for use of the new 2007 edition of the prescribed book.

INFORMATION ON THIS MODULE

This module has been prepared by the School of Languages, Education, Arts and Communication Department: Module: Module code: Unit level: Credits: Field and subfield of study: Date of issue: Review date: Purpose of this module: Teacher Education Mathematics and Mathematics Teaching PST201F NQF level 5 12 SAQA credits ETD Field Teacher Education October 2007 April 2011 This module will prepare students to teach the concepts, skills and values defined in the learning area Mathematics in the Intermediate and Senior Phases. It is assumed that the student has a basic understanding of the stages of a child's development and has leadership experience. It is also assumed that the student has a knowledge of and has acquired skills in basic mathematics.

Learning assumed to be in place:

PST201F/1

(v)

SPECIFIC OUTCOME FOR THIS MODULE

On completion of this module, you, the student teacher, should be able to . demonstrate that you understand modern trends and ideas in the teaching and learning of mathematics how learners learn mathematics how to teach mathematics . apply modern teaching approaches and the knowledge of how learners learn in various teaching and learning situations . do continuous assessment in the learning area Mathematics in the Intermediate and Senior Phases . plan the effective teaching of concepts, skills and values in the learning area Mathematics for various teaching and learning situations The following quotation from the author of your textbook (Van de Walle 2007:xvii) applies to you, the teacher: Learning how best to help children believe that mathematics makes sense and that they themselves can make sense of mathematics is an exciting endeavor and a lifelong process. It requires the knowledge gained from research, the wisdom shared by professional colleagues, and the insightful ideas that come from your own daily experiences with students. I trust that you will enjoy every step of this fantastic journey.

(vi)

GENERAL OVERVIEW
BEFORE YOU BEGIN ...
Welcome to the Department of Teacher Education at the University of South Africa (Unisa). This module concerns the teaching of mathematics in the Intermediate and Senior Phases. The duration of the module is one year. Please read this section carefully because it contains valuable general information on the successful completion of this module.

STUDY MATERIAL
Amongst other material, your prescribed textbook and study guide for this module are the following: . Prescribed textbook Van de Walle, JA. 2007. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally. 6th edition. Boston: Pearson. . This study guide University of South Africa. Department of Teacher Education. 2007. Professional Studies: Mathematics and Mathematics Teaching. Revised edition. Pretoria.

THE TEXTBOOK
The textbook forms the basis of this module and contains fundamental ideas on the teaching of mathematics, the development of mathematical concepts and procedures, and other issues and perspectives relating to the teaching of mathematics in the Intermediate and Senior Phases. Read the preface in your textbook thoroughly. It contains a description of the content of the textbook. It also gives you an opportunity to develop a strong theoretical perspective on a learner's learning in mathematics.

THE STUDY GUIDE

The study guide was written to accompany the textbook. In the study guide I used the same order of sections and chapters that appears in the textbook. The approach in the different sections is in accordance with the teaching approach of this module. The textbook is your manual or workbook, and you will be working through it systematically. It is an excellent book. No South African text such as this is currently available therefore you should buy it immediately.

PST201F/1

(vii)

ADVANTAGES OF THE TEXTBOOK

As far as standards are concerned, the textbook meets current needs (of the country, people and curriculum) and requirements at all levels. It is written in a user-friendly style, uses an interactive approach and can, therefore, be used as a workbook. The textbook is based on the problem-solving approach to teaching, which presents the teaching of mathematics in context. Mathematics teaching follows an integrated approach which stresses mathematical thinking and making sense. You, the reader are actively involved, since the textbook contains a large number of self-assessment exercises which thoroughly and continually expose you to classroom realities. The textbook does not follow American standards slavishly, but offers enough examples of meaningful learning opportunities to all readers and students in South Africa. Therefore, in using this book, I try to help and support you as a student in a systematic progression from whatever other approach you are accustomed to (perhaps the traditional one, or some personal and unrefined approach) towards studying and using a new approach: the problem-solving approach. In 1998 the Republic of South Africa (RSA) introduced a new curriculum with a new approach to teaching and learning, namely the outcomes-based education (OBE) approach. The teaching approaches that best suit this curriculum approach, and which are relevant to the mathematical and educational sciences, are the problemsolving and the problem-centred teaching approaches in mathematics education. The textbook is based on the American education situation, but it is used because OBE in the RSA is close to the education situation that presently prevails in the United States of America (USA). (Refer to the American ``Principles and standards for school mathematics'' (in the textbook, p 510) and the South African National Curriculum Statement (NCS) found at the back of this study guide.)

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIDACTICS AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

The content of the course on Mathematics Education is founded partly on what is known as Didactics. Didactics is a subdiscipline of Education, which studies the components and facets of teaching (and learning). Teaching and learning as didactic events in the mathematics classroom concern the teacher, the learners, the outcomes of the learning area, integration with other learning areas, the concepts, skills and values defined for the learning area, the teaching methods used in the mathematics classroom, the media used in the teaching situation, and assessment and remedial work in the mathematics classroom. The general principles and pronouncements of didactics should be applicable to the didactics of any subject. It may well be that the importance and emphasis may vary from one learning area to the next. I advise you to study general didactics by keeping your specific learning area in mind and asking questions such as: ``How can these general principles or pronouncements be applied in the teaching of concepts, skills and values in the learning area Mathematics?''

(viii)

ASPECTS OF THE COURSE THAT WILL BE EMPHASISED

In this module on Mathematics Education, based on the learning area Mathematics, I will concentrate on elements that are closely related to the practical teaching of the contents, skills and values defined for the Intermediate and Senior Phases. In studying the teacher as a component of didactics, I will focus on the didactic knowledge necessary for successful teaching in the learning area Mathematics in the Intermediate and Senior Phases. Since you are all graduate students and have successfully completed school mathematics, I assume that you have sufficient academic knowledge of the content of mathematics. However, the question is whether your knowledge provides the necessary background to school mathematics. The fact that so little graduate mathematical content appears in the learning area for mathematics, poses the question whether it would not be sufficient for teacher to have knowledge of only grade 12 mathematics or perhaps a higher level. I agree with the statement that individual teachers should know considerably more than their learners and that they should be able to view the content of the learning area Mathematics from a wider perspective. It is thus for a teacher to remember to steer the teaching-learning situation in such a way that the learners' numerical, spatial and linguistic aspects of life will be developed. With this view in mind, it is essential that you read widely on mathematics. You are expected to be familiar with the content of the learning area Mathematics for all three phases, namely the Foundation Phase, the Intermediate Phase and the Senior Phase. Although I will concentrate on the Intermediate and Senior Phases, all the mathematical content defined in this learning area in all three phases is regarded as prescribed content for this module. The emphasis in teaching approaches has recently shifted to the problem-solving (PSA) and problem-centred (PCA) approaches to teaching. We can refer to these as the problem-based teaching approaches. There is a close relationship between the teaching of mathematics and the way in which a learner learns mathematics. It is therefore not feasible to ignore the component based on how a learner learns in the teaching of mathematics. This is why we refer to teaching-learning situations, problem-centred learning, or problembased teaching and learning approaches. In this module you will be confronted with the problem-solving teaching approach. You will also be introduced to a problem-centred approach. You will be exposed to many situations in which you will have to make a choice between the traditional approach and the problem-based approach to teaching. Hopefully, you will be equipped with enough knowledge of the benefits of the problem-based approach to choose this approach without hesitation. The textbook is based on the problem-solving approach (PSA) to teaching and learning. Note that the role of the teacher in the two approaches (PSA and PCA) differs considerably, although his/her task and responsibility have not changed at all. The main difference between the two approaches is that in the PCA the responsibility of self-learning and self-development is shifted more towards the learner than in the PSA. In the PCA a non-routine problem(s) is used as a vehicle of learning and the teacher is seen as the facilitator of learning; whereas, in the PSA the teacher can still be a source of knowledge (although not the only source as is the

PST201F/1

(ix)

case in the traditional classroom). In this approach thought-provoking activities usually act as vehicles of learning. Please do not confuse the PCA or the PSA with the discovery teaching model there are major differences, as can be seen throughout the textbook. I also expect you to reflect on the presentation of certain concepts in different grades in the school. Because of the close ties between method and content, I will handle them together. Needless to say, the role of the learner in the teaching-learning process has become crucial when analysing and discussing the teaching-learning situation in mathematics education. It is important to understand that teaching and learning in mathematics are both based on certain strategies. These two sets of strategies should obviously be interlinked and interrelated. The questions, ``How do children learn mathematics?'' and ``How and what do children think when doing mathematics?'' have become two of the most important questions in mathematics education today. The matter of strategic learning is crucial in the shift towards learner-centredness and task-centredness. In this module, some consideration will be given to certain aspects of practical classroom procedure. In this section, aspects such as the content of the learning area Mathematics, work programmes, record keeping of assessment, assessment, et cetera will be considered.

OUTCOMES-BASED TEACHING
If you study the standards set in the USA well, you will see that, in principle, we follow those standards. However, standards have been worked out with a firm South African orientation. Van der Walle (2007) also uses the OBE teaching approach. The way in which objectives have been formulated and patterns of evaluation have been developed, illustrate this clearly. This reflects the standards in the USA. You will note that the South African educational officials introduced new terminology for old concepts. They replaced ``subject'' with ``learning area'', and ``aims and objectives'' with ``outcomes'' and ``learning outcomes''. This will definitely work in favour of the transformational process in order to establish a new frame of mind it is not only because of political motives. Renewal should be accompanied by a complete metamorphosis.

STUDY GUIDANCE
Study guidance is provided in the chapters in this study guide. It is here that I will take you through the textbook step by step. Use the study guidance in conjunction with your textbook. I will also use this part of the study guide to communicate to you what is expected of you. Here are a few pointers on how to use the textbook. Before proceeding further, I will take a look at three important techniques that you will use often at the beginning of a new chapter.

(x)

INDEPENDENT STUDY
A crucial phase in the process of understanding and learning mathematics by problem solving is to articulate your ideas about mathematics, and the teaching of mathematics, both orally and in writing. Only when you have tried this process for yourself will you understand the full value of this exercise.

STUDY PROCESS
I want to make you aware of your own studying process. I will explain a unique learning strategy to you an approach you may find useful. Try to refine your own approach. The three techniques contained in this strategy are characterised as skimming, scanning and study-reading. You may find other subdivisions and emphases of these terms elsewhere, but I will use them here as follows: Please note: This process requires you to work with a pen and a marker at every stage. Mark and write as you work through the material. The exercise comprises three steps in total. In order to understand what these steps involve, you should study the example given below. An instruction to carry out this exercise will usually appear at the beginning of each chapter. This means that you should follow the steps carefully as they are set out below. Wherever the activity is given, it will appear under the heading ``Overview and exploration''.

Overview and exploration (example) (1) SKIMMING . Page through, explore. Read the section or paragraph quickly, forming a rough idea of the contents. Concentrate on headings and subheadings, words/ text in bold and italics, boxes, tables and illustrations, and in the case of a chapter introduction and summary. . Make a cursory survey. While reading, ask yourself, ``What key terms occur in this division or chapter?'' Stop when you identify a key term and read carefully what is said about it. Mark it in the textbook. What you are trying to ascertain is: Where is it? (2) SCANNING AND REFLECTING . Scan the section or chapter. . Start drawing a mind map (for the whole or parts of it, as in starting a summary). You are looking for items and concepts while reading the information in the section or chapter in a more evaluative way. Reflect on interrelationships between concepts. The question now is: ``What is it?'' ``What is the meaning and the purpose?'' Visualisation is important and you are certainly going to start writing down key concepts. You can omit parts of the text. . Deeper reflection. Start building a structure in your mind map; work towards an entirety. As you work through the prescribed activities of the section or chapter, keep on returning to the mind map to fill in the detail. Reflect on the value and meaning of the categories, concepts, motivations, variables and key terms.

PST201F/1

(xi)

(3) STUDY-READ Study-read. This follows directly on steps 1 and 2 and should be done carefully, thoroughly and thoughtfully. The key terms and concepts you pinpointed have to be linked up, and here the mind map and summaries are important. Pause while reading, consolidate what you remember and consider how new information fits in with what you already have.
Apart from the activity explained above, you will find an introductory paragraph (or overview section) at the beginning of a chapter. The introductory paragraph explains what the chapter is all about and how the content of the chapter is linked with other areas that are relevant to the specific chapter read this carefully. The aim here is to broaden your perspective and outlook, and to help you identify problems and resolve them in a new way in the context of teaching and learning.

MIND MAPS
Some people have difficulty working out mind maps. You are urged to try it. The idea that you should do some sort of summation of the content of the chapter on one page is an important one. Please do your best.

ACTIVITIES
Whenever you come to an activity, complete it in full on loose pages which you can then insert in the plastic folders of your file and group together chapter by chapter. (We shall henceforth refer to this file as your portfolio.) Supplement this with your own notes from your notebook. Proceed, using your textbook and this guide in tandem.

WORKING METHOD
Your best working method would be to work frequently and regularly on this subject. Use the following method to refer to Van Walle (2007): Because the book is printed in a double-column format, I will refer to the two columns as (a) and (b) respectively. Thus, page 31(a) refers to the first column on page 31 and page 31(b) to the second column. If there is no (a) or (b), the whole page is intended.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
At the end of each chapter (in the textbook) there are self-assessment exercises called ``Reflections on the chapter'', which are designed to . assess the progress you have made towards achieving the chapter objectives . allow you to determine your own level of competence and what you still have to do to reach the required standard . reinforce and expand the knowledge and insights derived from the chapter

(xii)

This is the reason why I use summaries and mind maps. In this way I hope to fix the knowledge more firmly in your mind.

USE THE TEXTBOOK

Van Walle (2007) is an excellent book. It has a comprehensive bibliography at the end of each chapter. Take a good long look at these bibliographies and order some of the articles listed from the library. Van Walle (2007) is an excellent source to use when you do your teaching practice. Use it for lesson preparation and for new ideas regarding the concepts that should be taught!

PST201F/1

(xiii)

SECTION 1
TEACHING MATHEMATICS: FOUNDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 1
TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN THE ERA OF NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF MATHEMATICS (NCTM) STANDARDS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . decide for yourself whether the curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics formulated in the USA are meaningful and how they relate to the Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards defined in the national curriculum in our country . give your own opinion on what the textbook discusses as ``the revolution in school mathematics'' (Van de Walle 2007:2) . demonstrate your understanding of thinking about mathematics teaching as: problem solving communication reasoning and proof mathematical connections representation

. give an account of the five shifts in the classroom environment

1.1 OVERVIEW
In this important first chapter, Van de Walle (2007) tries to make us aware of the revolution in school mathematics and the forces behind the revolution. He also addresses the curriculum as the basis for teaching and learning school mathematics.

b
2

Activity 1.1 Use step 1, Skimming, in your learning strategy to help you work through the chapter. SKIMMING: . Page through the chapter. . Read the chapter quickly to form a rough idea of the content. . Concentrate on the headings, the subheadings and the text in bold. Note the following key terms: . the revolution in mathematics education

. the forces behind the revolution . the overview of the curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics in the USA and how these correspond to the Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards in our curriculum . five shits in the mathematics classroom
The curriculum and assessment standards for school mathematics in the USA are really targets (objectives) set for the teaching of mathematics at school. Can you see the correspondence to the OBE approach implemented in the RSA?

Activity 1.2 Use the step 2 (SCANNING) of your learning strategy to do the following: . Scan the chapter. . Start drawing a mind map. . Reflect on the value, meaning and justifications in the different statements.
The following is part of your mind map for chapter 1. Complete the map on your own.

Think what teaching mathematics is all about

What the reform movement in school mathematics is about

Think about the forces driving the reform movement, such as: . . . . . the demands of society the influence of technology the direction of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) report the five content standards and their relationship to the Learning Outcomes in our own curriculum . the five process standards and what our own curriculum has to say about them . the five shifts in the classroom environment

PST201F/1

Activity 1.3 Use step 3 of your learning strategy to do the following: . Pause while reading, consolidate what you remember and consider how the new information ties in with what you already know. . Think again about what is said about teaching and learning in the classroom of today and how it differs from the way in which you yourself were taught.
Please note the following: . A report on the performance of South African learners at the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS 1998) revealed that the overall scores of South African learners (grades 7, 8 and 12) were significantly lower than those of learners in more than 40 other countries. . The results of this report and the research that follows it are of great significance for the mathematics teacher in the RSA. . You are advised to read this report because the demand for mathematical, scientific and technological understanding and expertise is greater than ever before. . The following are the key research questions in the TIMSS: What concepts, processes and attitudes relating to mathematics and science have learners learnt, and what factors are related to their opportunity to learn these concepts, processes and attitudes? How do educational systems differ in their intended learning goals for mathematics and science, and what characteristics of educational systems, schools and learners relate to the development of these learning goals? What opportunities are provided for learners to learn mathematics and science, how do instructional practices in mathematics and science vary among educational systems, and what factors are related to this variation? How do the intended, implemented and attained curricula relate to the context of education, the arrangements for teaching and learning, and the outcomes of the education process? . The following are some of the results obtained in the TIMSS data: In South Africa learners' perceptions about their mathematical knowledge had little effect on their achievements and, in general, they had unrealistic perceptions of their competencies. The above indicates that the way in which we assess learners' knowledge, skills and attitudes should be adapted. Little value is added to learners' general scientific literacy by enrolling for an additional mathematics or science subject. This is testimony to the poverty of our current system. The above asks for integration of the different learning areas as stated by OBE. On all the items presented, the performance of South African learners was the lowest. South African learners appear to have difficulty with graphic interpretation. In general, South African learners experienced great difficulty in articulating explanations for the free-response items (problem solving).

The above indicates that South African learners have difficulty relating their mathematical knowledge to the real world (graphic interpretation) and lack problem-solving skills and strategies. This indicates the importance of a problembased approach to the teaching of mathematics, as advised in this module.

PST201F/1

CHAPTER 2
EXPLORING WHAT IT MEANS TO DO MATHEMATICS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . describe how your own perception of mathematics is influenced by the description of mathematics which you studied in this chapter . investigate the new educational goals for learners in mathematics and the verbs related to the doing of mathematics . discover, by doing the stated problems, what is meant by doing mathematics and, at the same time, explore your own feelings about the strange attitude of the author who does not supply you with the correct solutions to the problems . describe an environment for doing mathematics and the role of the teacher who has to create a classroom culture and environment in which learners do mathematics

2.1 OVERVIEW
The content of this chapter will influence your attitude towards the teaching of mathematics drastically. The author warns us (mathematics teachers) not to accept outdated ideas about mathematics and still expect to be outstanding teachers of mathematics. The aim of this chapter is to open your eyes and mind to a new way of thinking about the nature of mathematics and the way in which mathematics should be taught.

b
6

Activity 2.1 SKIMMING: Page through the chapter. Note the following: . the difference in the traditional views on school mathematics and the description of mathematics in the text . the new goals for learners in mathematics and what it means to do mathematics . the role of the educator in an environment for doing mathematics

STOP! Are you convinced that the ideas and statements in this chapter should have an influence on the attitudes of any mathematics teacher who intends to better his or her teaching? If not read the chapter content again.

Activity 2.2 Combine the SCANNING and STUDY-READ steps of learning to do the following: . Draw a mind map of the chapter. . Write down how your attitude to the teaching of mathematics is influenced by what you read. . Note the nature of the verbs on page 13. The verbs reveal a specific approach to learning, understanding, doing and mastering mathematics. They help to develop an environment for doing mathematics. . Do some of the problems in the section ``Let's do some mathematics!'' (pp 14 20). . Note the problem-solving strategies presented in the section ``An invitation to do maths'' (pp 1420). If you prefer to do so, you may do all the problems. I selected two, did them well (as was expected by the author) and then critically reflected on the comments made by the author on those problems and their solutions. Ask yourself the question: How do I feel when I do not know whether my answers are correct or incorrect? Do you agree with the ideas and statements made by the author regarding the provision of correct answers in the classroom? . Write down the last paragraph in the section based on the verbs for doing mathematics on page 13: it contains powerful ideas. . Have you made the required mind shift discussed in the paragraph?
Reflect on how the ideas and statements in this chapter correspond to the critical outcomes and learning outcomes defined for the learning area Mathematics (see NCS National Curriculum Statement) in the OBE approach in the RSA.

PST201F/1

CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPING CONCEPTS IN MATHEMATICS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . describe in your own words what it means to say ``we construct our own knowledge'' as opposed to ``we absorb knowledge'' . discuss in detail the following statement made by the author: ``It is generally accepted that procedural rules should never be learned in the absence of a concept, although, unfortunately, that happens far too often.'' (Van de Walle 2007:28) . develop your own idea on how mathematical concepts are learnt and understood . reflect on and give an account of relational understanding and instrumental understanding of mathematical concepts . discuss conceptual and procedural knowledge and their interaction . study and assess the benefits of relational understanding . draw a diagram to illustrate five different representations of mathematical ideas . investigate the use of models in the mathematics classroom . examine six ideas on which a development approach to teaching and learning is based

3.1 OVERVIEW
In the previous chapter the author discussed what it means to do mathematics. You can now ask yourself the question, ``How does a learner learn mathematical concepts?'' You can also ask the question, ``If I now know how my learners learn, what strategies can I apply to effectively teach these concepts?'' These questions are answered in this chapter. Changes in any educational system throughout the world normally occur extremely slowly. The following is a statement made by Prof. Richard Kemp, a professor of Education at Warwick University, in 1971: Readers for whom mathematics at school was a collection of unintelligible rules which, if memorized and applied correctly, led to ``the right answer'' (the criterion for which was a tick by the teacher) will probably agree that there has been need for change. This statement was made in 1971. Think about what happens in most classrooms in this country. Do you really think that after more than 30 years major and radical changes have occurred? Fortunately, radical changes in the teaching of mathematics have become inevitable in South Africa. Enjoy the theories on how your learners learn and understand mathematical

concepts, and the discussion of the strategies on how effective teaching of these concepts and skills can take place, as presented in this chapter.

b b

Activity 3.1 SKIMMING Page through the chapter and familiarise yourself with what is presented in it. Ask yourself the following questions while you read: . . . . . . What is a constructivist view of learning? What is mathematical knowledge? How does a learner understand mathematics? What is the role of models in developing understanding? How can I teach developmentally? How can I select problems, tasks, activities, et cetera, that will effectively help my learners to learn mathematics?

Is this the first time that you have come across the theory of constructivism? You will have to study the sections on constructivism in such a way that you can relate the concepts in this chapter to the rest of the work in this course.

Activity 3.2 SCANNING Study the different sections with deeper reflection. Answer the following questions in writing: . Can I still think about mathematical knowledge as a wall built with bricks from the bottom of the wall upwards? . What do the webs of associations for different mathematical concepts look like in my own mind? Try to draw a web of associations that will contribute to your own understanding of the number p. Now draw a web of associations that will contribute to a grade 7 learner's understanding of the number p. . How does a learner construct understanding? . What is the difference between conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge in mathematics? . What are relational and instrumental understanding?

PST201F/1

Activity 3.3 STUDY-READ . Link the main ideas in the chapter and make a summary of the chapter. . Use the following structures to help you:
A: A constructivist view of learning: What is it?
" "

Constructing understanding: How is this done?

Examples of construction of mathematical knowledge: . relationships . constructing computation methods . developing a formula

B:

What is knowledge of mathematics?

" "

Conceptual knowledge

Procedural knowledge What is the role of procedural knowledge?

C:

What is meant by understanding mathematics?

" "

Relational understanding
"

Understanding procedural knowledge

"

Understanding conceptual knowledge Benefits of relational understanding: . It is intrinsically rewarding. . It enhances memory. . There is less to remember, etc.
"

The individual nature of understanding

Familiarise yourself with the ideas and statements in this chapter. This will help you to understand the work done in the rest of the textbook better because all the work in the next chapters can be linked to chapter 2.

10

b b b

Activity 3.4 Models and the teaching of mathematics STUDY-READ . Draw figure 3.11 (p 33) in your workbook. This will indicate to you where and how models are linked to mathematical ideas. . Now make a summary to help you use models correctly in your classroom.

Activity 3.5 Teaching developmentally STUDY-READ the section on how to teach developmentally (p 34). Use the following headings to summarise this section: Teaching developmentally What does this mean? On what ideas is it based?

Activity 3.6 STUDY-READ Study the work in the chapter again and then explain what is meant by drill and rote learning. What is the difference between these two actions? Relate these two actions to actions in the classroom situation.
Let me again stress the author's warning: ``Do not accept outdated ideas about mathematics and still expect to be a quality educator.'' (Van Walle 2007:22) All mathematics teachers should note the content of this chapter if they wish to take the warning to heart.

PST201F/1

11

CHAPTER 4
TEACHING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

After working through this chapter, you should be able to comment on a problembased learning situation with regard to the following: . . . . a problem-solving and a problem-centred learning situation the non-routine problem used during the problem-centred learning situation the teaching actions before, during and after a problem-based learning situation how the teaching of problem solving itself took place during the learning situation . whether problem-solving goals were achieved while the learners were learning during a problem-based learning situation

4.1 OVERVIEW
Knowledge of constructivism implies a significant paradigm shift in how mathematics should best be taught. In the traditional learning situations in our schools, teachers ``taught'' by conveying information to learners who listened. Exercises followed to determine whether the learners could do what had been taught. The learners' responsibility was to do as they had been shown in the precise manner they had been shown. The major pedagogical implication of the constructivist theory is that learners learn mathematics best by solving a certain kind of problem (called a ``non-routine problem'') or by doing a thought-provoking activity which is used as a vehicle of learning. How does a teacher teach through problem-based education? This is one of the questions answered in this chapter. Please note the following again: The textbook is based on a problem-solving approach to teaching and learning. In this approach a thought-provoking activity is used as the vehicle of learning. A problem-centred approach uses a non-routine problem as a vehicle of learning. Each of these approaches is known as a problem-based approach to teaching and learning. The way in which you will study the content of this chapter differs from the way in which you studied the previous chapters. You take the following steps in the study of this chapter: Step 1: Study a description of a problem-centred learning situation. Step 2: Apply the knowledge gained from the chapter to answer questions asked and to discuss statements made on the basis of the given learning situation.

12

Step 3: Reflect on what you have learned and form your own opinion on problemcentred learning versus the traditional learning situation. The following learning situation took place in a grade 3 classroom. It is by no means intended to be an ideal problem-solving learning situation but is based on an interesting non-routine problem and illustrates most of the main aspects of problemcentred learning. It is a learning situation on which you, as a student, can reflect and comment. I enjoyed the description of the lesson and was amazed at the way in which concepts and skills were learnt. I hope that you, too, will enjoy the work based on this learning situation. Although the learning situation took place in a grade 3 classroom in the Foundation Phase, all the aspects of the problem-solving approach to teaching are of the same importance to the teacher in the Intermediate Phase. This is what the teacher in this classroom planned and did: . The teacher wanted to help her learners realise the following learning outcome and she used the given Assessment Standard to assist her. LO 4: Assessment standard: . Length Measurement estimates, measures, compares and orders three dimensional object using non-standard measures.

. She used the following non-routine problem as a vehicle of learning:

She supplied each group of learners with a handprint (larger than the handprint of an average man). She informed the learners that the handprint belonged to a giant. She wanted the learners to find out whether the giant with this handprint would be able to pass upright through the classroom door. . The activities before, during and after the learning situation were as follows: She explained, by asking questions, the statement of the problem until she felt confident that all the learners understood what was expected of them. She emphasised the point that that the use of standard units of measurement was not allowed. She invited the learners to name a few nonstandard units of measurement, such as a foot or a handspan. She then let them discuss their problem-solving strategy in the different groups. Next, she let them solve the problem in groups. During this stage she paid a visit to each group and asked questions such as: ``Explain to me how you plan to solve the problem.''

PST201F/1

13

 After the group solutions had been completed, the groups presented their solutions to the whole class with the help of the teacher. Using their preferred method of solution, individual learners then completed their solution to the problem in their exercise books or on the given worksheets. Application of the lesson proceeded by doing measurements involving nonstandard units of measurement. This forced the learners to reflect on the use of a standard unit of measurement. . The following is one solution presented by a group of learners: They made a handprint on paper of one of the girls in the group. They let her lie on the floor and measured how many handprints can fit into the length of her body. They then measured out on the floor the same number of handprints, using the giant's handprint. This gave them an idea of the height of the giant. They came to the conclusion that the giant cannot walk upright through the classroom door. Now go back to the contents of the chapter and do the following: . Read the section on problems and performance tasks on page 37. Do you agree that the educator in the above learning situation used a non-routine problem as a performance task and as a principal means of promoting mathematical learning? . Study the problem-solving strategies on page 57. Do you think that the learners in this learning situation used these strategies in their solution? . Study the teaching actions of a teacher in all three stages of the lesson on pages 41 to 48. Read the description of the learning situation again and reflect on whether the teacher, in her presentation, did what is suggested in your textbook. . You may ask yourself, ``Where did the teacher get hold of the problem?'' Read through the section on ``Designing and selecting effective tasks'' on pages 48 to 52 to answer your question. . The Assessment standard mentioned at the beginning of the learning situation is not the only one realised during the learning situation. Reflect on the following Assessment Standards for learning outcome 1. . Explains own solutions to problems. . Check the solutions given to problems by peers. . Summarise the statements made on pages 54 to 56 on teaching tips and questions. After completing the feedback you will be convinced that teaching through problem solving completely blends problem-based with mathematics education. To help learners with problem-solving skills, teachers should be aware of what good problem solving involves and should integrate the development of these skills into nearly every learning situation. Now read pages 57 on teaching about problem solving itself and the important aspects related to it.

14

CHAPTER 5
PLANNING IN THE PROBLEM-BASED CLASSROOM

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . . . . . . . plan a problem-based lesson plan a teacher-directed lesson teach a heterogeneous group of learners use workstations and games when doing instruction use homework as a useful instructional tool use the textbook correctly in your classroom understand and apply drill and practice in the mathematics classroom

5.1 OVERVIEW
This chapter describes some basic structures for lessons and other instructional strategies, such as workstations and games. The emphasis is on problem-based learning and teaching situations which characterise OBE. All interactive strategies and ideas given and expressed in this chapter can be linked to the outcomes-based approach which is adopted in a learning and teaching situation.

5.2 PROBLEM-BASED LESSONS

In a problem-based lesson, the learner becomes responsible for his or her own learning (self-regulated learning). A problem-based lesson ensures the practical involvement of the learner and is based on the constructivist view of learning.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 5.1 Problem-based lessons SKIMMING: Read the introduction to the chapter carefully (p 61). SCANNING: Read the section on pages 61 to 65 on the planning of a problembased lesson. Do the following STUDY-READ step: . Rethink what you have learned so far and link it to the ideas and statements made in this section. . Summarise the nine steps to follow when one plans a problem-based lesson.

15

. Use the following framework to summarise the components of a learner-centered lesson.

Components of a learner-centred lesson

!
Present the task

!
Create opportunities for the learner to work. Make sure that you note down the roles of the educator and the learners during this stage of the lesson.

!
Discuss and reflect

!
Written work

. Variations on the three-part lesson. Note that the national curriculum statements in our country suggests a wide range of different teaching and learning strategies. Thus not every lesson that you present will be a problembased lesson.

5.3 PLANNING FOR DIVERSITY

This is one of the most difficult aspects of instruction. How does a teacher deal with a heterogeneous group of learners? This section of the chapter provides guidelines on how to answer this question.

b
16

Activity 5.2 Dealing with diversity in the classroom SKIMMING: Read the section quickly to form a basic idea (pp 6467). SCANNING and STUDY-READ: Summarise the advice given.

5.4 DRILL AND PRACTICE

Where and when should I review concepts? Am I allowed to run learners through a drill of any of the concepts learned? These questions are answered in this section of the chapter.

b b b

Activity 5.3 Drill or practice STUDY-READ this section make a few notes and write them down (pp 67 69). Make sure that you understand the differences between these two actions in full.

5.5 HOMEWORK
First think about what homework is and why we give learners homework. Then do activity 5.4.

Activity 5.4 Homework STUDY-READ this section (p 70). Write down your own notes on the nature and use of homework.

5.6 THE ROLE OF THE TEXTBOOK

What is the role of the textbook in the modern classroom where problem-based lessons are encouraged?

Activity 5.5 Textbooks STUDY-READ this section (pp 7071). Make your own summary of the main ideas and statements. Please keep the following comments made by the author in mind when you use a textbook in future (Van Walle 2007:71): If one considers the limitations of the print medium and understands that the authors and publishers had to make compromises, the textbook can be a source of ideas for designing lessons rather than prescriptions for what each lesson will be.

PST201F/1

17

CHAPTER 6
ASSESSMENT IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . answer the question, ``What is assessment?'' . discuss the six statements (assessment standards) against which assessment practices can be judged . reflect on the purposes of assessment . reflect on what must be assessed . explain how instruction and assessment can be combined . understand how to collect data from performance tasks . explore other assessment options

6.1 OVERVIEW
You should now be convinced that the way in which we teach should change. But can the way in which we assess the knowledge, skills and values of our learners stay the same? This is what is discussed in this chapter. The author again warns us to break the habit of testing only the lowest-level mathematics skills.

b
18

6.2 BLURRING THE LINE BETWEEN INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT

Activity 6.2.1 What is assessment? Start your study of this chapter by carefully reading the introduction to the chapter and the paragraph on the assessment standards on page 78. Write down the definition of assessment given in this section and reflect on the comments made.

Activity 6.2.2 Assessment in instruction SKIMMING Page through the chapter and explore what it is about. Note the following: . the purposes of assessment . what should be assessed . how to combine instruction and assessment, and how to collect data from performance tasks . the other assessment tasks and tools discussed.
Before drawing your mind map of the chapter, you should answer the following questions which will help you to compile a mind map. Write down the answers to the following: . What is assessment? Give a definition. . How do I know that the assessment methods or tasks used are in line with what is expected? . What should the aims of my assessment be? . What should be assessed? . What is meant by blurring the line between instruction and assessment? . What is an assessment task? . What other assessment options are mentioned in the chapter? . What is the meaning of the word ``rubric''? . How do a portfolio, a journal and tests fit into an assessment plan? Assess your understanding of the work done in this chapter by marking the relevant face:

Note: By doing this simple exercise, you express your own feelings about the work in this chapter.

6.3 ASSESSMENT TASKS AS LEARNING TASKS

Read about assessment tasks on page 80. Study the examples given on page 81. Reflect on what the textbook say and on how you yourself were assessed at school. Compare the assessment tasks in your textbook with the assessment that you had in school.

PST201F/1

19

6.4 OTHER ASPECTS OF ASSESSMENT

The part of the chapter based on other aspects of assessment gives us an in-depth look at different methods, tools and the recording of assessment. The most important section of the rest of this chapter is the work done on rubrics. A rubric is a framework that can be designed or adapted by the teacher for a particular group of learners or a particular mathematical task. A rubric consists of a scale of three to six points that is used as a rating of a learner's performance. You as a student must be able to construct, adapt and use rubrics successfully because the use of rubrics as assessment tools is a necessity in today's instruction.

Activity 6.3 Other aspects of assessment . Study-read this section. Make sure that you will be able to construct a rubric for use as an assessment tool on your own. . Study-read the section on journals and tests and make your own notes on aspects that you think you might need in your classroom.
Do you, after completing your study of this chapter, agree with what the author says on page 92 (Van de Walle 2007:92)? The myth of grading by statistical number crunching is so firmly ingrained in schooling at all levels that you may find it hard to abandon. If one thing is clear from the discussions in this chapter, it should be that it is quite possible to gather a wide variety of rich information about learners' understanding, problem solving processes, and attitudes and beliefs. To ignore all of this information in favour of a handful of numbers based on tests, tests that usually focus on low-level skills, is unfair to learners, to parents and to you as an educator.

20

CHAPTER 7
TEACHING MATHEMATICS EQUITABLY TO ALL LEARNERS
It is impossible for a student to study all the work presented in the textbook. For this reason, you should concentrate on reading the content of only some indicated chapters. Since this offers an overview of the contents of a particular chapter, it will also enable you to consult that section of the textbook again whenever you need to. It is said that one will find the most diverse groups of learners in the world in classrooms in South Africa. Read carefully through this chapter which deals with aspects of diversity.

PST201F/1

21

CHAPTER 8
TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
The use of technology in the mathematics classroom is encouraged. According to your textbook, the problems of access and availability will undoubtedly fade in the near future and useful technology will become as common in schools as chalkboards and textbooks. In the RSA the use of technology in the classroom is expanding. Access to the Internet, for example, is already a reality in many classrooms. You should use the work addressed in this chapter as a source of reference. For example: your school has facilities for learners to use computers but you feel unsure of how to set about utilising the technology to the full. Please consult the textbook as a reference source and read what the author has to say about the use of computers in the classroom.

22

SECTION 2
DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES

CHAPTER 9
DEVELOPING EARLY NUMBER CONCEPTS AND NUMBER SENSE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Read the introduction to this section. A teacher cannot successfully teach the concepts relating to number if he or she does not know and understand exactly how the different number systems are linked and if he or she does not have a sound knowledge of the properties of the numbers in these number systems. A teacher should have an in-depth knowledge of how learners learn the concepts relating to number, and should know and understand the sequence in which learners learn these concepts. Most Intermediate Phase teachers have only a general idea of numbers. For example, when they have to teach the concepts necessary to do operations with fractions, they do not understand that fractions are rational numbers and that the system of rational numbers is an extension of the system of whole numbers. They also do not understand why the need for a system containing rational numbers forced mathematicians to extend the whole number system. Here is a summary of the real number system. Test your knowledge of how the different systems are linked and of the properties of the numbers in the different number systems by answering the stated questions.

9.1.1 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Interrelationship between number sets Before discussing the interrelationship between different number systems, let us take a quick look at the evolution of our real number system. Our real number system developed in the following stages: . Stage 1: The very first numbers that humans ever used were natural numbers (N). . Stage 2: The need for zero arose and zero added to the natural numbers formed what we know today as the set of whole numbers (N0). . Stage 3: In order to meet the need to subtract whole numbers at all times, negative numbers were invented. These, together with the whole numbers, form the integers (Z). . Stage 4: In order to meet the need to divide whole numbers by whole numbers (except 0), the numbers system had to be extended to the set of rational numbers (Q).

24

. Stage 5: In order to find exact results for numbers which cannot be expressed as common fractions, the irrational numbers (Q') were invented. The expansion of rational numbers to include irrational numbers gave rise to the set of real numbers denoted by R. The following diagram captures this expansion:

THE REAL NUMBERS

Rational numbers Q Integers Z [... -2; -1; 0; 1; 2 ...] Whole numbers NO [0; 1: 2: 3 ...] Natural numbers N [1, 2, 3 ...] Irrational numbers Q'

From the diagram we can see that . . . . N is a subset of No No is a subset of Z Z is a subset of Q Q and Q' are subsets of R (No includes N) (Z includes No) (Q includes Z) (R consists of Q and Q')

NOTE that Q and Q' do not have any common elements. Now answer the following questions: . . . . . Are there so-called p ``nonreal'' numbers? Answer: Yes. Is the answer to W a real number? Answer: No. p What kind of number is W? Answer: non-real. p Why is Q called an irrational number? Answer: It cannot be written as a fraction Can you describe an irrational number in words? Answer: It is a non-recurring decimal number. . Explain the difference between the following calculations and their answers: p p p p W PUY Q PU and Q PU Answer: non-real, 30, non-real. . Page through section 2 in the textbook. Note that the forming of concepts based on number starts with natural numbers, extends to whole numbers and then to rational numbers (fractions), integers and irrational numbers. Later, in a more algebraic sense, we will meet the properties of number systems. . Why do you think the teaching of these concepts follows this particular path? Answer: It follows the same pattern in which the real number system developed. Let us now continue with our study of the development of number concepts and number sense.

PST201F/1

25

After working through this chapter, you should . demonstrate an understanding of how a learner develops his or her number concepts and number sense in the Foundation and Intermediate Phases . be able to apply the knowledge obtained from your study of the chapter in learning and teaching situations . be able to apply the many interesting ideas on how to present the different concepts . be able to form your own opinion on the teaching of number concepts and number sense after reading through the ideas and statements in the textbook

9.2 OVERVIEW
. How do learners learn about numbers? . What is meant by number sense? . How can the teacher provide learners with a rich assortment of activities to help them construct the many ideas about numbers? All these questions are answered in this chapter for numbers up to 20.

Activity 9.1 Number concepts and number sense SKIMMING: Read through chapter 9 to get an idea of the different concepts related to number and number sense. Form an idea of how these concepts build on one another. SCANNING: Start to reflect on the different sections of the chapter, in such a way that you can draw a mind map which will show how the concepts build on one another.
The author makes a few important statements on page 120 under the heading ``Big ideas''. (1) Counting tells us how many things are in a group (set). The basic mathematical knowledge used by all human beings consists of the skills used in counting. Thus, teaching your learner to count various things in groups, with understanding, is to teach one of the basic concepts of mathematics. (2) There is a wide variety of relationships between numbers. Think about the following statements to see what is meant by this idea: . Any number can be expressed in many different ways. For example: 4 can be expressed as: p R Y V Y ITY Q I I P

26

. Any operation with whole numbers can be done in many different ways. For example: . 2 + 11 = 13 . 2 + 11 = 2 + 10 + 1 = 13 . T 1 1 . 2 + 11 = 13 . 2 + 11 = 13 0 1 2 3 LL LLLLLLLLLLL (group the numbers according to the place values of their digits) (analyse one of the numbers) 2 + 11 can be calculated as follows: (mentally)

(draw a picture to calculate the answer) (use a calculator and the key sequence 2 + 1 1 =

Display 13.) A problem-based approach to teaching does not suggest a prescribed solution to a problem or method for doing a calculation. The learner is encouraged to use any mathematically correct method or solution. It is thus essential that teachers themselves should be aware of the variety of different calculation methods and ways of solving problems.

Activity 9.2 Development of number concepts READ-STUDY: . A suggested framework of the development of number concepts and number sense is given below. . Study-read the chapter to see whether you agree with the suggested framework and complete your own mind map with the assistance of the framework. . Include activities which you can later give to learners to help them understand the different concepts. This is suggested because the textbook contains a rich selection of activities meant for use in your classroom. These activities have been selected with great care.

Suggested framework
This framework illustrates how concepts relating to number and number sense are formed.

PST201F/1

27

Step 1:
Starts with meaningful counting
"

Concepts relating to more, less and same

"

Procedural knowledge of numbers is now obtained

The learner can now count meaningful, known concepts (such as more, less and same), and can read and write the symbols representing numbers.

Step 2:
In this step learners create more relationships between numbers to develop what is known as number sense. A learner should develop the following types of number relationships: . Spatial relationships. Learners should recognise the ``how many'' of a group of objects by recognising a common pattern without actually counting the objects. Do you know the number represented by the following dots? . . . . .

. One and two more, one and two less. A learner should know that 7 is 2 more than 5 but 2 less than 9. . Anchors or ``benchmarks'' of 5 and 10. These are interesting concepts which can be misunderstood by the teacher. Study the use of the 10-frame on pages 128129. . Part-part-whole relationship. This is the most important number relationship that a learner should develop.

Framework for different types of relationships

Spatial relationships: . What is meant by these? . Examples of learners' activities

!
One and two more, one and two less relationships: . What is meant by these? . Examples of activities to use in a classroom

28

Anchoring numbers to 5 and 10: . What is meant by these? . The use of the 10-frame

!
Part-part-whole relationships: . What is meant by these? . Activities and material to use in teaching these relationships

Step 3:
In this step the number concepts of the learner are extended to numbers larger than 10. . The concept of 10 and more: What is said about it? . Double and near-double relationships: What are they and why are they important?

Step 4:
Number sense and the real world Relationships of numbers to real-world quantities and measures, and the use of numbers in simple estimations, can help learners to develop intuitive ideas about the numbers that are most desired. What is meant by number sense and the real world? Activities discussed

Step 5:
Extensions to early mental mathematics . What is meant by these? . How is a little base-10 frame used to extend a learner's concepts to early mental mathematics?

PST201F/1

29

CHAPTER 10
DEVELOPING MEANINGS FOR THE OPERATIONS

g b b

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . explain the term ``operation sense'' and to show that you know how to teach the relevant concepts regarding operations to learners

10.1 OVERVIEW
This chapter is about learners' development of ``operation sense''. For the successful mastery of the four basic operations, more than just an understanding of the operations is necessary.

Activity 10.1 Developing meanings for the operations . Read the section, ``Big ideas'' on page 135. . Were you confronted with these ideas and concepts before you were expected to do the basic operations with whole numbers? Explain.

Activity 10.2 SKIMMING: Read through the chapter quickly to form a rough idea of the content. Note the following: . the two tools used to construct understanding of operations . word problems on addition and subtraction, with the different kinds of relationships involved . the interesting models used for addition and subtraction . the extension of the same ideas to multiplication and division

30

10.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE TEACHING OF MEANINGS FOR THE OPERATIONS

Do not assume that your young learners cannot add, subtract, multiply and divide because this is simply not true. The teacher is not expected to teach these concepts as if the learners have not constructed any concepts relating to these operations. Instead, the teacher is expected to build on what the learner already knows and to link the concepts to word problems or word stories. Put the words ``problems'' and ``stories'' into contexts that relate to the learners' own lives. Note that the author thinks about models, word problems and symbolic equations as three separate languages and that he encourages the use of equations at an early stage.

10.3 TEACHING ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

In this section of the chapter, the author gives you insight into the teaching and learning of addition and subtraction. He also answers the important question: ``How should I use addition and subtraction word problems in the classroom?'' (Van de Walle 2007:146) Try the following approach to studying this section in the chapter. Do not read what is said in the textbook. Make a mind map to illustrate how you will teach addition and subtraction to young learners. This will give you an idea of the structures for teaching addition and subtraction in your own mind Now, go to the relevant section in the chapter and do the next activity.

Activity 10.3 Teaching addition and subtraction . Study-read the section and make a mind map to assist you. Compare this mind map to the one that you based on your own ideas.

10.4 REFLECTION ON ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

A study of the work done in this section of the chapter will indicate that Van de Walle made an in-depth study of various word problems and their uses. You may feel a little confused when you reflect on the different problem types discussed in this section, but on pages 148 and 149 the important goal of the teaching of the concepts relating to addition and subtraction is stated and linked to classroom situations. The main ideas are: . The important point when teaching the main operations is not to obtain the correct answers, but to analyse relationships and to discuss approaches. . Let your learners have access to a variety of materials which they can use to help them solve word problems. . Your learners should be afforded the opportunity to present a problem in words

PST201F/1

31

and in written form. Give the learners the opportunity to discuss the different ideas and the solutions to the problems in pairs or in small groups. Request a written response or explanation of the solution to the problem from each learner. If possible, let the learner include an equation that ``goes with the solution of the problem''.

10.5 TEACHING MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Study-read the section on problem structures for multiplication and division as well as the section on the teaching of multiplication and division. You should appreciate this in-depth study of the teaching and learning of multiplication and division done by the author. Your task is to study-read these sections in such a manner that you will know and understand them sufficiently to refer back to the textbook whenever you need to teach multiplication and division to young learners for the first time.

32

CHAPTER 11
HELPING CHILDREN MASTER THE BASIC FACTS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . explain what is meant by the basic facts for the main operations . demonstrate understanding of approaches to fact mastery . discuss and apply strategies for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division facts

11.1 OVERVIEW
You have studied how learners develop number concepts and number sense, how these concepts are related to the main operations and how the main operations are learnt as an extension of number sense and number concepts. A basic fact for addition and multiplication refers to combinations where both the factors are less than ten. Subtraction and division facts correspond to addition and multiplication facts, for example 15 8 + 7 and 8 + 7 = 15. After learners have mastered the main operations, they should construct efficient mental tools to help them master basic facts. This chapter is about the mastering of basic facts and how they are learned.

Activity 11.1 Orientation Rethink the following statements and ideas before studying this chapter: . Many learners in schools in South Africa still use counting to do calculations. This implies that they are still at the ``count all'' or ``count on'' stage of number concepts and lack the basic tools necessary for successful quick responses to calculations. For example, to do 8 + 7, the learner counts the 8 ones and then counts seven ones to obtain 15 as an answer. . If efficient strategies for doing a certain calculation are not in place, practice and drilling in the learning process amount to a waste of time and a frustration to the learner. . Note that the use of materials is to develop strategies they are not answergiving devices. . The idea that drilling is not allowed in today's classroom is simply not true.

PST201F/1

33

11.2 HELPING LEARNERS MASTER THE BASIC FACTS

Many teachers know that for successful teaching today, one needs a mind shift away from what was done in the past. The work in this chapter will clearly show what this statement means.

Activity 11.2 Helping learners master the basic facts SKIMMING: Read through the chapter. Ask the following questions while you read: . . . . . . What is a basic fact? How do I teach these facts to learners? What approach must I use? What are the strategies that learners invent to master these facts? What learning and teaching materials are involved? What is effective drilling? How can I remediate basic facts in the higher grades?

11.3 APPROACHES TO FACT MASTERY

In this section (pp 165168) you will become aware of the different approaches to teaching mathematical facts, concepts and procedures because what is said in this section does not relate only to basic facts teaching and learning. Read this section carefully and compare your own ideas with those of the textbook.

11.4 STRATEGIES FOR ADDITION, SUBSTRUCTION, MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION FACTS

Although this course is based mainly on the teaching and learning of mathematics in the Intermediate Phase, the mathematics addressed in this section forms the basis of mathematics for the Intermediate Phase. Read through these sections. Note the following: . The main aim of the teacher must be to assist the learner to make sense of basic facts and the related concepts. . Many interesting learning and teaching materials are used. . Drilling of concepts and facts takes place only after conceptual knowledge is formed. . The author has interesting ideas about time tests.

34

11.5 FACT REMEDIATION WITH LEARNERS IN THE HIGHER GRADES

This is the section of the chapter which is important to you as an Intermediate Phase teacher.

Activity 11.3 Do the following: . Think what you yourself will do when you encounter learners in the fifth and sixth grades, who have not mastered their basic facts. . Summarise what the textbook says about the teaching and learning of these learners.

PST201F/1

35

CHAPTER 12
WHOLE-NUMBER AND PLACE-VALUE DEVELOPMENT

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . explain the number concepts and ideas in the early development of a learner trying to master the place and number value of a digit in a number . apply the use of models and number expansion cards to teach the concepts of place and number value of a digit in a number . discuss a range of activities in which a learner can be engaged to learn the above concepts . explain how real-life situations can be used to teach concepts relating to place and number values . teach the concepts relating to numbers larger than 1 000 . assess the concepts learnt by learners, based on the place value and number value of digits in numbers

12.1 OVERVIEW
Without a firm understanding of the place value and number value of a digit in a number, the learner cannot master the basic calculations Teachers in South Africa also have to teach concepts of the number value of a digit in a number and not only concepts based on the place value of the digit. These are defined in the work programmes in the National Curriculum Statement for the learning area Mathematics, namely that the number value of the digit should form the basis of the teaching of the concepts relating to larger numbers.

12.2 BASIC IDEAS OF PLACE AND NUMBER VALUES

What is the difference between the two concepts ``place value of a digit'' and `'number value of a digit''? In the number 2 714, the place value of the digit 7 is defined as 7 hundreds determined by the place of the digit in the number. The number value of the digit 7 is defined as 700. The textbook contains a large variety of activities involving the place value of digits.

36

Activity 12.1 The following activity explains the use of number expansion cards. These cards are used to analyse and compose a number. When a number is analysed, the number value of each of its digits can clearly be understood. (Please note: Number expansion cards are named differently in the literature.) Description of an activity to teach the number values of the digits in the number 2 714: . Let the learner select the following cards from his or her set of number expansion cards: 2 0 7 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 . Let the learner overlap the cards to compose the number as shown:

. Let the learner write down: 2 000 + 700 + 10 + 4 = 2 714 (composition of the number) . Let the learner separate the cards again and then let him or her write down the equation: 2 714 = 2 000 + 700 + 10 + 4 (to analyse the number) . Then, discuss the number and place values of each of the digits in the given number.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 12.2 Number expansion cards STUDY-READ . Familiarise yourself with number expansion cards by solving the following problem. . Use the following cards and then write down all the possible numbers that you can find by overlapping the cards. 5 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 5

37

12.3 MORE ON BASIC IDEAS AND THE USE OF MODELS

In this section the textbook gives us an idea of the thought processes of the young learner before place value or number value concepts are in place, how he or she learns the relevant concepts and how the concepts are linked.

b b

Activity 12.3 SKIMMING: Page through the chapter and do the following: . Note the discussion on the early development of place value ideas. . Note the relationship between groupings of 10 and other related concepts. . Study figure 12.1 on page 189. (You can add the concept of analyses of the number given by the equation 53 = 50 + 3 to the figure.) . Note the variety of models that can be used to teach the concepts of place value. . Note the discussion of the range of activities that can be used in the classroom. . Note the link with real-life situations.
In the next activity your understanding of the early development of the place value and the number value of a digit will be tested.

Activity 12.4 Early place value concepts SCANNING: Reflect on the section on the early development of the place value and the number value of digits on page 188. Study the description of the following activity and then answer the questions based on the activity. A teacher filled a bottle with +100 beans. He instructed each of the learners in a grade 2 class to guess the number of beans in the bottle. He agreed to count the beans with the help of the whole class. He instructed them to individually plan a counting strategy after guessing the number of beans in the bottle. Answer the following questions based on the activity: . How will a learner without any knowledge of the concept of place value count the number of beans? . Can you describe one other activity in which this learner can be engaged that will also indicate that his or her concept of place value is not yet in place? . Can you name and describe three different ways in which learners can count the number of beans? . Can you link the grouping of the beans in groups of 10 to numerals, the way in which the digits can be placed in indicated places, saying the number in words and eventually writing the number in standard form? Explain. . How can you link the grouping of the beans in groups of 10 to the composition of the number of beans with the help of number expansion cards?

38

Activity 12.5 Base 10 models STUDY-READ the section of the chapter on the use of models to teach place value concepts. Summarise the section.
Note the following: The textbook refers to counting in ones when a learner needs to count a larger number of objects such as 53. In our country we refer to ``counting all'' when a learner still counts the objects one by one we say the learner is in the ``count all'' stage. When a learner counts a number of objects indicating, say, 20 objects and then counts on from 20 until all the objects are counted, we say that the learner is in the ``count on'' stage. Most grade 1 learners are in the ``count all'' stage, whereas grade 2 learners must move on to the ``count on'' stage and eventually to the concepts related to number and place values of digits in numbers. As teacher in the Intermediate Phase, you will encounter many learners (even in grades 6 and 7) who are still in the ``count all'' stage. This chapter gives you all the skills and knowledge needed to remediate these learners' work.

12.4 NUMBERS BEYOND 1 000

The following sections in this chapter are of great importance to Intermediate Phase education because they involve the teaching of concepts where larger numbers are involved.

Activity 12.5 Large numbers beyond 1 000 STUDY-READ the section on pages 211 to 213. . Make sure that you understand how to extend the different concepts. . Reflect on the use of number expansion cards to analyse and compose numbers beyond 1 000 to form the concepts discussed in this section.

PST201F/1

39

CHAPTER 13
STRATEGIES FOR WHOLE NUMBER COMPUTATION

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . explain words such as ``direct modelling'', ``algorithm'', and ``invented strategies'' . indicate what invented strategies are and what their benefits are . explain how to develop learner-invented strategies . teach traditional algorithms with understanding

13.1 OVERVIEW
As an Intermediate Phase teacher, one of your tasks will be to teach the four basic operations (+, , 7, 6) with larger numbers. This will eventually end in teaching the procedural knowledge needed to use the algorithms (recipes to multiply, divide, add and subtract). After studying the previous chapters in the textbook you should now be convinced that you cannot teach these operations by introducing the traditional algorithms to your learners as the only methods of calculation. How then should all these concepts and skills be taught? This is what this chapter is about.

Activity 13.1 Do the following: SKIMMING: Read through the whole chapter to form an idea of what is said about whole-number computation. . Make sure that you understand how learners think about numbers and the operations. . Convince yourself that you cannot teach the traditional algorithms without letting your learners first invent their own strategies for doing calculations.

40

Activity 13.2 Go back to the section on invented strategies again. Now make a summary of what is said. . Write down what an invented strategy means. . Write down the benefits of invented strategies. . Write down how you can assist learners to develop these strategies.

13.2 TRADITIONAL ALGORITHMS

In this section of the chapter the textbook gives guidance on how to teach the operations up to the use of the traditional algorithms in such a manner as to enable the learner to gain a meaningful understanding of the steps in each algorithm. Note the explanations of the use of the algorithms for multiplication and division on pages 235 (figure 13.22) and page 240 (figure 13.26). I am sure that you will find these explanations interesting.

Activity 13.3 STUDY-READ this section of the chapter, then use a model, an invented strategy, an algorithm and an explanation of the algorithm to do each of the following calculations: . . . . 53 53 53 53 + 27 27 6 15 7 15

Study the given statement (Van de Walle 2007): What is the educational cost of teaching learners to master pencil-and-paper computational algorithms? Here cost means time and effort required over the entire elementary grade span, in comparison with all other topics that are or could be taught. How many algorithm skills or how much knowledge do you think is really essential in an age in which calculators are readily available. For a moment think back to how important these algorithms were when you yourself went to school. Can you still remember how these algorithms were taught? After studying this chapter in the textbook, you are probably aware that the teaching of algorithms should only be done after number concept, the meaning of operations, mastery of basic facts, mental calculations and estimation have been done as prerequisites. If you agree that the emphasis on these algorithms should diminish, how then should these algorithms be taught in the modern classroom? You should be able to answer this question after studying this chapter.

PST201F/1

41

CHAPTER 14
COMPUTATIONAL ESTIMATION WITH WHOLE NUMBERS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . discuss the concept of estimation . describe different ways of doing computational estimation . discuss different estimation strategies

14.1 OVERVIEW
The number sense development of a learner (or any other person) is largely influenced by his or her mental computation and estimation skills. Any numerical calculation or measurement activity involves mental computation and estimation. Study the description of the following activity and ask yourself whether you agree with the statements made. If you have to find the distance from your chair to the door of the room, reflect on what happens inside your own mind. The following usually happens: . You ``see'' the problem. You make a mental picture of the problem. . You ``measure'' the distance with your eyes by looking at the distance. . Next you decide on the unit of measurement that you should use to do the measurement. . You then use a tool (a measuring tape) to find the exact distance. . When the exact distance has been measured, you verify the distance by comparing the actual distance with the estimated distance. Now ask yourself: . Why do I first have to ``measure'' the distance with my eyes? . Why do I compare the actual distance with the estimated distance? The above discussion should lead you to the following conclusion: You unconsciously estimated the distance which enabled you to select the correct unit of measurement and to verify the distance measured with the measuring tape. How do we teach these estimation skills to our learners? The answer is in this chapter.

42

b b b

Activity 14.1 Study the different types of estimation and the description of what estimation is on page 246. Write these down in your workbook.

14.2 UNDERSTANDING COMPUTATIONAL ESTIMATION

Think back to the way estimation was taught and learnt when you went to school. Round the numbers to the nearest ten, hundred or thousand and then do the calculation. The result will be the estimated answer. If your estimation was not done exactly in this manner it was considered to be wrong.

Activity 14.2 Carefully read through the chapter. Note the modern ideas presented to you by the author. You must study the content of this chapter in such a manner that you can refer back to it whenever you need to teach learners computational estimation.

Activity 14.3 Big ideas Read the big ideas (important statements) on page 228. Note that the words ``carries'' and ``borrows'' are used and that the statements/ideas are made with the place values of numbers in mind. Read the big ideas/important statements given below, in which the number values of the digits in the numbers are emphasised. . Each of the traditional algorithms is simply a clever way of recording a calculation for digits with the same number/place value by regrouping groups of tens, hundreds and so on. . Ten ones are regrouped to form one ten and ten tens are regrouped to form one hundred and so on. The other way round, one ten could be regrouped to form one ten and one hundred could be regrouped to form ten tens or even a hundred ones. The use of the words ``carry'' and ``borrow'' is no longer emphasised in South African classrooms. . Do the activities in this chapter to develop your own estimation skills. Are you familiar with these or do you find the activities difficult?

PST201F/1

43

CHAPTER 15
ALGEBRAIC THINKING: GENERALISATIONS, PATTERNS, AND FUNCTIONS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . show that you understand what challenges concerning number lie ahead for learners in the Intermediate and Senior Phases . indicate why the statements are made about your own knowledge of the different number systems at the beginning of this section . upgrade your own knowledge about number where necessary . give an account of the following concepts: function variable graphic representations of functions equations that define functions solving equations

. upgrade your own knowledge of functions and relevant concepts

15.1 OVERVIEW
You are a teacher in the Intermediate Phase in the learning area Mathematics. Your learners have mastered the outcomes defined for number learning and have acquired the skills and values necessary for number. How can you, as a teacher, help to prepare your learners for the challenges that lie ahead? This issue is addressed in this chapter. You will again have to use this chapter as reference material. Whenever you need to teach concepts and skills related to algebra and functions to your learners, you are advised to refer to the content of this chapter. However you will have to do the following activities to give you a clear idea of the content of the chapter.

44

Activity 15.1 (1) Read, on page 260, what Kaput's description of algebraic reasoning is. (2) Read about variables and the solution of equations and inequalities on pp 262 266. (3) Study the section on repeated patterns (p 268) and how to ``read'' these patterns. (4) Study the pictures presenting growing patterns (p 271). Note the link from the given pattern to the table and the general formula shown on page 273, figure 15.11. (5) Make sure that you understand that a function is a rule that uniquely associates elements of one set with elements of another set. Study the function machine below that illustrates the meaning of a function. Rule Input x " y = 2x + 1 y Output "

(5)

Use the machine to complete the given table. Input x Output y 1 3 0 1

(6) Write down the five representation forms of functions. (7) Read the section on the connection of the different representations (p 280).

PST201F/1

45

CHAPTER 16
DEVELOPING FRACTION CONCEPTS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . use three categories of fraction models to represent different concepts of fractions . explain how a learner's number sense of fractions can be developed as a prerequisite for computation with fractions

16.1 OVERVIEW
The development of fraction concepts and the teaching of computations with fractions is a challenge for any Intermediate Phase teacher. Note that the teacher himself or herself should know that a fraction is defined as a rational number. Learners are expected to understand that a fraction is an expression of a relationship between a part and a whole. The way to teach the relationship and to relate it meaningfully to symbols is the topic of this chapter. The textbook advises us to use three different categories of fraction models to present different concepts. You are advised to draw, make and handle these models yourself, which will enhance your own understanding of how to use them. In this section on fractions (chapters 16, 17 and 18) we find the real meaning of the idea of teaching developmentally, namely: . spending enough time on concept development (see chapter 16) . approaching the new concept in more than one way (especially when it results in an algorithm) . taking into account the way learners learn concepts

b
46

Activity 16.1 SKIMMING: Quickly read through the chapter. Note the following: . . . . . . the introduction of three different fraction models the use of these models to develop the concept of fractional parts the way the concepts of fractions are linked to symbols the introduction to a wide range of exercises to teach the various concepts what is meant by fraction number sense and how it is taught teaching the concepts of equivalent fractions

16.2 MODELS FOR FRACTIONS

This is the most important section of the chapter. You should understand the use of the three different models before moving on to the next section in the chapter.

Activity 16.2 Models for fractions STUDY-READ and reflect on the description of the models (pp 295297). Do the following practically: . Fold a piece of paper to represent 1/6 (one sixth). What kind of model is this? . Read the instructions on page 296 and make yourself a strip model as described. . Use the model to indicate the fractional part which is one-sixth of the dark green strip. . Read the instructions on page 297. Make yourself 20 counters that are coloured in two colours on opposite sides. Use the counters to represent one-sixth of a set. . Draw a picture of a set of objects. Shade one-sixth of the objects in the set.
You have now used three different models to present fractional parts. Do not continue with the work in this chapter if you do not fully understand the use of these models.

16.3 FROM FRACTIONAL PARTS TO FRACTION SYMBOLS

Activity 16.3 Fractional parts STUDY-READ the section on how the concept of fractional parts should be taught (pp 297303). Write down the main ideas in a summary.

16.4 FRACTION NUMBER SENSE

Many adults and most learners in the RSA will have difficulty with the activities suggested in this section. This is an indication that their number sense of fractions is not well developed. One reason for this is that these concepts are not taught in our schools.

PST201F/1

47

Activity 16.4 Number sense and fractions STUDY-READ this section on pages 303 to 308. . Do the given activities yourself. . Reflect on the comments made. . Study the conceptual thought patterns for the comparison given on pages 304 to 305. . Write a summary, using your own words, to understand the conceptual thought patterns better.

16.5 EQUIVALENT FRACTION CONCEPTS

The concepts of equivalent and similar (like) fractions are essential for successful computation with fractions. You will encounter the teaching of similar fractions (like fractions) in the next chapter. In this section of the chapter the teaching of the concepts of equivalent fractions is discussed. Make sure that you understand the difference between a learner's conceptual knowledge of the concepts and his or her procedural knowledge. Remember that procedural knowledge is usually based on the use of a prescribed algorithm.

b b
48

Activity 16.5 Equivalent fraction concepts STUDY-READ this section on pages 308 to 313. . Do all the given activities yourself. . Note that the last method (p 312) to form fractions equivalent to a given fraction is the way in which an adult who has mastered all the concepts of fractions in full should form these fractions.

Activity 16.6 When you teach Intermediate Phase learners, you will have to teach fractional sense and computations with fractions. After completing this chapter, start a summary on how to teach this to learners. Write down the steps that you plan to follow from the basic concepts to the end of computation with decimals. Finish your summary after completing your study of chapter 18.

CHAPTER 17
COMPUTATION WITH FRACTIONS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . teach the concepts necessary for applying the well-known algorithms for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions . explain your understanding of the dangers of teaching rules (algorithms) without real understanding . demonstrate (represent) all four of the operations with fractions by using the three different kinds of models introduced in chapter 16

17.1 OVERVIEW
Most adults and learners in our country cannot successfully add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions. They lack the basic knowledge required for these computations. Test yourself. Can you fully explain all the concepts involved in the well-known algorithm: If you need to divide one common fraction by another common fraction, change the division sign to a multiplication sign. Find the reciprocal of the second fraction and then multiply the two fractions. If you could explain all the concepts involved in this calculation, you are one of the exceptions to the rule. The lack of the necessary skills and knowledge to do computations with fractions is a direct result of the way in which these concepts and skills were taught in our schools. This chapter warns us about the dangers of teaching rules and algorithms while teaching computations with fractions when learners do not really understand them. The author refers to rules which learners do not really understand. This chapter gives us an alternative to the teaching of rules and algorithms without real insight on the part of both teacher and learners.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 17.1 Overview . Read through the chapter. Note the emphasis on understanding and number sense development before the introduction to the algorithms. . Also note the detailed discussions that preceded the introduction of the actual algorithm.

49

b b b

Activity 17.2 Big ideas . Read the ``big ideas'' on page 316. . Rethink how you yourself learnt the computation of fractions at school. Was any attention paid to the ideas mentioned? . Note especially that the estimation of computational answers was never done in schools in our days.

17.2 NUMBER SENSE AND FRACTION ALGORITHMS

I wish to emphasise what the textbook states: focusing attention on fraction rules and finding answers has two significant dangers. Firstly, none of the rules help learners to do any thinking about the meanings of the operations or why they work. Secondly, learners who practise these rules may very well be doing rote symbol pushing in the purest sense.

Activity 17.3 Number sense and fraction algorithms STUDY-READ this section on pages 316 to 317. Think about what the textbook says about the dangerous rush to rules. Do you agree with the statements made?

17.3 THE MAIN OPERATIONS AND FRACTIONS

Activity 17.4 First think about how you yourself will teach the operations with fractions. Where will you start? What will you teach? What do you think is important to teach? Now study a problem-based, number sense approach to the teaching of the operations on page 317.
Some of the explanations of the use of the three different models used in this chapter are difficult to understand. You are advised to do the activities practically with the use of your strip model and the counters made in chapter 16. Use paper rectangles or circles to help you practise. Enjoy the work done in this chapter to introduce the well-known algorithms the ideas are new to almost every reader of the chapter.

50

b b

Activity 17.5 Computation with fractions STUDY-READ this section and do the different activities and examples yourself. As far as possible, use the models you made during your study of chapter 16 and the paper (or cardboard) circles and rectangles as discussed in the activities.

Activity 17.6 Discussion and exploration . If you have studied the statements made, the ideas and examples given, and have done the various activities in this chapter, you will be equipped to discuss the questions in the discussion and exploration section on page 332. . Discuss and give your own opinion on the questions asked and statements made in questions 1 to 3.

PST201F/1

51

CHAPTER 18
DECIMAL AND PERCENT CONCEPTS, AND DECIMAL COMPUTATION

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . teach the concepts of decimal numbers and percent as an extension of the concepts learned about fractions . explain the use of different models to teach these concepts . recognise and apply the importance of estimation when computations with decimal numbers are introduced

18.1 OVERVIEW
The approach to the teaching of the concepts based on decimal numbers and percentage is based on the assumption that what has been learnt about fractions is closely related to the concepts based on decimal numbers. It is also assumed that the concepts relating to decimal numbers and fractions can be extended to what learners should know about percentage and the relevant skills necessary to use percent correctly as a tool to better understand the relationships between numbers. The author warns that a teacher should be aware that concepts based on decimal numbers and percentages can be taught through the use of algorithms but this serves no purpose and does not enhance any real understanding. Please note: The work in this chapter is done mainly in the Intermediate Phase.

b
52

Activity 18.1 Overview . Read through the chapter quickly. . While you read through the chapter, think about how the concepts are related.

18.2 CONNECTING TWO DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS

In order to have a clear idea of all the work done in this chapter, you (as a teacher) should have the following knowledge about rational numbers (fractions): . Every fraction can be written as a decimal number.

. Not all decimal numbers can be written as fractions this gave rise to irrational numbers. . Some decimal numbers are called recurring decimals, such as 0,333 ... or 0,3. . Recurring decimal numbers can also be written as fractions and are thus also rational numbers, for example 1/3 = 0,3 . Decimal numbers, fractions and percentages are different ways of writing the same rational number. For example: 3/4 is the same as 0,75, which is the same as 75%. . It is thus clear that the system of rational numbers enables one to write such numbers in more than one form.

Activity 18.2 Connecting fractions and decimal numbers SCANNING: Make a framework of a diagram similar to the one given below.
Connecting fractions to decimal numbers
"

Base 10 fractions . ............... . ......................... etc

Extending the place value system . ........................................ . ........................................ . ........................................etc

Making the fraction-decimal connection How is this done? Give examples of activities.
"

Developing decimal Number sense What is meant by this? How? Other fractiondecimal equivalents: How?

"
"

Familiar fractions connected to decimal numbers: How?

Approximation with nice fractions: How?

Ordering decimal numbers: How?

PST201F/1

53

STUDY-READ the section on linking the two different representational systems and on the development of decimal number sense on pages 333 to 243. Use your knowledge to complete the diagram.
Note the following: . The use of the hundredths disk, the 10 6 10 square model for base 10 fractions and a decimal point face is important. (You are advised to use the material included in the textbook to make these models and to use them when doing the activities.)

18.3 INTRODUCING PERCENT

In order to understand the work done in this section of the chapter you, the reader, should note the following: . The concepts and skills relating to percentage are extensions of the concepts and skills learned when studying fractions and decimal numbers. . Learners cannot progress and give real meaning to percentage if they do not have a sound grasp of fraction-decimal relationships. . The idea of equivalent fractions is fundamental to the extension to decimal fractions and percentages.

Activity 18.3 How to introduce percentage STUDY-READ this section (pp 343346). . Write down the meaning of the term ``percent''. . Do the given activities yourself. . Note the use of the three types of models with fractions that are extended to the teaching of percent. . Summarise the content of this section with the help of the following diagram: The introduction of percent
"

How?
"
"

As a third operator system Summarise how.

Through realistic percent problems Summarise how.

Estimation

54

18.4 COMPUTATION WITH DECIMALS

Read the following far-reaching statement on computation with decimal numbers. ``It is no longer necessary or useful to devote large portions of instructional time to performing routine computations with decimal numbers by hand. Other mathematical experiences for the Intermediate Phase learner deserve emphasis.'' Think back to what happened when decimal numbers were taught to you at school. At that time, none of your teachers would have agreed with the above statement.

b b

Activity 18.4 Computation with decimal numbers STUDY-READ this section (pp 346349). Summarise the main ideas and write down your own opinion on the work done in this section.

18.5 THE ROLE OF ESTIMATION

It is important for you to notice the importance of estimation of computational answers in all these sections. It is said that good estimation skills are necessary for good number sense and good computation with numbers.

Activity 18.5 Approximation with `'nice'' fractions: study-read this section on page 340. Teach your learners these skills, because the ideas about nice numbers are new to most learners and teachers.

PST201F/1

55

CHAPTER 19
PROPORTIONAL REASONING

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . show your understanding of the concepts of ratio, rate, proportion and solving a proportion . teach proportional reasoning to Intermediate Phase learners . help learners solve proportions

19.1 OVERVIEW
Proportion, ratio and rate are taught in the Intermediate Phase. These topics are regarded as more advanced sections in the Intermediate Phase learning of mathematics. The words ``way of thinking'' imply not only that the learner should obtain and acquire knowledge, but also that the knowledge and skills should be such that they can influence his or her thinking processes. This statement places a great responsibility on a teacher, and it is clear that the reasoning required for ratio and proportion cannot be acquired in three weeks of teaching these concepts. The content of this chapter guides you, the teacher, as you teach concepts and skills related to proportion and ratio. I would like to advise you to teach the work in this chapter over time. Start with informal activities to develop proportional reasoning. Give your learners these problems to do on a Friday or, for example, the last week of the term. The problems might encourage them to think and will hopefully assist your teaching.

b
56

Activity 19.1 Overview . Scan the chapter. Note that the first section deals with the different concepts and how learners reason about proportion. . The next section includes activities to develop proportional reasoning and ways of teaching learners to solve proportions. . Finally, percent and proportion are linked.

b b

Activity 19.2 Proportion, ratio and rates STUDY-READ the section on proportional reasoning. . Write down the meaning of each of the following concepts: proportion ratio solving a proportion rate

. Link your knowledge to the statements made under ``Big Ideas'' (Van de Walle 2007:353)

Activity 19.3 Proportional reasoning (p 355) STUDY-READ . Study the ideas that are outlined they will give you some direction on how to help your learners develop proportional thought processes. . Then study the rest of the section based on proportional reasoning and the guidance given on how to teach these ideas.

19.2 INFORMAL ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP PROPORTIONAL REASONING

The following three categories of activities are discussed in this section: . selection of equivalent ratios . scaling or table activities . construction and measurement activities The activities given in the textbook should be studied carefully.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 19.4 Activities to develop proportional reasoning STUDY-READ . Study the activities selected under each of the given categories. . Select one example of each kind and make sure that you understand why this activity was grouped into this category.

57

19.3 SOLVING PROPORTIONS

Here is an example of a proportion containing an unknown value and a method to solve the proportion in order to find the value of the unknown. The price of a box of two dozen sweets is R4,80. John wants to buy five sweets. What will he have to pay? The ratio of sweets to money is given as 24 sweets to R4,80. The ratio of the sweets bought by John to the price of the sweets is the same as the first ratio: 5 sweets to Rx. If 24 sweets cost 480c 1 sweet will cost 20c and 5 sweets bought by John will cost 20c 6 5 = R1,00. Finding the unknown value in the proportion is called solving the proportion.

Activity 19.5 Solving proportions STUDY-READ the section based on the solution of proportions (p 366). . Different methods are suggested. Select the method that you prefer. . I prefer not to introduce cross-multiplication to learners in the Intermediate Phase because the algorithm can lead to mistakes made in later years when equations in algebra should be solved. . I prefer to go to a unit rate and use this knowledge to solve the proportion. But, as mentioned before, you are advised to select the method you prefer in the same way as your learners should be allowed to select theirs.

19.4 PERCENT PROBLEMS AS PROPORTIONS

The concept of percent is linked to the concept of proportion. The integration of related ideas is an excellent example of the network of ideas that increases understanding.

b
58

Activity 19.6 Percent and proportions STUDY-READ this section on page 370. Note the way in which a line segment is used to enhance and simplify the actual calculations to solve the proportions. Also note the role of equivalent fractions.

CHAPTER 20
DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . help the young learner develop measurement concepts and skills . discuss the teaching of the concepts and skills relating to length, from the reception year to a stage where the learners can use a ruler with confidence . use the knowledge gained in the first part of the chapter to teach the skills and knowledge needed for measurement of area volume and capacity weight and mass angles

. show that you appreciate the amount of time spent on concept development in this topic . know when and how to introduce formal formulae to your learners . be able to help learners with time and clock reading

20.1 OVERVIEW
In the RSA, many adults and school learners lack the basic knowledge and skills necessary for successful measurement. The reasons for this is the following: . They have never learnt to estimate quantities. . They lack the basic knowledge of standard units of measurement and their use. For example, very few adults or learners can explain the mass of 1 gram. . They do not link the correct unit of measurement to the ``quantity'' needed to be measured. For example, they do not link square centimetre to the measurement of area. When asked what a unit for measurement of area is, many learners will answer that it is a centimetre. Fortunately, the teaching of the concepts and skills relating to measurement involves real-life situations which can make the teaching and learning of these great fun.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 20.1 Overview SKIMMING: Read through the first part of the chapter on pages 375 to 378 quickly. This section forms the basis of the rest of the work in the chapter.

59

20.2 THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF MEASURING

In order to measure successfully, you should perform three basic steps: . Decide on the attribute to be measured (decide what should be measured length, volume, area, etc). . Select the unit that has that attribute (select the unit that can be linked to what should be measured by using a rough estimation). . Do the measurement using the selected unit of measurement by using the skill of comparison.

20.3 DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS AND SKILLS

20.3.1 A GENERAL PLAN OF INSTRUCTION
A general plan to teach measurement concepts and skills is discussed in this section. The plan discussed in the textbook probably did not even feature when you were first introduced to skills and the concepts of measurement at school. The plan for measurement instruction given on page 376 is very important. Study the table 20.1 given on p 376. Base all your teaching of measurement on the steps described in this table.

Activity 20.2 General plan of instruction STUDY-READ the general plan of instruction. Use the following framework to summarise the main ideas:
General plan of instruction
"

Step 1: Teach the understanding of the attribute.

"

Suggested activity . Making comparisons

"

Step 2: Develop the understanding that the comparing of an attribute to a measuring unit produces a number called a measure.
"

60

Suggested activities: . Use informal units of measurement. Reasons for their use:

. Estimate the attribute. Why is it important?

Step 3: Learners will now use common measuring tools with understanding and flexibility.

" "

Suggested activities: . Make measuring instruments. Why? . Make a direct comparison between the learner-made tools and the standard tools. . Do estimation using the standard unit of measurement.

20.4 MEASURING LENGTH

The discussion of the teaching of these concepts is done in great detail. Note that the way in which the concepts were developed corresponds to the general plan of instruction given in the first part of the chapter. Also note how the teaching of the concepts differs from what happens in classrooms all over the country where the ruler or measuring tape is used as a starting point in the measurement of length. Proper concept development is of vital importance.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 20.3 Measurement of length SKIMMING: First read through this section (pp 378382) and compare the different steps used with the general plan of instruction. STUDY-READ the section. The main steps (headings) are given. Under each of these steps explain what is done in the step and write down one activity to illustrate the actions in each step.

20.5 MEASURING AREA

The steps discussed in the general plan of instruction are again followed when teaching the concepts of measurement and area.

61

Note the great range of activities linked to area in this section. The teaching of area and its measurement can be enjoyed by both the teacher and the learner.

Also note the clever use of triangles, tangram pieces, tiles and grids which enhances the learners' enjoyment while doing the activities.

Activity 20.4 Area . Read the section first to form an overall idea. . Read the section again and, where possible, do the given activities. (You should make yourself a tangram [shown in fig 20.8 on p 384].) . Note, again, that the general plan of instruction was followed. . Write down the headings. Under each heading, explain what is meant by the activities and write down one activity to illustrate the explanation.

20.6 MEASURING VOLUME AND CAPACITY

A description of volume refers to the ``size'' of a three-dimensional object (an object that has length, breadth and height) which can be described as the space occupied by the object. The capacity of a container can be described as the amount of liquid the container can hold. What then is the relationship between the volume and the capacity of an object? Study the picture below to help you understand the relationship between 1 cubic centimetre, 1 millilitre and 1gram (in the case of pure water).

Volume: 1 cubic cm

"

The space occupied by this 1 cubic centimetre cube is its volume: The unit of measurement for volume is a cubic centimetre.

The capacity of the small box (the one cubic cm cube) is 1 millilitre. It can hold 1 ml of water.

The mass of the pure water inside the small box is about 1 gram.

62

b b

Activity 20.5 Measuring volume and capacity . SKIMMING: Read through the section first (p 327328). . STUDY-READ the section. Pay attention to the general plan of instruction and write down the main ideas.

20.7 MEASURING WEIGHT AND MASS

Before you can teach the relevant concepts, you should be familiar with the difference between mass and weight. Weight is a measure of the pull or force of gravity on the object. I prefer to confine my attention to mass and to give a comprehensive account of the related concepts and skills. Let the science teacher work with gravity and its forces.

Activity 20.6 Weight and mass SKIMMING: Read through the section. If you keep your discussion exclusively to mass, you will avoid confusion. STUDY-READ and compare the material with the steps mentioned in the general plan and write your own notes.

20.8 MEASURING ANGLES

Note that, once again, the author advises us to follow the three steps suggested for instruction. I agree with the following statement about the use of a protractor to measure the size of an angle (Van de Walle 2007:393): ``The protractor is one of the most poorly understood measuring instruments found in schools, and yet it is commonly and frequently used. Part of the difficulty arises because the units (degrees) are so small. It would be physically impossible to cut out a single degree and use it.''

b
PST201F/1

Activity 20.7 Measuring angles . First read the section quickly. . Read the section again and, where possible, do the different activities. Make yourself a wax paper ``sixteen-wedge'' protractor and explain its use in an activity. (You will have to include this homemade protractor in your portfolio.) . Write down the main ideas in this section. Do you fully agree with the way in which the measurement of angles is

63

. taught? (I have a slightly different idea of how to teach these concepts and skills.) . Think about how you would teach these concepts and write down your own ideas.

Notes on activity 20.7

You have to write down a step-by-step plan on how to teach the measurement of angles. The skills and concepts necessary for successful measuring of angles are taught in the Intermediate Phase classroom. Read the following examination question. Then think about its answer. Compare your thinking to the limits given. A learner in grade 8 cannot measure the sizes of angles accurately. What do you think went wrong with the teaching and learning of these skills and concepts? How will you teach the measurement of an angle. Clearly state your step-bystep plan. Here are the hints to assist you with your answer: (1) Use real-life situations let your learners rotate their bodies to form different angles. Teach them concepts such as a rotation, a straight angle, a right angle, an acute angle, an obtuse and a reflex angle. (2) Use the rotation of the learners' bodies or the rotation of your own to guess the sizes of angles. Explain to them that a revolution is 3608, a straight angle is 1808 and a right angle is 908. Now proceed with what is done in your textbook, for example: . Use units of angular measure. . Make a protractor yourself, and so on.

20.9 INTRODUCING STANDARD UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

I will rewrite what the textbook says about standard units of measurement, bringing the information more into line with the standard units of measurement used in the RSA. Standard units of measurement can only be taught when the concepts of and skills in measurement itself are firmly in place. When teaching the concepts relating to standard units of measurement, the following broad goals should be identified: . Familiarity with the unit. When the learner encounters a standard unit of measurement, he or she should have a basic idea of its size. For example. If he or she encounters 1 litre as a standard unit of measurement, he or she should have a clear idea of this amount of liquid. (My own idea is linked to the amount of liquid in a two-litre coke bottle.)

64

Note: Without this association with a specific familiar unit of measurement, it is impossible to make any sense of the concept. This is the main reason why learners in our country cannot measure things meaningfully. . Choosing appropriate units. This is related to a person's familiarity with the unit. It is also linked to a kind of estimation and common sense. A lack of the skills needed to select the appropriate unit of measurement is another reason for the poor performance of learners in the RSA. . Knowledge of important relationships between units. Lengthy conversions from one unit to another are done in our schools, but the exercise serves no purpose because it is done in isolation and without real understanding on the part of the learners.

b b

Activity 20.8 Introducing standard units . Read through this section (p 394). . Then, in short sentences, write down the main ideas relating to the units of measurement used in South Africa.

20.10 ESTIMATING MEASURES

The importance of estimation involving measurement cannot be overemphasised. I wish to reiterate that a prerequisite for successful measurement is the skill of estimating the ``amount'' that should be measured. This section (based on estimation), once again features the importance of estimation and provides hints (tips) on how to teach these skills.

Activity 20.9 Estimation and measurement . SKIMMING: Read the section quickly (p 397). . STUDY-READ the different ideas and complete the following diagram:
Why estimate?

!
Estimation techniques used by skilled people

!
Tips on how to teach estimation skills

!
An activity (or activities) to help teach estimation skills

PST201F/1

65

20.11 DEVELOPING FORMULAS

The learning programmes for the learning area Mathematics in the RSA mainly define outcomes and assessment standards guiding the teaching of formulas in the Senior Phase. I would advise Intermediate Phase teachers to teach their learners all the skills and concepts necessary for understanding formulae, but to leave the teaching of the formulae themselves to Senior Phase teachers. Read what the textbook says about this in the section on common difficulties (p 399).

b b

Activity 20.10 Formulae . You are advised to read through this section on page 398. . This will give you an insight into what you should work towards when you plan activities in the Intermediate Phase, based on concepts necessary for the development of formulae.

20.12 MEASURING TIME

A unit of time is selected and used to ``fill'' the time to be measured. Time is also the duration of an event from its beginning to its end. Well-known units of time are minutes, hours, days and years. This section discusses the teaching of concepts related to time.

Activity 20.11 Measuring time STUDY-READ . Read through this section (p 390). . Write down the suggestions for helping a learner to understand clocks and how to read them. Use your own words. I am sure that one day you will return to this section for guidelines on how to teach these concepts in your own classroom.

66

CHAPTER 21
GEOMETRIC THINKING AND GEOMETRIC CONCEPTS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . indicate why the method we use to teach spatial learning should change drastically to adapt to the modern approach discussed in this study material . understand and apply the ``Van Hiele levels of geometric thought'' when teaching geometric concepts . explain why a study of geometric concepts and geometric thinking should start in the three-dimensional world . assess the thinking skills and geometric concepts of your learners

21.1 OVERVIEW
The work prescribed for this course, which is based on spatial learning (geometry), requires a great deal of reading. This material is new to the average reader and the method suggested for introducing learners to spatial concepts and thinking is also totally different from the way in which any of the adults in the RSA were taught. In order to understand the reasoning behind the teaching approach, you (as a student teacher) should understand the following: . A learner is born into a three-dimensional world. Therefore, if we take the constructivistic view of learning into consideration, we should start the teaching of spatial concepts and geometric thinking with three-dimensional objects (shapes). Can you think of an example of two-dimensional shape in nature? . In the past, geometric concepts such as a point, line, line segment et cetera were defined or described, and concepts were built on these concepts, which were learnt by the learner. There was no real understanding, and most of the descriptions and definitions were learnt by heart through memorising recipes which do not lead to meaningful learning. . In the past the findings of the Van Hiele husband and wife team (the Van Hiele levels of geometric thought) were not taken into consideration in the teaching of geometric thinking and concepts. . A study of the content of this study material will convince you that a hands-on approach to the teaching of these concepts is the only way to go about it. This was never explored before in South African schools.

PST201F/1

67

If you agree with the above statements, you will understand why most adults in this country found geometry extremely difficult and why only a few adults can apply basic geometrical knowledge in their everyday-life situations.

21.2 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

To fully understand the work done in this chapter and to apply it in your classroom, you need to do the following activities.

Activities 21.1 (1) The Van Hiele thought levels. All teachers in classrooms today must know about and base their teaching of geometry on these levels. STUDY-READ these levels and make sure that you understand every aspect of the work l. (2) Activities for each of the levels. You as a teacher must be able to identify the level of thought of a certain activity. To be really able to do this you, yourself, have to do all the activities given in this chapter. (3) Addressing different aspects of geometry. The work done in the sections on location, transformations and visualisation is crucial to mathematics teachers in the RSA. Refer to the Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards given at the end of this study guide all these concepts and skills are required by the Learning Outcomes. (4) Assessment. It is vital for all teachers to be able to assess the thought level of each of their learners. This knowledge will guide future teaching and learning. You must study the work in such a manner that you will be able to assess your learners' thought levels.

68

CHAPTER 22
EXPLORING CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY AND DATA ANALYSIS

After working through this chapter, you should be able to . explain the basic concepts of data analysis . present data in a variety of contexts

22.1 OVERVIEW
The public are bombarded with graphs and statistics in advertising, opinion polls, population trends, health risks, et cetera. To be able to deal with this information, learners should have the opportunity throughout their school careers to have informal yet meaningful experiences with the basic concepts involved. When next you study the outcomes in the learning area Mathematics defined for the Intermediate Phase and the Foundation Phase learner, you will notice that the basic concepts of probability, chance and statistics should be addressed. In your classroom you are advised to do different activities based on the basic concepts. The reasons for this are that the activities can easily be linked to real-life situations known to the learner and that learners find doing these activities an enjoyable experience. Many South African teachers have not yet heard about . . . . cluster graphs box-and-whisker plots Stem-and-leaf plots and so on

All these representation forms are addressed in this chapter.

b
PST201F/1

Activity 22.1 Overview SKIMMING: Quickly read through the chapter. Note the following while you skim: . the introduction to the concepts . the material used to develop these concepts . the graphic representation of data

69

22.2 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS

Once data have been gathered, what do we do with them? We represent them in different ways to make them more accessible to us. Once a graph has been constructed, what do you do with it? We deduce information from it. The answers to these questions can be found in this section of the chapter.

Activity 22.2 Graphic representation STUDY-READ this section (p 458). Note the unique way in which the author involves the learner in the learning process.
Whenever necessary, use the rest of the chapter as reference material. Teachers in South Africa are expected to teach all the concepts discussed in this chapter to learners in the Foundation Phase, Intermediate Phase and the Senior Phase.

70

CHAPTER 23
EXPLAINING CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY

g b b
PST201F/1

After working through this chapter you should be able to . define and teach concepts related to chance and probability . explain the difference between experimental and theoretical probability . compute theoretical probabilities for independent and dependent events

23.1 OVERVIEW
When you study the learning outcomes and assessment standards defined for the Intermediate Phase you will notice that you have to teach concepts and skills related to probability. Learners in our country find the concepts and skills related to probability difficult. This is because these concepts are not addressed from grade R: the learner encounters these concepts for the first time in grade 6.

Activity 23.1 SKIMMING: Read through the chapter. Note the activities suitable for young learners.

23.2 PROBABILITY
The content of this course covers a wide range of mathematical concepts and skills. You will have to use this chapter as a resource, and to refer to it in the future whenever you need to teach concepts relating to chance and probability.

Activity 23.2 For handy use of this chapter for reference purposes, you need to study-read it in such a manner that you can define the following concepts. Write down the explanations or definitions of the following: . . . . . . . . chance probability probability on a continuum theoretical and experimental probability sample space independent events dependent events simulations

71

CHAPTER 24
DEVELOPING CONCEPTS OF EXPONENTS, INTEGERS AND REAL NUMBERS

g b

This chapter pertains to the Senior Phase, especially grades 8 and 9. After working through this chapter, you should be able to describe the following concepts: . . . . . . exponents representation of large numbers: scientific notation integers operations with integers rational numbers real numbers for example roots

Activity 24.1 STUDY-READ the work in this chapter to familiarise yourself with these concepts. Pay special attention to the new approaches to the teaching and learning of these concepts. To what extent do these methods differ from or correspond to the way in which you were taught? Do you feel that these approaches would prove more successful? Substantiate your answer.

72

APPENDIX A

PST201F/1

Learning outcomes and assessment standards for grades 4 to 9 Learning Outcome 1: Numbers, Operations and Relationships

73

74

PST201F/1

75

Learning Outcome 2: Patterns, functions and Algebra

76

Learning Outcome 3: Space and shape

PST201F/1

77

78

Learning Outcome 4: Measurement

PST201F/1

79

80

PST201F/1

Learning Outcome 5: Data Handling

81

82

PST201F/1

Learning Outcome 1: Numbers, Operations and Relationships

83

84

PST201F/1

85

Learning Outcome 2: Patterns, functions and Algebra

86

PST201F/1

87

88

PST201F/1

Learning Outcome 3: Space and shape

89

90

Learning Outcome 4: Measurement

PST201F/1

91

92

Learning Outcome 5: Data handling

PST201F/1

93

94

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Department of Education. 2003 Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R9 (Schools). Mathematics. Pretoria: Department of Education. Van der Walle, JA. 2007. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally. Boston: Pearson Education.

PST201F/1

95