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INTRODUCTION
PBL session 3 is focus on how systems design construction and implementation and also system maintenance. En. Kurniadi was make unofficial discussion during lunch with branch manager who is En. Badrol Isham. They was discuss how long it take to develop a system from scratch, what are the elements that need to design and what they should do if there is an ad-hoc change to the system. How long it takes to develop a system from scratch depends on how big is the system. The larger the project the longer it take to finish the project. Besides that, to design the project, we need to know what the information systems element needs to be design. For example input, output, user interface, database, network, program and control. This is to ensure the element design is most suitable for the company need. To implement the propose system, many activities involve, for example, selecting and training system users, site preparation and installing new computer equipment, file conversion and system conversion. Once the new system has been implemented, we must make post implementation review to ensure that the new system operates as planned. Once construction and implementation is done, the new information system is operating. Systems are often used for many years and technologies improve from time to time. So, the system must be well maintained. If not there are problems with its operation.

QUESTION 1

Page |2 You need to explain to Encik Badrol Isham what are characteristics of bad systems in order for him to detect if something is wrong with the current or new systems? Firstly, in order to avoid bad characteristic of the system there have to know what the important feature of producing the quality system. From the characteristic of quality information system Encik Badrol Isham can know what are the characteristic of bad system in order to detect something is wrong with the current or new system are happened when recorded the data such as data captured inaccurately, the data are not flexible, the decision made are outside the information get (relevance), reliability of the data got, understandability of the users and comparability. A quality system is to ensure that the data entered are accurate and it provides accurate output in order to use the system. The data can become relevance when the data got can influence the decision of the user. To be relevant, information must be available in time, must help in prediction, and help in feedback. The decision made may be effect when the data get are wrong which can affect all the decision made for the system. A good system is flexible which they can easily maintained and be an efficient

especially in its use of human effort in providing fast response, efficient input and output, efficient storage of data and efficient use of computer resource. It can become vice versa when the system are not flexible where its difficult to maintain in order to do any correction on the system immediately. In many circumstances, the ability to switch from one system to another requires full commitment from the users to participate in the implementation of the new system. Users within an organization may not be ready to switch to another system if they feel difficult to understand and of which they have very limited information of. All users become worried when the organizations suddenly change the existing system to the new system and sophisticated system. So they may feel insecure and think that their services will not be needed any more if they fail to comply with the new challenge. This can be seen, when a new system doesnt not provide a detailed guideline about the system which make the user feel underestimate in order to use the system. A good system also have to be friendly user where its easy to use, easy to learn and easy to understand. Furthermore, the data also is said to be reliable where it is free from error and bias and faithfully represents what it seeks to represent. The data must be believed and depended upon by the users for a given purpose. The system also should be well documented, otherwise it would difficult to learn, use and maintain by all user.

Page |3 The bad system also may arise when a new system cannot achieve a user need such as cannot record same as manual recording. To be comparable, the data must belong to periods which use common unit measurement and common format of recording. If the new system doesnt tally with the current recording it may give a problem to the users in doing their job. A system also may turn to bad system when the system cannot identify the reliability of the data. The data must free from any errors or bias which in fact it may be dependent and believe upon by the user for a given purpose. To ensure the data is reliable, it must be verifiable, neutral and faithful in representing the economic condition. A system also have to analyzed and identify what are the error before proceed to next program.

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QUESTION 2
You need also to explain in detail to Encik Badrol Isham what are the information systems elements that need to be designed? The information system elements that need to be design are: 1. Input Design Input facilitates the entry of data into the computer system. Input design involves the selection of the best strategy for getting data into the computer system at the right time and as accurately as possible. This is because the most difficult aspect of input design is accuracy. Input design must capture all the data that the system needs without introducing any errors. Input errors can be greatly reduced when inputting directly by using appropriate forms for data capture and well designed computer screen layout. There are two approach for getting data into the computer system which are paper-base input and paperless input. Paper-base input used Paper document in all aspects of business for collecting, storing and calculating information. Many business processes still make use of paper forms and then keying the data into the computer system. For example, the expense claims forms are completed by hand and then submitted to the accounting department where they are entered into the computer system in batches. Document must be easy to fill up. Document should flow from left to right and top to bottom and observe the seven main sections which are heading, control, instructions, body, authorization, totals and comments. Grouping logically related data together can make it easy for user to fill up the document correctly. Instructions to fill up the document should be placed in a convenient location, preferably not on the back of the document. To encourage people to complete document, the documents should be attractive. Document should not be cluttered and the information are in the expected order. Document should appear organized and logical after they are filled up. In design documents, En Badrol Isham can use simple prototyping tools such as the worksheet software for example the Microsoft EXCEL to make very realistic documents. He also can use a laser printer to produce excellent printout of the document prototype. Besides that, paperless input means capturing the data in an electronic format at its original source or as close to the original source as possible. The order of the information from data source should match the natural flow of information on document. Data entry document screen should match paper forms used to initially capture the data. It is important to

Page |5 minimize keystrokes in paperless input system to reduce input error. By reducing input error, En Badrol Isham will able to increase the quality of output. The computer system must be able to perform calculation without requiring user to manually calculate the data. A system should not require a user to key in information that can be selected from a list since it can retrieve existing data instead of re-entering it. Screen should be kept simple and consistent by dividing the screen into three section which is heading, body and comments and instructions. Visual attractiveness of the screen design is very important in order to maintain the interest of the users and providing them with easy understanding of the menu that they have to choose in selecting information that they need. Providing preformatted screen that will guide user on how to enter the data, defining the acceptable length of each of the data field and often dictating the format of certain fields are also important features of a good screen design. A good screen design should have a title that uniquely identifies this screen from all the other types of screens. There should also be an indication if there is more than one page of several pages needed to complete the transaction. Online prompting is a feature which will ask the user for input or ask questions that the user must answer. After entering all the input data for a particular customer sales order, En Badrol Isham might be presented with three options which is accept the completed screen, edit the completed screen or reject the completed screen. By forcing the user to stop and accept the order, online prompting is in a sense advising En Badrol Isham to check the data entries before moving on. 2. Output Design Output is the report that the information system produce on screen or on paper or in other media such as the internet. Output is the most visible part of any information system because a primary reason for using an information system is to access the information that it produces. The goal of the output is to present information to users so that they can accurately understand the output with the least effort. Output can be classified into two common categories for example external and internal output. Example of external output include monthly bills or statements. This output leave the boundary of the system and are normally generated on preprinted paper forms. A commonly used external output is the turnaround document. It leaves the system as output and reenters the system later as an input. The turnaround portion contains information about the customer and serves to ensure that the accompanying payment is applied to the correct account.

Page |6 Internal outputs are managerial reports used primarily for decision making. Internal reports can be classified by content for example detailed report, exception report and summary report. A detailed report is used to present information with minimum filtering. An example of detailed report is a list of pay cheques to be generated for a given payroll period. An exception report is an internal report that shows filtered information intended to report a specific condition. An exception report is used when the user need not know all the detail. For example report related to overdue customer accounts allowing user to focus on those accounts that require immediate attention. A summary report is normally generated for the use of upper level management who are often concerned with totals and do not want to see all the supporting detail. Report should include only information that are relevant to the intended recipient. Report must also be made available on time to the recipient so that effective decision can be made and prompt action taken. The presentation format of output has an effect on its usefulness to the user. The tabular method organizes information into row and columns. Zoned method organizes output into predetermined zone on paper or computer screen. The narrative method presents information using conventional sentences and paragraphs. Graphs or charts are used in addition to tabular, zoned and narrative methods. Many graph display form are bar charts, line charts and scatter graphs. Graphs and charts should be appropriately titled indicating and labelling any scales and include legends to explain shapes or characters. A prototyping tool help design output is the Microsoft EXCEL software. Hardcopy output A printed report should supply its user with necessary information in a readable format. When designing printed report, we need to consider the report functional and stylistic attributes. Functional attributes The functional attributes of a printed report include heading or title, page number, date of preparation, column headings and grouping of related data items. Stylistic attributes Printed report should be well organized, from top to bottom and left to right. Related items should be grouped together. Draw attention to summaries and other important information by boxing them off with special characteristics such as asterisks or extra spaces. This makes it easier to find critical information. Avoid printing out long unbroken columns of information. Additional blank spaces between columns also contribute to the readability of a report.

Page |7 Printed reports also require ample margins on the right and left as well as on top and bottom. This help to focus the users attention on the material centred on the page and make reading easier. Other stylistic attributes are the use of colour, organizational logos and graphics. Softcopy output Screen output is increasingly popular with client-server technology. Screen output can be viewed from any location that allows access to database. It offers real-time editing and changes. A user can view a report within moments of requesting it. Screen output is good where output generated is intended to provide information at a particular moment in time and does not require a long-term storage. Another advantage is that we can avoid generating and storing redundant and out-of-date printouts. 3. User Interface Design User interface establishes dialogues, two-way communication between users and the computer system. The basic structure of graphical user interface is provided either by the computer operating system or the internet browser. The goal of user interface design is to make the system acceptable and as user friendly as possible to the users. The common user interfaces are menus, prompts (question & answers) and templates. A menu system presents the user with a set of actions and requires the user to select one of them. Once an action is selected and the command executed, another menu is presented. The computer asks the user to select whether to enter a name, an address or a telephone number. After one of these actions is selected, the computer will ask the user to select another set of actions and so on. The actions are selected by typing in a number rather than entering the actual name. This save keystroke and makes the system simpler to use. Graphical user interface menu include pull-down and cascading menu, tear-off and pop-up menu, hypertext and hyperlink menu. Customer Details Enter Your Selection Select one of the following: 1 Enter name 2 Enter address 3 Enter phone number

Menu method

A prompt system asks the user for specific input. On getting the input, the computer may respond with some information or ask the user for more information. This process continues

Page |8 until all the data has been entered into the computer or retrieved by the user. The computer first asks the user for the customers name. After keying in the customers name, the computer asks the user for the address. Then it asks the user to enter the telephone number. This style is used to supplement the menu method. What is the customers name? En Kamal What is the address of En Kamal? No 21, Damansara Perdana What is the phone number of En Kamal?

Prompt method

Templates are equivalent to documents on a computer. A document is presented on the screen. The user is requested to fill in the documents. Several labelled fields are provided and user enters data into the blank spaces. User interacts with the computer by browsing through or entering data on electronic documents. The template should include understandable organized headings and titles and should be logically grouped together to facilitate entry of data. The template should also allow user to move from field to field in a logical intuitive sequence. The advantage that templates have menu or prompt is that data are entered with fewer screens. Enter Customer Details Name: Address: Phone Number: Are all entries correct (Y/N)? Template method

The success of a user interaction can be enhanced by designing effective feedback features such as indicating the user whether a task is completed or not completed, telling the user what to do next, telling the user that data has been entered correctly or not and providing error message. Messages are the way in which the system responds to user and informs him or her of the status of the interaction. Messages should be clear, concise and complete. All message should be grammatically correct and free of jargon and abbreviations. Message should require the user to acknowledge them by clicking rather than being displayed for a few

Page |9 seconds and then disappear once the delay has passed. During user interaction, users need to be assured that the system is successfully processing by displaying system status indicator. The computer system should display appropriate messages when a process is still in operation. If the report producing process takes longer than a few seconds to execute, then the screen need to display a progress indicator in addition to the next message or the hourglass. There are many different types of messages, such as error messages, confirmation messages, acknowledgement messages, delay messages and help messages. Message should always explain the problem of what the user did not do correctly and corrective action as clearly and as explicitly as possible so that the user knows exactly what needs to be done. Online help screens display a window of text that explain concepts, procedures, menu choices, function keys, formats and so on. User typically request help in one of two ways by pressing a special key usually one of the function keys or by clicking a command button, toolbar button or menu option designated for that purpose. Help information is typically presented in two different ways. With context-sensitive help, the information presents information relevant to what the user is doing when the help is requested. A menu can also be displayed whenever a user requests help. The purpose of the help feature is to guide us through a complex process by presenting a sequence of dialogues boxes. 4. Database Design A database is a central source of data meant to be shared by many users for a variety of applications. For example, the sales department, shipping department and billing department might all need the customers name and address. In a fully integrated system, this information can be entered into the system once in the credit department. It could then be accessed by sales department for generating orders, shipping department for shipping to the correct address and billing department for generating invoices. The database types include the hierarchical, network, relational, object-oriented and object-relational. Hierarchical and network database are considered old technologies due to the fact that they offer limited data access and are not very flexible. A relational database is one that allows tables to be related to each other so that changes in one table are reflected in other tables automatically. A table is a collection of related information. Tables contain records that have the same field types. A record is the

P a g e | 10 information relating to the one person, product or event. A field is the discrete piece of information in a record. An example of relational database is Microsoft ACCESS. With database software, user create a computerized database such as add, change and delete data in the database, sort and retrieve data from the database and create forms and reports from the data in the database. Database software contains a data definition language (DDL) to create and populate database and describe the logical views of the user. DDL is used in conjunction with a data dictionary which is part of the database software that keeps track of every data field in the database, how they are formatted into different types of records and how the record types are integrated. Database software also includes programs called data manipulation language (DML) for inserting, deleting and updating the database. Data query language (DQL) is use to perform retrieving, sorting, ordering and presenting the database in response to user queries. Accessing the DDL and DML should be restricted to employees with administrative and programming responsibilities to help limit the number of people who have the capability to make changes to the database. To design database, we must first determine the purpose of the database. After that, identify the entities, determine the relationships among the entities and draw the Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD). There are three steps in drawing an ERD. First, identify the entities. Second, add diamonds to represent important relationships between the entities and the last step is specifying the associations of these relationships. Besides that, there are three steps in converting the ERD into relational database. First is to create tables for each entity, second is to identify attributes for each table and third is to normalize the table. 5. Network Design The purpose of network design is to facilitate communications, share hardware, share data and information, share software and transfer funds. In order to enable fast and effective decision to be made at each user department, they must be tied together within the organizational framework by communication technologies. This is to enable subsystems to interact with other subsystem and share files or processing facilities with other subsystems. With the efficiency and power of the internet, many organizations apply internet technologies to their own internal networks. An intranet is an internal network that uses the internet technologies making the organizations information accessible to employees and facilitates working in groups. Besides that, an extranet is similar to an intranet except that it design for facilitating communications between two or more business partners. For example, shipping

P a g e | 11 companies will be able to allow their customers to access their intranets to print schedule pickups and even trace shipped goods as the goods travel to their destinations. Designing network require a long financial approval period because of high costs. En Badrol Isham need to perform a cost-benefit analysis on the network infrastructure of an organization. To evaluate network, En Badrol Isham must consider the functional capabilities and limitation, ease of use, compatibility, maintainability, basic connection topology which is the configuration of a network, star topology which is interconnect many nodes through a central computer system say a server, ring topology which is each node is connected to the adjacent node in a circular fashion, bus topology which is the data transmission from one node is sent to every node in the network and the last is hybrid topology which is a pure form of any of the three basic topologies is seldom found in practice. There are two types of communication channels. First is wired channels. This channel use physical wires or cables to transmit information. Three types of wired channels are twisted pair which is made from copper and twisted in pairs. It is used for voice and text information transmission. Second is coaxial which is made from copper but offers higher transmission speed than twisted pair. Coaxial not only can transmit voice and text information, it can also transmit image and video. Third is fibre optic cable which is made of thousands of very thin filaments of fibreglass and use light as a digital information carrier. The second type of communication channels is wireless channels. In this cannel, each computer has a tiny radio transmitter connected to its network port so that it can send and receive data through the air. There are two major types of network which are Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN). LAN is a network that interconnects computers and communication devices within an office or series of offices, distance between few hundred meters. The part of the network are linked by or wireless devices rather than via telecommunication lines. WAN is a network that interconnects sites located across states, countries or continents. The internet is a WAN, the foundation of the world wide information superhighway.

Use of devices in interconnecting network

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6. Program Design Design program require the specification of application logic to be written interacting between the component modules of the programs. There are several program design tools to aid in the software development which is structure diagram and pseudocode. In structure diagram, the program design starts with the DFDs produced in the systems design phase. A DFD may be used to create a Structure Diagram by indicating the sequence of the modules and the modules subordinate to a higher module. The structure diagram is primarily a tool for the internal use of the information system department. It shows the structure of a program by showing independent modules and the relationships among the modules in a hierarchy manner. The details of each of the module in Structure Diagram are documented in the form of pseudocode. It is in word form. It fits somewhere between structured English and actual programming. The statements used in pseudocode will often depend on the programming language which will eventually be used to develop the system. 7. Control Design The purpose of system control is to make sure that data is input, processed and output correctly and also to prevent fraud and tampering off the computer system. System controls encompass three main areas which are data security, data control and contingency planning. Data security is controls to safeguard computer hardware and software. The unauthorized access of data may result in material loss such as embezzlement of funds. A security feature such as passwords can help prevent security breaches. Different passwords are required by different users and possibly for different operations even for the same user. Encryption is use to encode so that copies of data cannot be made, taken to another computer and accessed. Encryption is to make unauthorized data unreadable and interpretable. Logging of all system users and what information, files and equipment they use is a detection method of the security system.

P a g e | 13 Data control is a quality control measure to ensure the accuracy of data entering into the system. For data to be acceptable, they must be authorized, recorded, processed and reported accurately in accordance with management policies. Processing controls ensure that data are complete, valid and accurate when being processed and those programs have been properly executed. Contingency planning lays down the procedures to be followed before, during and after an emergency. It is to ensure continuity of operations and availability of critical computing resources in the event of an emergency. The contingency plan should be written out so that it will be effective in case of emergency. It should be kept in a safe place, copies given to all key managers and the plan should be audited periodically.

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Question 3
The implementation team wishes to ensure that the users find the new information systems easy to use and that managers extensively use the enquiry and reporting facilities. What are the activities done in the implementation phase? The objective of the implementation phase is to convert the existing system to the new system. The implementation phase covers the activities of selecting and training system users, site preparation and installing new computer equipment, file conversion and system conversion. Firstly is selecting and training system users. Every new system requires new skills either because the basic work processes have changed sometimes radically. This is the case of business process reengineering where the computer system used to support the processes is radically different. The more the changes are made to the business processes, the more important it is to ensure the organization has the new skills required to operate the new business processes and supporting information systems. Every training plan must consider who to train and how to deliver the training. Training is the process by which the system users are taught to use a system. Training must help the users understand how the computer fits into the bigger picture of their jobs. Training should also focus on what the user need to do, not what the system can do. Training should focus on the much smaller set of activities that users perform on a regular basis and ensure that they are truly expert in those areas. The most common approach on how to train is the classroom training in which many users are trained at the same time by the same instructor. It is also possible to provide oneto-one training in which the trainer works closely with one user at a time. This approach is typically used only when the users are very important or when there are very few users. Another approach is the computer-based training in which the training program is delivered via computer whether on disks or over the Internet. Computer-based training programs can include slides, audio and even video and animation. This program is more costly to develop but inexpensive to deliver because no instructor is needed to actually provide the training. The importance of adequate training cannot be overemphasized. If users are not trained, they may simply ignore the new system. Therefore considerable attention should be devoted to user training. In some cases, new employees may be recruited and trained. Sometimes existing employees are trained to work with the new system.

P a g e | 15 Second activities are site preparation and installing new computer equipment. New systems sometimes require new equipment, furniture and construction of new facilities such as electrical wiring, air conditioning and lighting. Most large computers require controlled environment that keep humidity and temperature within specified ranges. Other requirements include specialized security features such as the use of specialized fire extinguishing system or even video monitoring system. If a new system requires replacing the existing computers with more powerful ones, the old computers will be unplugged and removed and the new ones are installed in their place. Site preparation is very minimal in this case. If a local area net work is to be installed in the office for the first time, site preparation is going to be quite a major event. Third activities are file conversion. No system changeover can take place until the database comes into existence. For example, no inventory control system can be introduced until a database containing records of all products has been created. The database needs to be populated with the existing data from the old system. It is necessary to verify that the converted data is accurate. The converted data should be tested at different stages of the conversion process. A complete backup of the old system and application and data should be done in case if you need to review some old data. The new system should be reconciled with the old system to confirm the accuracy of the conversion. If there are incorrect data item, they must be corrected. If the old computerized system has exporting capabilities, the data can be exported. If there is no exporting capability, the programmer would have to write a conversion program to extract data from the old system database and convert these databases into the new system format. The data can then be input into the new system. When a manual system is computerized, the data need to be keyed into the database of the new system. Conversion can be expensive and time-consuming effort. This is especially true in the case of converting manual files to computerized files. It is often necessary to do data screening after entering the information into the computer as errors tend to occur at the data entry stage. There are several problem of file conversion which is compatibility. Compatibility between systems is not just a matter of whether one system file is compatible to another system file. It may extend to matters such as different coding that the system used, different formats or even different field sizes. There is also danger of potential loss or corruption of data during the conversion process. Depending on the extent of the loss, this could mean a

P a g e | 16 small amount re-keying, or worse, permanent loss valuable information. Full backup should be done at the start of the conversion process and continued during the process until the conversion is completed. Another problem is space shortage to accommodate the combined data. Combining data takes space that can lead to slower computer response time. This can be resolved by taking into account future growth of the organization. Access to data must not suffer. Users now have to access information from a much larger pool. The system must be designed in such a way that the users do not have to wade through the large amount of data that is irrelevant to then to find what they need. Once data have been merged, the organization faces the task of ensuring that they are secured. A system failure would now mean a complete failure of the whole system rather than at most just one path. Last activity is system conversion. The implementation continues to bring the new system into use. The process of converting the old system to the new one is also called cutover. Systems conversion is often very stressful and confusing for all concerned. During this time, users are often doing double work, trying to perform their regular jobs and simultaneously coping with the new system. The conversion should be properly planned and alternative procedures specified in the event that new system should fail to function fully. There are several methods of cutover. The cutover selection will depend upon a number of factors particularly the extent of change being introduced. Other factors that need to be considered are the urgency of getting the new system operational, the risk that can be expected in the conversion and the resources that may be expanded in the process. The three cutover method are parallel, direct and phased. First method under system conversion are parallel cutover. This is the most conservative cutover method. It involves running the new system in parallel with the old system until all users are satisfied with the new system results. All transaction are processed by both systems. The results of operations based on the two systems are compared. Ant differences will probably indicate problems in the new system. Parallel cutover minimizes the risk of the new system inadequacies. However, it nearly doubles the costs of performing the function during the conversion period. Second method are direct cutover. At other extreme, use of the old system will be terminated as soon as the new system is brought into operation. This incurs the greatest risk but minimize the cutover costs of the new system performs to specifications. The direct

P a g e | 17 method though relatively inexpensive, ahs the distinct disadvantage of allowing possible major problem that can impair actual operations of the company. Last method are phased cutover. With phase cutover, implement the new system in pieces or modules. By phasing in the new system in modules, you reduce the risk of system failure. However, this method can create incompatibilities between new subsystem and yetto-be replaced old subsystem. A major disadvantage is that this method can extend implementation of the new system for too long to be practical.

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QUESTION 4
Conversion is the process of changing from the old to the new systems. Many elements must be converted. The process is completed when the new systems has become a routine, ongoing part of the system. Explain what are the problems that associated with the file? There are several problems faced in attempting in order to merge data originally stored separately. The first problem is compatibility. Compatibility between systems is not just a matter of whether on e system file is compatible to another system file. It may extend to matters such as different coding that the system used, different formats or even different field sizes. There is also a danger of potential loss or corruption of data during the conversion process. Depending on the extent of the loss, this could mean a small amount of re-keying, or worse, permanent loss of valuable information. Full backup should be done at the start of the conversion process and continued during the process until the conversion is completed. Another problem is space shortage to accommodate the combined data. Combining data takes space that can lead to slower computer response time. This can be resolved by taking into account future growth of the organization. Access to data must not suffer. Users now have to access information from a much larger pool. The system must be designed in such a way that the users do not have to wade through the large amount of data that is irrelevant to them to find what they need. Once the data have been merged, the organization faces the task of ensuring that they are secured. A system failure would now mean a complete failure of the whole system rather than at most just one part.

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QUESTION 5
Explain what is meant by phases cutover, parallel cutover and direct cutover? Cutover is a process of converting the old system to the new system. There are three cutover method which are phases cutover, parallel cutover and direct cutover. The first method is phases cutover, which this method require users to implement the new system in pieces or modules. By phasing the new system in modules, it can reduce the risk of system failure. However, this method can create incompatibilities between new subsystem and yet-to-be replaced old subsystem. A major disadvantage is that, this method can extend implementation of the new system for too long to be practical. The second method is parallel cutover, which this method is the most conservative cutover method. It involves running the new system in parallel with the old system until all users are satisfied with the new system results. All transactions are processed by both systems. The results of operations based on the two systems are compared. Any differences will probably indicate problems in the new system. Parallel cutover minimizes the risk of new system inadequacies. However, it nearly doubles the costs of performing the function during the conversion period. Lastly direct cutover. At the other extreme, use of the old system will be terminated as soon as the new system is brought into operation. This incurs the greatest risk but minimizes the cutover costs if the new system performs to specifications. The direct method though relatively inexpensive, has the distinct disadvantage of allowing possible major problems that can impair actual operations of the company.

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QUESTION 6
Explain why the system was never run in parallel? The system was never run in parallel because it nearly doubles the costs of performing the function during the conversion period even though it minimizes the risk as well.

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QUESTION 7
Explain factors to be consider when selecting cut-over approaches. The implementation continues to bring the new system into use. The process of converting the old system to the new one is also called cutover. Systems conversion is often very stressful and confusing for all concerned. During this time, users are often doing double work, trying to perform their regular jobs and simultaneously coping with the new system. The conversion should be properly planned and alternative procedures specified in the event that the new system should fail to function fully. There are several methods of cutover. The cutover selection will depend upon a number of factors particularly the extent of change being introduced. Other factors that need to be considered are urgency of getting the new system operational, the risk that can be expected in the conversion and the resources that may be expended in the process. The three cutover methods are parallel, direct and phased. Picture below shows the system cutover methods. SYSTEMS CUTOVER METHODS

Old

New

Direct Cutover Method

Old

New

Parallel Cutover Method

Phased Cutover Method

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Parallel cutover

This is the most conservative method. It involves running the new system in parallel with the old system until all users are satisfied with the new system results. All transactions are processed by both systems. The results of the operations based on the two systems are compared. Any differences will probably indicate problem in the new systems. Parallel cutover minimizes the risk of new system inadequacies. However, it nearly doubles the costs of performing the function during the conversion period. Direct cutover

At the other extreme, use of the old system will be terminated as soon as the new system is brought into operation. This incurs the greatest risk but minimizes the cutover cost if the new system performs to specifications. The direct method though relatively inexpensive, has the distinct disadvantages of allowing possible major problems that can impair actual operation of the company. Phased cutover

With phased cutover, we implement the new system in pieces or modules. By phasing in the new system in modules, we reduce the risk of the system failure. However, this method can create incompatibilities between new subsystems and yet-to-be replaced old subsystem. A major disadvantage is that this method can extend implementation of the new system for too long to be practical.

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QUESTION 8
Explain the role of accountants in post implementation review. The role of the accountant in a business environment has been evolving over the years. Besides traditional accounting knowledge, accountants need to possess other skills that are vital to their survival in an effective organization. Among those skills are knowledge sharing, the understanding of information systems design, systems development, and applications. One of the systems issues that accountants face is the post implementation review in the organization. Once the new system has been implemented, more work remains to be done. A post implementation review is necessary to ensure that the new system operates as planned. The purpose of a post implementation review is to assess the quality of the newly implemented system. Post implementation review verifies that the new system meets specified requirements which is hardware and software efficiency, end user objectives are end users satisfied and whether the new system achieves the anticipated benefits such as more current information are now available. In addition, post implementation review helps improve systems development practices for future systems in terms of cost, benefits and time estimate. Typical post implementation review includes: Accuracy, completeness and timeliness of output Quality and completeness of all documentation User satisfaction Adequate systems control and security measures Hardware and software efficiency Accuracy of cost, benefits and time estimate

The accountant should carry out, where appropriate, sufficient, timely follow-up work to verify that management action is taken to address weaknesses and manage risk effectively in post implementation review. Evaluate the adequacy of procedures and controls over input, processing and output to ensure that information captured is complete and accurate, information processing complies with required business rules, and information generated is accurate, reliable and timely.

P a g e | 24 When we conduct a post implementation review, we can interview management and key end users, observe end users actually working with the new system and examine all source documents, printed reports and screen displays. If we need opinions from a large number of users, questionnaires can be used to gather the opinions. We can always use the same information finding techniques as that we have used in doing preliminary investigation and system analysis. However, we do not review the new system right after implementation. Let the new system settle so that users have enough time to be able to use every aspect of the new system. The users should be pinpointing the new systems weaknesses and as part of the new systems developments team, we should be receptive to improvements suggested by users. Exactly when the best time to do post implementation review is would depend on the size and the complexity of the new system being implemented.

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QUESTION 9
Explain why maintaining a system is more difficult than developing a new system. Once implemented, the new information system is now in operation. Systems are often used for many years. Successful operation of a system requires that people and computers work together. If the hardware or software fails or people falter, systems operation may not be satisfactory. In a large complex system, there are thousands of things that can go wrong. Most organizations operate many systems simultaneously. It takes excellent management to make sure everything works consistently and to restrict and repair the damage when things go wrong. Systems must be well maintained. If a system is not well maintained or there are problems with its operation, the user will be forced to struggle with continual problems. Why systems maintenance is important? No system ever remain as originally designed. Overtime, amendments will be required. This may be because of changes by management, changes to deal with specific problems that rise in the operation of the system or simply improvements need to be done. Also almost any computer program contains some bugs. Bugs are computer programming errors that might have not been detected until the system actually begins operation. Maintenance is an ongoing activity, one that lasts the lifetime of the system. Monitoring are necessary adjustments so as to allow the computer to produce the expected results. Maintenance also includes making revisions and additions to the computer system. At times, the actual design of the system might require modification in some way. The most obvious reason that maintenance may be required is to correct errors in the software that were not discovered and corrected during the testing process. Usually a number of bugs in the new systems elude the testing process and for a large complex system, it may take years to discover and remove them. Another cause of maintenance is a need to enhance the system. Management may find there are a numbers of ways to improve the system. Small changes are usually treated as maintenance but large improvements may require additional development systems projects. Maintenance must be done for readymade software packages purchased from vendors. Maintenance is necessary as that for an internally built system with the additional responsibility of managing the vendor relationship. There should be fewer software bugs and

P a g e | 26 corrective maintenance needed since the software have already been installed and used by other organizations. With very large complex enterprise system, it is not unusual for the maintenance phase to require considerable effort and resources. It is often argued that maintaining systems is more difficult than developing them. To make changes, one must understand the system in some detail in order to change it. Organizations may have been maintaining systems running on various combinations of hardware and operating systems over the number of years of their operations. There may be a general lack of understanding of the systems as the development staff and systems users may have left the organization leaving no one left to explain how they work. The lack of understanding can be compounded by inadequate documentation or manuals lost over the years. Because systems are very complex, systems documentation is critical in providing the necessary level of understanding. This brings up another problem; the documentation must be changed when the system is changed. Otherwise the documentation will provide misleading information about the system rather than assisting in understanding it. Changes may also be required to adapt the system to changes in the environment like other systems, hardware, and software and government regulations. Who performs systems maintenance? For large computer systems that are designed in-house, a system analyst and a programmer may be given the responsibility for systems maintenance. With purchased software, the software vendor may agree with the customer to provide details of any new versions of the software packages and perhaps agree to provide a new version to replace the old one that the customer is using. It is very important that all changes to the system be formally reviewed and approved. Users should have the opportunity to make request for changes. A committee of managers and information system professionals should review these requests. Once the request has been approved, the information system professionals should work on the changes needed based on the urgency of the modification. After modification, the system should be reviewed very carefully and then installed preferably by an independent person. All modifications of the system must be properly documented. The systems modification documentation should approve the changes. These changes should be reflected in the user manuals. Strategies for Reducing Maintenance Cost

P a g e | 27 Over half of systems projects are due to maintenance. Yet maintenance is often neglected in the planning stage and allocated to less qualified staff when the need arises. The cost of maintaining some systems can be very high. These costs can be significantly reduced if consideration is given during the design phase as to how a system is going to be maintained. The first strategy for reducing maintenance costs is the use of structured analysis and design approach. Structured analysis and design will significantly reduce the problems of modifying the system. Structured analysis and design employs a variety of diagrams and documentation standards for describing the requirements of information systems. The structured approach involves users in developing the information system. This is advantageous since users are the people who will eventually use the new system hence the system must be built tailored to their requirements. Structured approach is effective in managing large complex information system. Programs developed using structured design benefit from their simplicity, reliability, readability, reusability and maintainability. For this reason it is useful during the requirements analysis phase and that the strategy helps reduce later maintenance costs. Good documentation is essential to good maintenance. Documentation is one of the most important aspects of system maintenance. However, most too often documentation is neglected as people do not see documentation to be a very important process. Documentation is intended to help the development team understand the system and enable them to maintain it after the system is installed. Good documentation is essential to good maintenance as they provide the system development team with useful information for future assessment and these documentation are going to be very useful in later years when modification or changes need t be made. Systems should be well documented, otherwise, it would be difficult to learn, use and maintain. CASE can contribute to improving maintenance of information systems. The use of CASE during the early task of development means better documented systems with essential documentation kept in the repository and thus relatively easy to maintain. It is possible to trace a user request for an enhancement from a DFD to the program coding modules to be modified and thus to determine the impact of the change. CASE makes it possible to maintain system specifications as they are changed during maintenance. The third strategy is to use higher level of computer language to produce system, the easier the maintenance will be. The high level languages are nonprocedural in nature likes the programmer tells the computer what to do not how to do it. With higher level languages

P a g e | 28 user merely gives a precise statement of what to be done not how to do it. Very high level languages simplify and accelerate the programming process as well as reduce the number of coding errors. Using high level language requires fewer programming line codes which are quicker to write, test and maintain. This strategy is very useful in reducing later maintenance costs.

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CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, we should valves on the system design construction, implementation and also maintenance of the system. Besides, we must be able to identify the characteristics of bad systems, so that we can detect if there is any deficiencies with the new system. Other than that, we should know the information systems elements that are required to be design, the activities that should be done during the implementation phase and in case we need to change the old system to the new system, we need to aware with some problems that associated with the file conversion. Lastly, Encik Badrol Isham will enable to get a good understanding regarding the types of cutover, factors that he need to be considered before selecting the cut-over approaches, the role of accountants in post implementation review.

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REFERENCES
1. http://dilipchandra12.hubpages.com/hub/Characteristics-of-Accounting-

Information-System
2. Analysis and Design for Accounting Students, 3rd edition, Kashiah Yusof,

McGraw Hill Sdn Bhd, 2009.