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Calculus Unit 3

The document discusses partial fractions and improper integrals. It covers decomposing rational functions into partial fractions, and defines improper integrals as limits of definite integrals where the limit of integration approaches infinity or a point of discontinuity. Several examples of evaluating both proper and improper integrals are provided.

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42 views5 pages

Calculus Unit 3

The document discusses partial fractions and improper integrals. It covers decomposing rational functions into partial fractions, and defines improper integrals as limits of definite integrals where the limit of integration approaches infinity or a point of discontinuity. Several examples of evaluating both proper and improper integrals are provided.

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OmegaUser
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Calculus 081

Unit 3

PARTIAL FRACTIONS AND IMPROPER INTEGRALS This unit corresponds to Sections 7.4 and 7.8 of Stewarts textbook.
Copyright c 2002 by the Department of Mathematics, University of Western Ontario.

The method of partial fractions is the third and nal technique of integration we study. It applies to an integrand which is a rational function P (x)/Q(x), where P and Q are polynomials. If deg P deg Q, then we must start by doing long division. So let us assume deg P < deg Q. Then we factor the denominator Q(x) into linear factors ax + b and irreducible quadratic factors ax2 + bx + c, where b2 4ac < 0. (This is always possible in principle, although it may be hard.) Some of the factors may occur more than once. Next, we write P (x)/Q(x) as a sum of partial fractions thus: For a linear factor ax + b repeated r times, we include the terms A1 A2 Ar + + + , 2 ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)r and for an irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c repeated r times, we include the terms A1 x + B1 Ar x + Br + + . ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)r Here, A1 , B1 , . . . , Ar , Br are constants that need to be determined. Finally, we integrate term by term. Examples. (1) Let us integrate 2/(x2 1). Here, P (x) = 2 and Q(x) = x2 1. Since deg P = 0 < 2 = deg Q, we dont have to do long division. We start by factoring Q. We get Q(x) = (x 1)(x + 1). Hence, the partial fractions decomposition of 2/(x2 1) is 2 A B = + . x2 1 x1 x+1 Now we need to determine the numerators A and B. Clearing the fractions by multiplying through by x2 1, we get 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x 1). 1

Plugging in the root x = 1, we get 2 = A 2 + B 0, so A = 1. Plugging in the other root x = 1, we get B = 1. Hence, x2 2 1 1 = . 1 x1 x+1

Note that we havent done any calculus yet: this has been pure algebra, aimed at decomposing our integrand into a sum of functions that are easier to integrate. Finally we integrate: x2 2 dx = 1 1 dx x1 1 dx x+1 x1 + C. x+1

= ln |x 1| ln |x + 1| + C = ln (2) Let us integrate is

25x2 . The partial fractions decomposition (x 3)(x + 2)2

25x2 A B C = + + . 2 (x 3)(x + 2) x 3 x + 2 (x + 2)2

Note that the double factor (x + 2)2 contributes two terms to the decomposition. Clearing the fractions, we get 25x2 = A(x + 2)2 + B(x 3)(x + 2) + C(x 3). Plugging in x = 3 gives A = 9. Plugging in x = 2 gives C = 20. To nd B, we can either plug in some third number, using the values of A and C, or we can compare coecients: We have 25x2 on the left and (A + B)x2 on the right; these must be equal, so A + B = 25 and B = 16. Finally, 25x2 dx = (x 3)(x + 2)2 20 dx (x + 2)2 20 = 9 ln |x 3| + 16 ln |x + 2| + + C. x+2 9 dx + x3 16 dx x+2

2x2 + x + 2 . The denominator factors as x(x2 + 1). x3 + x The quadratic factor x2 + 1 is irreducible, so the partial fractions decomposition is 2x2 + x + 2 A Bx + C = + 2 . 3+x x x x +1 (3) Let us integrate 2

Clearing the fractions, we get 2x2 + x + 2 = A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)x. Plugging in x = 0 gives A = 2, so (Bx + C)x = x, so Bx + C = 1. Finally, 2x2 + x + 2 dx = x3 + x 2 dx + x 1 dx = 2 ln |x| + tan1 x + C. 2+1 x

Improper integrals. The limit of a denite integral as one of the limits of integration goes to innity is called an improper integral:
t

f (x)dx = lim
a b

f (x)dx
a b

f (x)dx = lim

f (x)dx
t

An improper integral is said to converge if the limit exists (as a nite number); otherwise it is said to diverge. An improper integral over the whole real axis is dened as
a

f (x)dx =

f (x)dx +
a

f (x)dx

for any a. This integral is said to converge if both of the integrals on the right hand side converge. 0 Examples. (1) Let us evaluate the improper integral ex dx. We must resist the temptation to nd an antiderivative of the integrand and plug in : remember that an improper integral is not a denite integral to which the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus applies; it is a limit of such integrals. We get
0 0

ex dx = lim

ex dx = lim
t

t 1

ex

0 t

= lim (1 et ) = 1.
t

(2) Consider the improper integral


t

xp dx, where p = 1. We have


t

x dx = lim
1

xp+1 x dx = lim t p + 1
p

=
1

1 lim (tp+1 p+1 t

1).

If p < 1, then p + 1 < 0, so tp+1 0 and the improper integral converges 1 to p+1 . If p > 1, then p + 1 > 0, so tp+1 and the improper integral diverges. You should nd out what happens when p = 1. (3) We have

dx = 1 + x2

dx + 1 + x2 tan
1

= lim

s s

0 0 + lim s t

dx 1 + x2 tan1 x
t 0 2

= lim ( tan1 s) + lim tan1 t =


t

= .

Here we took a = 0. Any other choice of a would lead to the same result. (4) The improper integral
0

sin xdx =

sin xdx +
0

sin xdx

diverges because

sin xdx = lim cos x


0 t

t 0

= lim (1 cos t)
t

diverges: as t goes to , 1 cos t oscillates between 0 and 2 and approaches 0 no particular limit. (The improper integral sin xdx also diverges for a similar reason.) However,
s s

lim

sin xdx = lim cos x


s s s

s s

= lim ( cos s ( cos(s))) = lim 0 = 0.


s

This shows that the improper integral

f is not the same as lim

s s s

f.

Discontinuous integrands. Improper integrals of a dierent sort arise when a limit of integration is a point of discontinuity of the integrand. If f is continuous on [a, b) and discontinuous at b, then we dene
b t

f (x)dx = lim
a

tb

f (x)dx.
a

If f is continuous on (a, b] and discontinuous at a, then we dene


b b

f (x)dx = lim
a

ta+

f (x)dx.
t

Just as before, an improper integral of this kind is said to be convergent if the limit exists (as a nite number); otherwise, it is divergent. If f is continuous on [a, b] except at an interior point c (so a < c < b) and c b b c b the improper integrals a f , c f converge, then we dene a f = a f + c f . Example. We have
3 0

1 dx = lim t0+ x

3 t

1 dx = lim 2 x t0+ x

3 t

= lim (2 3 2 t) = 2 3.
t0+

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