Module

2
Mechanics of
Machining

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

 Lesson
9
Analytical and
Experimental
determination of
cutting forces
Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur
Instructional Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the student would be able to

(i) Develop and use equations for estimation of major cutting force
components in turning under
• Orthogonal cutting
• Oblique cutting
(ii) Evaluate analytically the major cutting forces in
• Drilling
• Plain milling
(iii) Identify the needs and purposes of measurement of cutting forces
(iv) State the possible methods of measurement of cutting forces.

(i) Development of equations for estimation of cutting

forces
The two basic methods of determination of cutting forces and their
characteristics are :
(a) Analytical method : enables estimation of cutting forces
characteristics : -
• easy, quick and inexpensive
• very approximate and average
• effect of several factors like cutting velocity, cutting fluid action etc.
are not revealed
• unable to depict the dynamic characteristics of the forces.

(b) Experimental methods : direct measurement characteristics : -

• quite accurate and provides true picture
• can reveal effect of variation of any parameter on the forces
• depicts both static and dynamic parts of the forces
• needs measuring facilities, expertise and hence expensive.

The equations for analytical estimation of the salient cutting force components
are conveniently developed using Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD) when it is
orthogonal cutting by any single point cutting tool like, in turning, shaping,
planning, boring etc.

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

Development of mathematical expressions for cutting forces under
orthogonal turning.

• Tangential or main component, PZ

This can be very conveniently done by using Merchant’s Circle Diagram,
MCD, as shown in Fig. 9.1

PXY VC

η Pn
PZ
R
N (η- γo)
PS
F

γo

Fig. 9.1 Forces involved in machining and contained in Merchant’s Circle.

From the diagram in Fig. 9.1,

PZ = R cos(η − γ o ) (9.1)
Ps = R cos(β o + η − γ o ) (9.2)
Dividing Eqn. 9.1 by Eqn. 9.2,
P cos(η − γ o )
PZ = s (9.3)
cos(β o + η − γ o )
It was already shown that,
ts τ
Ps = o s (9.4)
sin β o
where, τs = dynamic yield shear strength of the work material.
ts oτ s cos(η − γ o )
Thus, PZ = (9.5)
sin β o cos(β o + η − γ o )

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

For brittle work materials, like grey cast iron, usually, 2βo + η- γo = 90o and τs
remains almost unchanged.
Then for turning brittle material,
( )
ts τ cos 90 o − 2 β o
PZ = o s
( )
sin β o cos 90 o − β o
or, PZ = 2ts oτ s cot β o (9.6)
where, cot β o = ζ − tan γ o (9.7)
a2 a2
ζ = =
a1 s o sinφ
It is difficult to measure chip thickness and evaluate the values of ζ while
machining brittle materials and the value of τs is roughly estimated from
τs = 0.175 BHN (9.8)
where, BHN = Brinnel Hardness number.
But most of the engineering materials are ductile in nature and even some
semi-brittle materials behave ductile under the cutting condition.
The angle relationship reasonably accurately applicable for ductile metals is
βo + η - γo = 45o (9.9)
and the value of τs is obtained from,
τs = 0.186 BHN (approximate) (9.10)
or = 0.74σuε0.6Δ (more suitable and accurate) (9.11)
where, σu = ultimate tensile strength of the work material
ε = cutting strain
≅ ζ - tanγo
and Δ = % elongation
Substituting Eqn. 9.9 in Eqn. 9.5,
PZ = ts oτ s (cot β o + 1) (9.12)
Again cotβo ≅ ζ - tanγo
So, PZ = tsoτs(ζ - tanγo + 1) (9.13)

• Axial force, PX and transverse force, PY

From MCD in Fig. 9.1,
PXY = PZ tan(η − γ o ) (9.14)
Combining Eqn. 9.5 and Eqn. 9.14,
ts oτ s sin(η − γ o )
PXY = (9.15)
sin β o cos(β o + η − γ o )
Again, using the angle relationship βo + η - γo = 45o, for ductile material
PXY = tsoτs(cotβo – 1) (9.16)
or PXY = tsoτs(ζ - tanγo – 1) (9.17)
where, τs = 0.74σuε0.6Δ or 0.186 BHN
It is already known,
PX = PXYsinφ
and PY = PXYcosφ
Therefore, PX = tsoτs(ζ - tanγo – 1)sinφ (9.18)
and PY = tsoτs(ζ - tanγo – 1) cosφ (9.19)

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

• Friction force, F, normal force, N and apparent coefficient of
friction μa

Again from the MCD in Fig. 9.1

F = PZsinγo + PXYcosγo (9.20)
and N = PZcosγo - PXYsinγo (9.21)
F P sin γ o + PXY cos γ o
and, μa = = Z (9.22)
N PZ cos γ o − PXY sin γ o
P tanγ o + PXY
or, μa = Z (9.23)
PZ − PXY tanγ o
Therefore, if PZ and PXY are known or determined either analytically or
experimentally the values of F, N and μa can be determined using
equations only.

• Shear force Ps and Pn

Again from the MCD in Fig. 9.1

Ps = PZ cos β o − PXY sin β o (9.24)
and Pn = PZ sin β o + PXY cos β o (9.25)
From Ps, the dynamic yield shear strength of the work material, τs can be
determined by using the relation,
Ps = Asτs
ts o
where, As = shear area =
sin β
P sin β o
Therefore, τ s = s
ts o
(P cos β o − PXY sin β o )sin β o
= Z (9.26)
ts o

• Cutting forces in turning under oblique cutting

In orthogonal cutting, the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, πo and all the
forces concerned, i.e., PZ, PXY, F, N, PS and Pn are situated in πo and
contained in the MCD. But in oblique cutting the chip flow is deviated from the
orthogonal plane and a force develops along the cutting edge and hence
MCD (drawn in πo) is not applicable. However, since it is a single point tool,
only one force will really develop which will have one component along the
cutting edge in oblique cutting.
Fig. 9.2 shows how the only cutting force, R can be resolved into
Either, PX, PY and PZ; which are useful for the purpose of measurement and
Design of the M – F – T system
or, Pl, Pm and Pn; which are useful for the purpose of design and stress
analysis of the tool and determination of chip-tool
interaction in oblique cutting when the chip does not
flow along πo.

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

For convenience of analysis, the set of force components are shown again in
Fig. 9.3 where the cutting force R is resolved into two components RC and Rr
as
R = RC + R r (9.27)
where, RC is taken in cutting plane, πC and Rr in reference plane, πR.
From Fig. 9.3, the forces in πC are related as,
Pn = PZcosλ - Phsinλ (9.28)
Pl = PZ sinλ + Ph cosλ (9.29)
Where, Pn is acting normal to the cutting edge and Pl is acting along the
cutting edge. Ph is an imaginary component along Yo axis.
Similarly the forces on πR in Fig. 9.3 are related as,
Pm = PXsinφ + PYcosφ (9.30)
and Ph = - PXcosφ + PYsinφ (9.31)

Zn
VC
PX Pm
Yn
Zo
Yo
Xm PY
Pl
Xo
(Xn) Xm R

Pn
PZ

Fig. 9.2 Resolving the cutting force in oblique cutting (turning)

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

 Zo Yn Yo
Zn
Pn Pn Ym Yo

λ Pl PZ
RC Xo
Xm
PX
φ
Pm
πo Rr
PY

πR

Fig. 9.3 Resolved components of the cutting force in oblique cutting.

From equations 9.28 to 9.31, the following three expressions are attained.
Pl = − PX cos φ cos λ + Py sin φ cos λ + PZ sin λ (9.32)
Pm = PX sin φ + Py cos φ (9.33)
and Pn = PX cosφ sin λ − PY sinφ sin λ + PZ cos λ (9.34)
The equations 9.32, 9.33 and 9.34 may be combined and arranged in matrix
form as

⎡Pl ⎤ ⎡− cos φ cos λ sin φ cos λ sin λ ⎤ ⎡PX ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Pm ⎥ = ⎢ sin φ cos φ 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢PY ⎥ (9.35)
⎢⎣Pn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣cos φ sin λ − sin φ sin λ cos λ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣PZ ⎥⎦

The equation 9.35 is very important and useful for evaluating the force
components Pl, Pm and Pn from the measured or known force components PX,
PY and PZ in case of oblique cutting.
By inversion of the Eqn. 9.35, another similar matrix form can be developed
which will enable evaluation of PX, PY and PZ, if required, from Pl, Pm and Pn if
known other way.
Under oblique cutting, the coefficient of friction, μa is to be determined from
F′
F ′′ cos ρ c
μa = = ; ρc = chip flow deviation angle ≅ λ
N′ N′
where, F′ and N′ are to be determined from the values of Pn and Pm as,

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

 F ′ = Pn sin γ n + Pm cos γ n (9.36)
and N ′ = Pn cos γ n − Pm sinγ n (9.37)
Therefore, under oblique cutting,
Pn tan γ n + Pm
μa = (9.38)
cos λ (Pn − Pm tan γ n )

(iii) Analytical Estimation of cutting forces in drilling and

milling.
(a) Cutting forces in drilling.

In drilling ductile metals by twist drills, the thrust force, PX and torque, T can
be evaluated using the following equations (Shaw and Oxford) :
PX = Kx1.HB.so0.8d0.8 + Kx2.HB.d2 kg (9.39)
0.8 1.8
and T = Kt.HB.so d kg – mm (9.40)
Where, Kx1, Kx2 and Kt are constants depending upon the work material. HB is
Brinnel Hardness and d is drill diameter (mm).
As for example, for steels of HB ≤ 250 and dc/d = 0.18 [ dc = chisel edge
diameter, mm ]
Eqn. 9.39 and 9.40 become
PX = 0.195H B so0.8 d 0.8 + 0.0022H B d 2 (9.41)
and T = 0.087H B s o0.8 d 1.8 (9.42)
The drilling torque and thrust can also be roughly evaluated using following
simpler equations:
T = C1d x soy (kg – mm ) (9.43)
and PX = C2 d x′ s oy ′ (kg) (9.44)
Table 9.1 typically shows the approximate values of the constants C1 and C2
and the exponents x, y, x′ and y′ for some common engineering materials (Fe-
based):
Table 9.1 Constant and exponents in drilling.
Work material C1 C2 x y x′ y′
Plain carbon and low 0.6 ~
35 ~ 55 85 ~ 160 2.0 1.0 0.7
alloy steels 0.8
Cast iron
20 ~ 23 50 1.9 0.8 1.0 0.8
BHN 150 ~ 190

(b) Cutting forces in Plain milling

In plain or slab milling, the average tangential force, PTavg, torque, T and
cutting power, PC can be roughly determined irrespective of number of teeth
engaged and helix angle, by using the following expressions :
C p B.s ox .d y .ZC
PTavg = . kg (9.45)
π DCz
D
T = PTavg x C kg – mm (9.46)
2

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

 and PC = PTavg xVC kg-m/min (9.47)
9.81.PTavg xVC
= kW
60 x1000
There are several other equations available (developed by researchers) for
evaluating milling forces approximately under given cutting conditions.

(iv) Needs and Purposes of Measurement of Cutting

Forces
In machining industries and R & D sections the cutting forces are desired and
required to be measured (by experiments)
• for determining the cutting forces accurately, precisely and reliably
(unlike analytical method)
• for determining the magnitude of the cutting forces directly when
equations are not available or adequate
• to experimentally verify mathematical models
• to explore and evaluate role or effects of variation of any
parameters, involved in machining, on cutting forces, friction and
cutting power consumption which cannot be done analytically
• to study the machinability characteristics of any work – tool pair
• to determine and study the shear or fracture strength of the work
material under the various machining conditions
• to directly assess the relative performance of any new work
material, tool geometry, cutting fluid application and special
technique in respect of cutting forces and power consumption
• to predict the cutting tool condition (wear, chipping, fracturing,
plastic deformation etc.) from the on-line measured cutting forces.

(v) General methods of measurement of cutting forces

(a) Indirectly
• from cutting power consumption
• by calorimetric method
Characteristics
o inaccurate
o average only
o limited application possibility
(b) Directly
Using tool force dynamometer(s)
Characteristics
o accurate
o precise / detail
o versatile
o more reliable

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

 Exercise – 9
[ Problems and solutions ]

Q.1 If, in orthogonal turning a tool of γo= 0o and φ = 90o, the force
components, PX and PZ are measured to be 400 N and 800 N
respectively then what will be the value of the apparent coefficient (μa)
of friction at the chip tool interface at that condition?
[solve using equations only]

Solution :
It is known that, μa = F/N
where, F = Pzsinγo + Pxycosγo and N = Pzcosγo-Pxysinγo
Now, Pxy = Px/sinφ = 400/sin900 = 400N.
sin γo= sin00=0
cosγo= cos00=1.
μa= Pxy/Pz = 400/800 = 0.5 Ans.

Q.2 Determine without using MCD, the values of PS (shear force) and PN
using the following given values associated with a turning operation :
PZ= 1000 N, PX= 400 N PY= 200 N,γo= 15o and ζ = 2.0

Solution :
The known relations are:
PS=PZcosβo - PXYsinβo
Pn=PZsinβo+PXYcos βo
Let b0(shear angle) from
tan βo = cosγo/(ζ-sinγo)
= cos150/(2.0-sin150) = 0.554
∴ βo=290; cos βo= 0.875
and sinβo = 0.485
PXY = (PX ) + (PY ) = (400 ) + (200 ) = 445 N
2 2 2 2

So, PS = 1000x0.875 - 445x0.485 = 659 N

and Pn= 1000x0.485 + 445x0. 875 = 874 N

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

Q. 3 During turning a steel rod of diameter 150 mm by a carbide tool of
geometry;
0o, —12o, 8o, 6o, 15o, 60o, 0 (mm)
at speed 560 rpm, feed 0.32 mm/rev. and depth of cut 4.0 mm the
followings were observed :
PZ= 1000 N, PY= 200 N, a2=0.8 mm
Determine, without using MCD, the expected values of F, N, μ, Ps, Pn,
τs, cutting power and specific energy requirement for the above
mentioned machining operation.

Solution :
• PXY = PX/sinφ = 200/cos60o = 400 N
• F = PZsinγo + PXYcosγo ;
Here γo = - 12o \ sinγo = - 0.208 and cosγo = 0.978
F = 1000(-0.208) + 400(0.978) = 600 N ans.
and N = PZcosγo — PXYsinγo
= 1000(0.978) — 400(-0.208)
= 1060 N answer
So, μa = F/N = 600/1060 = 0.566 answer
• PS = PZcosβo — PXYcosβo
where βo = tan-1(cosγo/(ζ—sinγo))
Here, ζ = a2/(sosinφ) = 0.8/(0.32xsin60o) = 2.88
βo= tan-1{(0.978/(2.88+0.208)} = 17.6o
So, PS= 1000xcos(17.6o) – 400xsin(17.6o) = 832 N answer
and PN= 1000sin(17.6o) + 400cos(17.6o) = 683 N answer
• PS = (tso τs)/sinγo
∴τs = PSsinγo /(tso) = 832sin(17.6o)/(4x0.32)
= 200 N/mm2 answer
• Cutting power, PC = PZ.VC
where VC = πDN/1000 = πx150x560/1000 = 263 m/min
∴PC = 1000x263 N-m/min = 4.33 KW answer
• Specific energy consumption, EC
EC= power/MRR = (PZ.VC)/(VC.so.t) N-m/m-mm2
= 1000x263 (Joules/min)/{263x0.32x4x1000(mm3/min)}
= 0.78 Joules/mm3 answer

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

Q.4 During turning a steel rod of diameter 100 mm by a ceramic tool of
geometry:
0o, —10o, 8o, 7o, 15o, 75o, 0.5 (mm)
at speed 625 rpm, feed 0.36 mm/rev. and depth of cut 5.0 mm the
average chip thickness was found to be 1.0 mm. Roughly how much
power will be consumed in the above mentioned machining work if;
(i) the work material is semi-ductile
(ii) Brinnel hardness number of the work material is 240 (kg/mm2)

Solution :
Cutting power, PC = PZ .VC N.m/min.
VC= Cutting Velocity = πDN/1000 m/min.
= (π x100x625)/1000 =196 m/min.
PZ = tsoτscos(η - γo)/{sinβo.cos(βo + η - γo)}
For semi-ductile materials, the angle relationships that may be taken
2βo+ η - γo= π/2 [Earnst & Merchant]
Then, PZ = 2tsocotβo
Get shear angle, βo from,
tanβo= (cosγo) / (ζ-sinγo)
where, ζ=a2/a1= a2/sosinφ=1.0/(0.36.sin750) = 2.87
βo = tan-1{cos(-100)/(2.87-sin(-100)} = 17.90
∴Shear strength, τs = 0.186 BHN
= 0.186x240x9.81 N/mm2
= 424N/mm2
So, PZ= 2 x5x0.36x424xcot(17.90) = 4697 N. Ans.

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur

Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur