SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

University of Dhaka, Bangladesh

Bengali Folk Rhymes : An Introduction

Abstract
Bengali is an Indo-Aryan language possessing a history and tradition of at least a millennium, with a rich tradition of folklore and folk literature. Folk rhymes form an important part of this tradition. T h e origins of many Bengali folk rhymes are obscure, but are thought to be of considerable antiquity. Folk rhyme exists in many languages, but is often of secondary importance compared to other forms of folk literature, such as folktales and ballads. Ili Bengali folk literature, however, rhyme holds a place of equal importance to these other forms. Bengali folk rhyme is not simply an instrument for the amusement of children but a subject worthy of serious study, bearing most of the essential characteristics of folk tradition: anonymous and collective creation, dynamism, textual variation, and social function.

Key words:

folk rhyme - Bengali language transmission

- folk

literature

- oral

Asian Folklore Studies, Volume 5 2 , 1993, 143-160

INTRODUCTION ENGALI, one of the Indo-Aryan languages,l developed from Sanskrit and the Prakrit languages. There is a difference of opinion regarding Bengali's date of origin: three of the four outstanding experts on the subject believe that it developed during the 1926, 1; SEN1940, ninth or tenth centuries A.D.(SEN 1896,l; CHATTERJI 13), while the fourth believes that it existed as early as the seventh century (SHAHIDULLAH 7). I n either case, Bengali is a language 1953, with a history and tradition of at least a millennium. I t is now the state language of Bangladesh, and is also spoken in the Indian state of West Bengal and in portions of Tripura, Assam, and Orissa. T h e number of Bengali-speaking people in the world today may be as high as two hundred million. T h e Bengali name for the language, "Baligla," is the same as the old name for the country: "Bangla" or "Bannggala," derived from "Bang3." Bengali has a rich tradition of folklore and folk literature.2 This tradition is the creation of the rural folk, transmitted orally from one generation to the next. I n addition to the rhymes that comprise the subject of this article, Bengali folk literature includes such forms as folktales, riddles, proverbs, maxims, and songs. Folk rhymes exist in one form or another in most areas of the world. Examples are the nursery rhymes of Europe, the Mother Goose verse of America, and the warabe uta and komori uta of Japan. T h e origins of many Bengali folk rhymes are obscure, and are thought to be of considerable antiquity; certainly a large portion of them are known to have existed in the oral tradition for several centuries at least. This is a characteristic they share with the folk rhyme traditions found in most other cultures. SIDDIQUI quotes the famous folklorist M. Bloomfield as follows:

There are many popular rhymes which cannot be definitely assigned to any specific moment in history. T h e very same popular
[ 1441

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

145

rhyme may have been in existence for decades, each time adopting itself, now to one and now to another manifestation of actual life, and being subjected sometimes to slight, sometimes to very extensive changes. (1963, 203) Bloomfield, like many other folklorists, considers rhymes to be "striking examples of the poetic primitive" that existed as early as "primitive archaic" times. Some scholars consider rhyme to be the "genesis of all songs" and hence older than even the earliest of songs (OPIE 1951, introduction). This opinion is shared by such outstanding experts on Bengali folk rhymes as Rabindranath Tagore, Sukumar Sen, and Muhammad Shahidullah (SHAHED 1988,53-54). On the basis of the available evidence, Bengali folk rhymes appear the to be at least as old as the Buddhist mystic verses ~aryZ-$ada,~ earliest literary work in the Bengali language. If this hypothesis is correct, Bengali folk rhymes share the thousand-year history of the Bengali language itself.
AND COLLECTION COMPILATION T h e investigation and compilation of folk literature was stimulated by a number of factors that emerged during the past several centuries: an interest in humanity's cultural and literary heritage, a desire to link the present with the past, and growing levels of nationalism throughout the world. T h e collection of folklore material was further aided by the spread of literacy and the wider availability of the printing press. T h e collection of folk rhymes began in the eighteenth century, with the earliest known publications being Tommy Tlzumb's Pretty Song Book in 1744 and Mother Goose's Melody in 1765 (CUDDON 1979, 456). T h e interest of folklore gained new momentum in 1812-1814 when the German philologist Jakob Grimm and his brother Wilhelm published the two-volume Kinder- und Hausmarchen, containing a large number of German folktales (VREDENBURW 1917, 8). These stories were for the most part collected directly from the peasantry, since they comprised part of the unwritten oral tradition passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. T h e Grimms' collection attracted worldwide attention from researchers with an interest in folk literature, and inspired members of the intelligentsia in various societies to investigate the native folk culture of their own lands, drawing particularly upon the older generation of peasantry whose knowledge of life had yet to be transformed by urbanization. Roughly contemporaneous to this, many of the colonial administrators, Anglican missionaries, and travelers from Victorian England

146

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

were recording native traditions in various parts of the world in order to better understand the peoples they governed (DORSON1963, 4). English translations of these collections were later published, sometimes with romanized versions of the original texts. These developments had an influence upon the collection of Bengali folk rhymes as well. From the eighteenth century the region of Bengal was occupied by the British East India Company,4 whose administrative personnel and Christian missionaries5 acted as links between Western civilization and the elite of the developing city of Calcutta. Credit for the first few collections of Bengali folk literature goes to these people. Four compilations of Bengali proverbs were published between 1832 and 1872 by the missionaries William Mortan and James Long, and folktale collections were issued by Sir George GriarsonG in 1873 and Reverend Lalbihary Dey in 1883. Folk rhymes found their way into these collections when the authors mistook them for the genres they were researching. T h e advent of the twentieth century saw the establishment of folklore societies in various parts of the world and the publication of a number of journals devoted to folklore studies.' This created a viable organizational structure for research and lent new impetus to the collection of folk literature. Yet another stimulus came from the rising spirit of nationalism and independence in colonial lands, which inspired many among the native elite to search for their cultural roots and explore various avenues of cultural revival, one manifestation of which was the collection of folk literature. I n Bengal, interestingly enough, this effort was led mainly by the English-educated citizenry of Calcutta, whom the British had intended to make "English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect" (THOMPSON GARRET and 1934, 315).8 I t was Rabindranath Tagore, the Nobel-laureate of Bengal, who at this stage played the major role in the collection of folk rhymes. T h e fruit of his conscientious and painstaking work during the last decade of the nineteenth century was published in the form of two articles containing about one hundred Bengali folk rhymes (TAGORE 1958). I n a very short period of time this collection assumed the stature of a classic, and encouraged many others to follow the path pioneered by Tagore. At about the time that Tagore was collecting these rhymes, the Bangio Sahitya Parishad (Bengal Literary Council) was established in Calcutta, which subsequently became the center of most Bengali writing and research. T h e council's journal began printing Bengali folk rhymes; in its first decade of publication (1896-1905) it serialized about

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

147

three hundred rhymes that had been collected by experts from various corners of the then-undivided Bengal (DAS 1971, 71-102). T h e first collection of Bengali folk rhymes in book form was published in 1899 in Calcutta. Compiled by Yogindranath Sarkar under the title Khukumonir charag [Rhymes for kids], it contains four hundred rhymes (SARKAR 1899). This collection was unique in character, and became a permanent source for researchers in this field. T h e publication of folk rhymes in journals continued during the first half of the twentieth century. T h e end of British rule in India in 1947 resulted in the division of BengallO and led to the concentration of Bengali cultural and literary studies in two centers, Calcutta and Dhaka. I n Calcutta the study of folk rhymes was continued by eminent scholars like Sukumar Sen and Ashutosh Bhattacharya during the 1950s and early 1960s. Ashutosh Bhattacharya alone compiled and published more than six hundred rhymes in two volumes (BHATTACHARYA 1957, 1962). Younger researchers like Kamalkumar Majumdar, Bhabataran Dutt, and Nirmalendu Bhoumik joined this movement in the late 1960s and 1970s. T h e compilation of DUTT (1970) consists exceeds five of about one thousand rhymes, while that of BHOUMIK hundred (1979). T h e stream of Bengali folk rhyme study centering around Dhaka, the provincial capital of what was then East Pakistan, was associated mainly with the University of Dhaka and in particular its Bengali department. Muhammad Shahidullah took the pioneering role in this effort, researching folk rhyme with Muhammad Abdul Hye as part of a UNESCO project on the traditional culture of the region (SHAHIDULLAH 1963). T h e rise of Bengali nationalism in East Pakistan during the early 1950s gave birth to a new interest in the roots of Bengali culture and literature. Urdu was declared the state language of both portions of Pakistan following its creation in 1947, angering the 56% of the Pakistani population who spoke Bengali and leading to a movement for the recognition of Bengali as a state language. T h e movement culminated on 21 February 1952, when a number of students were shot to death by soldiers during a demonstration in the streets of Dhaka. T h e outcome was a moral defeat for the Pakistani government, which was compelled to provide institutional support for the development of Bengali art and culture. One result was the establishment in 1955 of the Bangla Academy, committed to work in the field of Bengali literature. During the 1960s the academy undertook the collection of folk literature from a vast number of villages, with approximately five thousand rhymes being recorded by about thirty researchers. About half

148

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

of these were published by the academy during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, but a large number have yet to appear in print (SHAHED 1988, 50-52). I n addition to these major organized efforts, a small but steady source of rhymes has been provided by journals and newspapers published in both Bangladesh and West Bengal. divided I n his book Folklore: An Introduction, Jawaharlal HANDOO the growth of Indian folklore studies into three periods: the missionary, the nationalistic, and the academic (1989, 127-44). T h e development of Bengali folklore studies as described above can be viewed in roughly the same way; a slightly more detailed analysis is presented in table 1.
-

Time 18301885 18601885

Collectors Christian missionaries

-

Sociopolitical factors Christian evangelism

1
-

Purposejremarks
- ~--

- -

1
--

T o increase the effectiveness of missionary activities

-

British colonial administrative personnel Bengali elite and scholars Large numbers of amateurs and scholars

T h e incorporation of India into the British Empire (August 1858) A rise of the spirit of nationalism, patriotism, and independence T h e division of Bengal as a result of the independence of India T h e triumph of the 1952 Language Movement in Dhaka and the recognition of Bengali as a state language of Pakistan

T o better understand and govern the Indian peoples T o increase knowledge of the Bengali cultural heritage Folk-rhyme study divide d ; new study developed centering around Dhaka A large number of rhymes collected under organizational framework

- -

1955-

Academicians and semiprofessional

I cO1lectOrs

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS Folk rhyme may be basically defined as that segment of folk literature or oral tradition that consists of rhyming verse, usually recited or sung. Certain other characteristics are also loolted for, however. These include : a. Short verses with lines that almost invariably rhyme; b. A basis in sound, sometimes with a musical setting; c. A structure with, generally, no logical idea, story, or continuity of event, but composed rather of a series of images; d. Composition in simple meter and language ; e. Marked by nonsense, fantasy, absurdity, impossibility, etc.most are free from didacticism and idealism.

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

149

This definition excludes several rhyming forms of Bengali folk literature that do not show all of the essential characteristics of folk rhyme; these forms include mantras,ll magical rhymes, proverbs, riddles, and maxims (the most popular of which are those of Khona and Dak). T h e following may be presented as examples of true folk rhymes:

1. Ghumparani

masi-pisi12 moder bari ess, khat nai palmg nai khokar chokhe b3s3. Bata vare pan deb3 gal vsre kheo,

Khokar chokhe ghum nai ghum deye zeo. 2. Chhele ghumals para juraio bsrgi el3 deshe, Uulbulite dhan kheyechhe khajna deb3 kise? Dhan furals pan fural3 khajna deb3 kee? Ar k3tadin sz~burk3r3 rasun bunechhi. 3. Brishti pare tapur tupur n3de els ban, Shib Thakurer biye h d s tin kmney dan. Ek konney radhen baren arek ksnney khan, Arek kz~nneyna kheye baper bari zan.

Oh aunts of sleep! Come to our home, There is no cot or bed, so be seated on child's eye. A tray13 full of betel leaf will be served, eat them with full mouth, Sleep has gone away from child's eye, give him some sleep. Kids slept, locality silent, looters came, Birds have eaten the paddy, how can I pay the tax? T h e rice and betel leaf are finished, what would I pay as tax? Kindly wait a few days, I have sown garlic. I t is raining tapur tupur,l4 rivers are flooded, T h e marriage of Shib Tagore held with three brides. One busy with cooking, another eating, T h e other left for home15 without taking food.

Like other oral literature, Bengali folk rhymes are anonymous in the sense that once created they become common property (unless recorded and placed in collections that identify the creators). T h e dynamic and lively nature of the genre leaves room for continuous change, resulting in many variations on a single rhyme. These textual variations occur in three principal ways: I . Variation due to word changes, otherwise known as making terminus post quem :

1. Agdum bagdum ghoradum

Agdum bagdum ghoraduml6 are

150

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

saje jhajh:,r baje Dhak m r i d ~ n g Bajte bajte chall:, dhuli Dhuli gel2 shei k:,malapuli.

preparing

2. Agdum bagdum ghoradum saje Dhai mirgel ghagh:,r baje

Bajte bajte pa'l:, thuli Thuli gel2 k2mdaphuli

3. Agdum bagdum ghoradum

saje La1 mirgel ghagh:,r baje Bajte bajte el:, dhuli Dhuli gel3 shei k:,mdapuli.

4. Agdam bagdam ghoradam

saje Dan mecra ghagh:,r baje Bajte bajte payla turi Turi gel:, k:,mdapuri.

5. Agdum bagdum ghoradum saje La1 ghegh:,r ghag:,r baje

Bajte bajte challa dhuli Dhuli gel:, shei k:,m:,lapuli.

6. Agad2m bagad2m ghorad2m

saje

Drum, tom-tom, and gong are being beaten, T h e drummer is moving while beating, T h e drummer goes to that Komolapuli. Agdum bagdum ghoradum are preparing, T h e drummer is beating the tomtom and cymbals, T h e beating continues and blinkers fall [on the eyes], T h e blind man goes to Komolafuli. Agdum bagdum ghoradum are preparing, Red tom-tom and cymbals are being beaten, T h e drummer comes while beating, T h e drummer goes to that Komolapuli. Agdam bagdam ghoradam are preparing, T o the right, mecra17 and cymbals are being beaten, T h e beating continues and blinkers fall [on the eyes], T h e blind man goes to Komolapuri. Agdum bagdum ghoradum are preparing, Cymbals are beating and [the woman in the] red skirt [is dancing], T h e drummer is moving while beating, T h e drummer goes to that Komolapuli. Agadom bagadom ghoradom are preparing,

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

151

Dan migri ghugur baje Bajte bajte pay13 thuli Thuli gel3 mor k3m~lapuri.

7. Agdum bagdum ghorardim

saje Dan mirgel ghaghx baje Bajte bajte chall3 dhuli Dhuli gel3 shei k~m3lapuli.

8. Agdum bagdum ghoradum saje Dhal mridang g h a g h ~ r baje

Bajte bajte pay13 Sara Sara gel3 b a m m para.

9. Akdum bakdum ghorardim

saje Dhal vekur kakur baje

...

T o the right, a string of bells18 is sounding in the migri,lg T h e beating continues and blinkers fall [on the eyes], T h e blind man goes to my Komolapuri. Agdum hagdum and a mare's nest is preparing, T o the right, tom-tom and cymbals are being beaten, T h e drummer is moving while beating, T h e drummer goes to that Komolapuli. Agdum bagdum ghoradum are preparing, Shield, tom-toms, and cymbals are being beaten, Everyone is aroused by the beating, Awakened, they reach the Brahmin area. Akdum bakdum and a mare's nest are preparing, Shield, horn, and stones are playing . . .

Analysis of these nine rhymes shows that only saje in the first line, baje in the second line, bajte bajte in the third line, and gelo in the fourth line remain unchanged throughout all the verses. T h e other words show the following variations:
agdum agdam agad:,m akdum bagdum bagdam bagad:,m bakdum ghora ghorar dum dam dam dim dhak dhai la1 dan dhal mrid:,ng mirgel mecra ghegh:,r migri vekur

jhajh:,r ghagh3r ghag:,r ghugur

chall:, pa'l:, el:, par13

dhuli thuli turi sap

shei mor

k:,m:,lapuli kamalaphuli k:,malapuri bam:,n para

152

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

I t is clear that these changes in wording bring about definite changes in meaning, sound structure, and sometimes meter. Certain minor variations can even cause radical alterations in the entire context and content of the rhyme.

11. Change in the light of variations in local experience and culture:

Chhele ghumal:, para juralo b:,rgi el:, deshe Bulbulite dhan kheyechhe khajna deb:, kise? (Second version) M:,ni ghumal:, para juralo g:,rki el:, deshe Gulgulie dhan kheyechhe khajna deb:, kise? Kids slept, locality silent, looters came, Birds have eaten the paddy, how can I pay the tax? Baby, slept, locality silent, land flooded. Gulguli20 has destroycd the paddy, how can I pay the tax?

T h e first of these two variants was collected in the western part of Bengal, while the second was recorded in Chittagong in the eastern part of Bangladesh. T h e word b3rgi in the first rhyme has been transformed into g x k i in the second; the other changes are minor. B z g i is the local Bengali name for the Mahratha cavalry, notorious for their freebooting inroads. Their raids into the western part of Bengal in the first half of the eighteenth century led to social and economic disruption (HOSSAIN 1982, 11-15), the memory of which is depicted in the first version of the rhyme. T h e eastern section of Bengal had very little experience of this event, but the coastal areas were frequently , affected by the g ~ k i a high tidal wave that flooded the paddies and destroyed the rice. This difference in folk experience is reflected in the above textual variations.

111. Change due to expansion and reduction in size Various texts of the above-mentioned "agdum bagdum ghoradum saje" rhymes also differ in length. Four versions of this rhyme in the Tagore collection have fourteen, twelve, sixteen, and four lines respectively (TAGORE 1958, 610-11). Three in other collections have eleven, eight, and eleven lines respectively (SHAHED 1988, 57-58). Bengali folk rhymes in dialect21 may be considered as yet another kind of textual variation.

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

153

CLASSIFICATIOX T h e classification of Bengali folk rhymes is complex and difficult. Attempts to this end have been made by Rabindranath Tagore, Sukumar Sen, Ashutosh Bhattacharya and many others, but unfortunately most of the systems are incomplete, unscientific, and at times self-contradictory. T h e major defect of most of these classifications is that the divisions are based on more than one yardstick: some rhymes are classified according to function, others according to subject matter or main theme. Proverbs, mantras, riddles, maxims, etc. are sometimes mistakenly included because of their form and meter. BHATTACHARYA'S system is the major exception: it is well thought out, broad, and, for the most part, logical (1962, 28-36). A modification of his divisions results in the following classification of Bengali folk rhymes: I. Lullaby and cradle songs 1. Ay ay chad manla tip diye za , Chader kspale chad tip diye za. Machh katle muru debs, Dhan vangle kuru debs, Kalo gsrur dudh debs, Dudh khabar bati debs Chader kspale chad tip diye za. 2. Do1 do1 dulsni Ranga mathay chiruni, Bsr asbe ekhsni Niye zabe tskhsni. Come uncle moon! Give a t2'p22

Give a tip on the moon's [baby's] forehead, 0 moon! \Then I cut a fish I shall give you the head, \Then I husk the paddy I shall give you the chaff, I shall give you the milk of a black COW,^^ I shall give you a pot for drinking the milk, Give a tip on the moon's forehead, 0 moon! Swing, cradle, swing A comb in the color[fully decorated bride's] head, T h e bridegroom will come right now And take you then and there.

11. Feminine rhymes of marriage and other domestic functions

1. Alta psra pa'go Jamai ante ja'go,

0 lac-dyed feet, Go and bring the bridegroom,

154

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

Jamai ana emni nsy Tinti taka kh3r3chh h3y.

I t is not so easy to bring the bridegroom, I t would cost taka2*three.

111. Rhymes used in rituals and folk-religious ceremonies

1. Helencha k313mi 13klsk k3re Rajar beta ~ 3 k k h mare, i Maren pakhi S u k ~ bil r
Sonar kouta rupar khil.

2. Laria re layia-haloi Hatir pithe charia Hati ge13 Ksrimpur Peye el3 Chsmpaphul.

Watercresses are dangling, T h e prince is hunting birds, Hunting birds in the Sukor25 marsh, T h e container is made of gold, the bolt of silver. Fighter! 0 F i g h t e r - h a l ~ i , ~ ~ Riding on an elephant's back, T h e elephant goes to Karimpur, Back with some Cha?npak27 flowers.

IV.

Rhymes used in games and leisure Royal kabadi Brindabon, T h e clock sounds tthontthon. A round-mark in the clock's forehead, Kills whole buffaloes. 0 red kite! Let us fly, 0 blue kite! Let us fly, Are you stricken with nausea? Then you are cleaved.

1. Shai kabadi Brindabm28 Ghori haje th3nth3n. Ghsyir kspale p h ~ t a , ~ ~ Msish mare gota gota. 2. La1 ranga ghuri ayna uyi Nil ranga ghuyi ayna uyi, Ksrchhe kemsn gata Porli tsbe tui kata.

V. Rhymes on weather, nature, and animals

1. Khajur pata hsldi, Megh nam jsldi. Ek bira pan, Jhupjhupaya nam. 2. Chad uthechhe phul phuthechhe K3dsm talay ke ?
Hati nachhe ghora nachhe Ramshaliker be.

T h e date leaf has yellowed, 0 rain, come quickly! One bida30 of betel leaf, Fall splashingly ! T h e moon has risen, the flower has bloomed, Who is there under the kodom tree? Elephants and horses are dancing At Ramshalik's31 wedding.

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

155

VI. Historical rhymes

1. Sa-re-ga-ma-pa-dha-ni32 Bom phelechhe Japani, Bomar maidhe keute sap British b3le bapre-bap. VII. Sa-re-ga-ma-pa-dha-ni, T h e Japanese have dropped bombs, There is a cobra in the bombs. T h e British shout, bapre-bap.33

Work songs and counting rhymes

1. 0 buyi o buyi suta kat Kail biane Olir hat, Olir hat3t zabi ni? Ch3rka bandha dibi ni?

0 old lady! spin some thread. T h e Olir-bazaar is tomorrow morning, Would you go to the Olir-bazaar? Would you mortgage the spinning wheel?

VIII.

Rhymes used in folktales, fairy tales, etc. Thus my story ends T h e Natia-thorn withers, Why do you wither, Natia? Why does the cow eat grass? Why do you eat grass, cow? Why does the cowboy not let me graze ?

1. Amar k3thati phuralo N3te gachhti muylo, Keno re n3te muyli? Goru ken3 ghas khay? Ken3re goru ghas khas? Rakhal ken3 ch3ray na?

SUMMARY Bengal has a rich treasury of folk literature, of which folk rhyme is an integral and important component possessed of its own universe and notable in terms of both quality and quantity. I n many languages and cultures folk rhymes are of secondary importance in comparison with folktales, ballads, etc., but in Bengali folk literature rhyme holds a place of equal importance to these other forms. Bengali folk rhyme is not simply an instrument for the amusement of children but a subject worthy of serious study, bearing most of the essential characteristics of folk tradition: anonymous and collective creation, dynamism, textual variation, social function, etc. (BUNGI 1977, 101-103). Local culture and folk experience play a dominant role in the composition and variation of these rhymes. T h e origins of most Bengali folk rhymes are obscure, and are thought to be of considerable antiquity, possibly sharing the thousand-

156

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

year history of the Bengali language itself. Classification of the rhymes is difficult and still in a fluid stage, although certain hypotheses have been advanced. T h e collection and compilation of Bengali folk rhymes in a systematic way has a history of one century. It was inspired by the worldwide interest in folklore collection on the one hand, and by the rise of Bengali nationalism and cultural consciousness on the other. I t may be mentioned here that the early collection of rhymes took place before the study of folklore assumed any organized or institutional shape in Bengal. A few literary journals and a handful of devoted scholars deserve the credit for this early work. As a result, collection came first and discussion afterwards. T h e collection of Bengali folk rhymes was also inextricably linked throughout its history with sociopolitical change in Hengal. T h e collection process continues, with many of the recorded rhymes still unpublished. 'l'he production of a complete anthology, handbook, or dictionary of Bengali folk rhymes rcmains a task for the future.

NOTES 1. Indo-Aryan is one of the two major divisions of Indo-Iranian, the easternmost major division of the Indo-European language family. Classical Sanskrit is the bestknown example of Old Indo-Aryan, while the label Prskrit subsumcs all hliddle IndoAryan varieties. Msgadhi Apabhramia was one of these varieties. Gradually a language later identified as Udra-Bangs-Icamrupi developed from this Apabhramga. With the passage of time Udra became Uria (the language of Orissa), Kamrupi became 1987, 110-41). Ahomia (of Assam), and Bang3 became Bahgla (COMRIE 2 T h e use of the term "literature" to define the aesthetic productions of "il. literate" creators has long been a subject of controversy. In order to bridge this apparent gap, such terms as oral literatureltradition, traditional literature, verbal art, and unwritten literature were invented. I n spite of the slightly pejorative connotations and a few limitations, folklore and folk literature are still widely used to define orally 1977, 101-102; UTLEY1961, 194). I n the present article transmitted literature (BUNGI the terms folklore, folk literature, oral tradition, etc., are used in a very general way. 3 . A book of fifty celebrated Buddhist verses (of which 3.5 are missing) that is accepted as the earliest specimen of literature in the Bengali language. Assamese, Uyia, and Maithili also treat the same hymns as the earliest specimens of each language. 4. Business interests had drawn the Europeans to India in the late medieval period. T h e Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English were the main contenders. In the mid-eighteenth century, the East India Company (the "United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies") was poised to control business in Bengal, obstructed only by Sirij-ud-Dawla, nawab of Bengal. T h e Company defeated and killed him at the battle of Plassey (1757) with the help of Mir Ja'far, the chief general of the nawab and a man whose name is now synonymous in Bangladesh with "traitor." 5 . T h e missionaries failed to find many converts in Bengal, but their contributions to education, literature, journalism, and printing in the eighteenth and early 1971, 192-94). nineteenth centuries were significant (GUPTA

BENGALI F O L K RHYMES

157

6. A member of the Indian Civil Service (SHIGEMATSU 1984, 46). 7. T h e first folklore society was established in London in 1878, and published a journal entitled Folklore. 8. T h e Bengali elite was nourished by the English rulers in the hope that it would strengthen colonial rule, but the result was the reverse. T h e rulers wished to use folklore as n means to approach their subjects; nationalists used it to fight colonial power. 9. Nirmalendu Bhoumik claims that Puturanir chard by Baishnava Basak is the first compilation of Bengali folk rhymes in book form (BHOUMIK 1979, 272). He has been unable to obtain a copy of the book, however, so this claim cannot be evaluated. 10. Bengal was a part of Suba-Bangla, along with Bihar and Orissa in Mughal India. T h e British divided the province in 1905 but were compelled to reunite it in 1911. With the end of British rule in 1947 and the division of the subcontinent on the basis of religion, Bengal was separated into two sections. T h e eastern part of the province with its Muslim majority became part of Pakistan, the western part remaining in India. East Bengal (East Pakistan) became sovereign Bangladesh following a bloody war of liberation with West Pakistan in 1971. 11. Originally a portion of the Vedas containing sacred hymns. Gradually any mystical or esoteric word recited or incanted became known as a mantra. 12. T h e phrase ghumparani masi-pisi has many textual variations, such as ghumparanir ma and nindorolir ma. Sometimes these lines indicate that the common people imagined a supernatural power that controlled sleep and was able to distribute it. 13. T h e word "tray," which suggests a flat-surfaced container, does not convey the full meaning of the word bata. T h e traditional bata used for betel leaf has a cylindrical shape and is usually made of metal, with three or more compartments separating the betel leaf, lime, nuts, etc. 14. T h e sound of the rain as traditionally imagined in Bengal. 15. T h e journey of a bride to her parent's house after marriage is a ceremonial one. T h e journeys usually continued at regular intervals, and were known as naior. I t is apparent from many folk rhymes that the bride never considered her in-laws' house as her own, and used to return to her parents' house whenever undesirable incidents occurred. 16. Agdum bagdttm ghovadum has no apparent meaning, but some scholars have tried to explain it in the following way: Dom is a lower-caste Hindu whose responsibility is to burn dead bodies and look after the crematorium. Fishing and playing musical instruments are their alternate professions. Agdum means "Advance, D o n soldiers"; bagdttm means "sideline Dom soldiers"; ghoradum means "Dom cavalry," since ghora means "horse" (BHATTACHARYA 228). SHASTRI 1962, even relates this rhyme to a Dom-Brahmin war (1980, 294). 17. Meaning uncertain; perhaps a type of musical instrument. 18. "String of bells" is inadequate to express the full meaning of ghugur. A ghztgur is an anklet set with small bells used by dancers, predominantly female. T h e jingle of bells in an anklet usually suggests the appearance of professional dancers for entertainment, sometimes associated with drink. They were even used to entertain soldiers at the front. 19. Meaning uncertain; perhaps a type of musical instrument. 20. Yet to be identified; it may be an imaginary creature. Another possible explanation is that the sound "gulguli," which sometimes means rolling, may suggest the advancing form of a tidal wave. 21. Horizontal differentiation of Bengali dialects is very extensive both in terms of

158

SYED MOHAMMAD SHAHED

the number of regional dialects that occur and in terms of their mutual divergence. The extreme eastern dialect of Chittagong, for instance, is unintelligible even to many speakers of other eastern Bengali dialects (KLAIMAN 1987, 511). 22. T h e most common meaning of tip is a finger impression on the forehead common to Indian women. But here no actual impression is made. The reciter of this rhyme stretches his or her hand toward the moon and then, turning the fingers, puts an imaginary impression on the forehead of the child whom he or she is trying to lull to sleep. 23. It is generally believed in Bengal that the milk of a black cow is superior. 24. T h e monetary unit of Bengal. 25. In Bengal almost every household, bazaar, marsh, tank, pond, etc. has a popular name. Suksr bil and Olir hat in these verses are examples. 26. "Haloi" is a popular refrain used in rhymes and songs. 27. The Michelia Champaca, a flower of the magnolia family. 28. Shai is the corrupt form of shahi, which means royal, kabadi is the name of the game, and Brindabon is a sacred place in Mathura (near Delhi) associated with RadhaKrishna. 29. T h e literal meaning of phota is a drop or blob of liquid, but the word has a special connotation in Bengal. A phota or roundish mark on the forehead symbolizes a victorious person. Sometimes it is used as a sectarian mark for religious preachers like vaishnava. 30. Bida means a bunch of twenty leaves. In Bengal there is a tradition of counting things in which twenty (kuri) is the highest number. 31. A shalik is a special kind of black sparrow with a yellow beak. Ram is an adjective meaning big or large, a usage that derives from RBma of the epic Rdmfiyana. A number of folk beliefs center around the sparrow in Bengal. For example, it is believed that the appearance of a yellow sparrow indicates the imminent arrival of guests. 32. It is the Indian equivalent of do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti-do. 33. During World War I1 all Indian leaders except Subash Chandra Bose supported the British, but the popular mood was anti-British since there was a history of oppression. "Bapre-bap" is a common exclamation in Bengal indicating fear or surprise. REFERENCES C I T E D BHATTACHARYA, Ashutosh 1957 Banglar lokosahitya [Folk literature of Bengal], vol 1. Calcutta: Calcutta Book House. 1962 Banglar lokosahitya [Folk literature of Bengal], vol 2. Calcutta: Calcutta Book House. BHOUMIK, Nirmalendu 1979 Bangla charar bhumika [An introduction to Bengali rhymes] Calcutta: Sahityasree. BUNGI,Lungenyi-Lumwe Maalu 1977 Invention in oral literature. Culture 4(3) : 101-17. CHATTERJI, Suniti Kumar 1926 The origin and development of the Bengali language. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. COMRIE, Bernard, ed. 1987 The world's major languages. London: Croom Helm.

BENGALI FOLK RHYMES

159

CUDDON, A. J. 1979 A dictionary of literary terms. London: Penguin Books. DAS,Debojyoti 1971 Sahitya parishad patrikar lekhoksuchi [The writer-index of sahitya parishad patrika]. Calcutta: Bangio Sahitya Parishad. DORSON, Richard M. 1963 Studies in Japanese folklore. Bloomington: Indiana University. DUTT,Bhabataran 1970 Bangladesher chara [The rhymes of Bengal]. Calcutta: Mitra 0 Ghosh. GUPTA, Kanti Prasad Sen 1971 The Christian missionaries in Bengal. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhaya & Co. HANDOO, Jawaharlal 1989 Folklore: A n introduction. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. HOSSAIN, Hameeda 1982 The East India Company and the textile producers in Bengal. Oxford: Oxford University (unpublished doctoral thesis). KLAIMAN, H. M. 1987 Bengali. In The world's major languages, ed. Bernard Comrie. London: Croom Helm. OPIE,Iona and Peter, eds. 1951 The Oxford dictionary of nursery rhymes. Oxford: Clarendon Press. SARKAR, Yogindranath 1899 Khukumonir chara [Rhymes for kids]. Calcutta. SEN,Dinesh Chandra 1896 Bangovasha o sahitya [Bengali language and literature]. Calcutta: Gurudas Chattopadhaya & Sons. SEN,Sukumar 1940 Bangnla sahityer itihash [History of Bengali literature] Calcutta: Modern Book Agency. SHAHED, Syed Mohammad 1988 Charai bangali somaj o sanskrity [Bengali society and culture as reflected in rhymes]. Dhaka: University of Dhaka. SHAHIDULLAH, Muhammad 1953 Bangla sahityer katha [The story of Bengali literature], vol. 1. Dhaka: Renessas Printers. SHAHIDULLAH, Muhammad and Muhammad Abdul HAI 1963 Traditional culture i n East Pakistan. Dhaka: University of Dhaka. SHASTRI, Haraprasad 1980 Haraprasad Shastri rochonaboli [The collected works of Haraprasad Shastri]. Calcutta: Pacshim Bango Rajya Pustak Parishad. Shinji SHIGEMATSU, 1984 Indian civil service. Nagoya, Japan: University of Nagoya Press. SIDDIQUI, Ashraf 1963 Lokosahitya [Folk literature]. Dhaka : Students Ways. TAGORE, Rabindranath 1958 Lokosahitya [Folk literature]. Volume 6 of The collected works of Tagore. Calcutta: Visvabharati. THOMPSON, Edward & G. T. GARRET 1934 Rise and fulfilment of British rule in India. London: Macmillan & Co Ltd.

160

SYED MOIlAMMAD SHAHED

UTLEY, Francis Lee 1961 Folk litcraturc: An operational definition. Journal of American Folklore 74. VRBDBNDURW, Edric 1917 Grirnm's fairy tales. London: Pan Books Ltd.