Engineering Materials

1 Fundamentals of machine design
Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
Module
Lesson
2 Engineering Materials
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students should know Properties and applications of common engineering materials. Types and uses of ferrous metals such as cast iron, wrought iron and steel. Types and uses of some common non-ferrous metals. Types and uses of some non-metals. Important mechanical properties of materials.
1.2.1 Introduction
Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its properties, cost, availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to have some idea of the common engineering materials and their properties before learning the details of design procedure. This topic is in the domain of material science or metallurgy but some relevant discussions are necessary at this stage. Common engineering materials are normally classified as metals and nonmetals. Metals may conveniently be divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Important ferrous metals for the present purpose are: (i) cast iron (ii) wrought iron (iii) steel. Some of the important non-ferrous metals used in engineering design are: (a) Light metal group such as aluminium and its alloys, magnesium and manganese alloys. (b) Copper based alloys such as brass (Cu-Zn), bronze (Cu-Sn). (c) White metal group such as nickel, silver, white bearing metals eg. SnSb7Cu3, Sn60Sb11Pb, zinc etc. Cast iron, wrought iron and steel will now be discussed under separate headings.
1.2.2 Ferrous materials

Cast iron- It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle. Carbon content may be within 1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present as free carbon or iron carbide Fe3C. In general the types of cast iron are (a) grey cast iron and (b) white cast iron (c) malleable cast iron (d) spheroidal or nodular cast iron (e) austenitic cast iron (f) abrasion resistant cast iron. (a) Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This type of cast iron is inexpensive and has high compressive strength. Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this makes it easily machinable but brittle. Some examples of this type of cast iron are FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15. The numbers indicate ultimate tensile strength in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15% silicon. (b) White cast iron- In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C) which is hard and brittle. The presence of iron carbide increases hardness and makes it difficult to machine. Consequently these cast irons are abrasion resistant. (c) Malleable cast iron- These are white cast irons rendered malleable by annealing. These are tougher than grey cast iron and they can be twisted or bent without fracture. They have excellent machining properties and are inexpensive. Malleable cast iron are used for making parts where forging is expensive such as hubs for wagon wheels, brake supports. Depending on the method of processing they may be designated as black heart BM32, BM30 or white heart WM42, WM35 etc. (d) Spheroidal or nodular graphite cast iron- In these cast irons graphite is present in the form of spheres or nodules. They have high tensile strength and good elongation properties. They are designated as, for example, SG50/7, SG80/2 etc where the first number gives the tensile strength in MPa and the second number indicates percentage elongation. (e) Austenitic cast iron- Depending on the form of graphite present these cast iron can be classified broadly under two headings: Austenitic flake graphite iron designated, for example, AFGNi16Cu7Cr2
Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for example, ASGNi20Cr2. These are alloy cast irons and they contain small percentages of silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus etc. They may be produced by adding alloying elements viz. nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and manganese in sufficient quantities. These elements give more strength and improved properties. They are used for making automobile parts such as cylinders, pistons, piston rings, brake drums etc. (f) Abrasion resistant cast iron- These are alloy cast iron and the alloying elements render abrasion resistance. A typical designation is ABR33 Ni4 Cr2 which indicates a tensile strength in kg/mm2 with 4% nickel and 2% chromium.
Wrought iron- This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of the order of 99.5%. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some small amount of silicon, sulphur, or phosphorus may be present. It is tough, malleable and ductile and can easily be forged or welded. It cannot however take sudden shock. Chains, crane hooks, railway couplings and such other components may be made of this iron. Steel- This is by far the most important engineering material and there is an enormous variety of steel to meet the wide variety of engineering requirements. The present note is an introductory discussion of a vast topic. Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can be less than 1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart hardness and strength. Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel and (b) alloy steel. (a) Plain carbon steel- The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present in more than 0.5 to 1% such as 0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large variety of plane carbon steel and they are designated as C01, C14, C45, C70 and so on where the number indicates the carbon percentage.
Following categorization of these steels is sometimes made for convenience: Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46% C Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C. High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C Detailed properties of these steels may be found in any standard handbook but in general higher carbon percentage indicates higher strength. (b) Alloy steel- these are steels in which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient quantities to impart desired properties, such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, electric or magnetic properties. Chief alloying elements added are usually nickel for strength and toughness, chromium for hardness and strength, tungsten for hardness at elevated temperature, vanadium for tensile strength, manganese for high strength in hot rolled and heat treated condition, silicon for high elastic limit, cobalt for hardness and molybdenum for extra tensile strength. Some examples of alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60, 30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28, 37Mn2. Stainless steel is one such alloy steel that gives good corrosion resistance. One important type of stainless steel is often described as 18/8 steel where chromium and nickel percentages are 18 and 8 respectively. A typical designation of a stainless steel is 15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where carbon percentage is 0.15.
1.2.3 Specifications
A number of systems for grading steel exist in different countries. The American system is usually termed as SAE ( Society of Automobile Engineers) or AISI ( American Iron and Steel Industries) systems. For an example, a steel denoted as SAE 1020 indicates 0.2% carbon and 13% tungsten. In this system the first digit indicates the chief alloying material. Digits 1,2,3,4 and 7 refer to carbon, nickel, nickel/chromium, molybdenum and tungsten respectively. More details may be seen in the standards. The second digit or second and third digits give the percentage of the main alloying element and the last two digits indicate the carbon percentage. This therefore explains that SAE
71360 indicates an alloy steel with 0.6% carbon and the percentage of main alloying material tungsten is 13. In British system steels are designated by the letters En followed by a number such as 1,216, 20 etc. Corresponding constituent elements can be seen from the standards but in general En4 is equivalent to C25 steel, En6 is equivalent to C30 steel and so on.
1.2.4 Non-ferrous metals

Metals containing elements other than iron as their chief constituents are usually referred to as non-ferrous metals. There is a wide variety of non-metals in practice. However, only a few exemplary ones are discussed below: Aluminium- This is the white metal produced from Alumina. In its pure state it is weak and soft but addition of small amounts of Cu, Mn, Si and Magnesium makes it hard and strong. It is also corrosion resistant, low weight and non-toxic. Duralumin- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 0.5% Mn, 0.5% Mg and aluminium. It is widely used in automobile and aircraft components. Y-alloy- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 1.5% Mn, 2% Ni, 6% Si, Mg, Fe and the rest is Al. It gives large strength at high temperature. It is used for aircraft engine parts such as cylinder heads, piston etc. Magnalium- This is an aluminium alloy with 2 to 10 % magnesium. It also contains 1.75% Cu. Due to its light weight and good strength it is used for aircraft and automobile components. Copper alloys Copper is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It is soft, malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. The following two important copper alloys are widely used in practice: Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)- It is fundamentally a binary alloy with Zn upto 50% . As Zn percentage increases, ductility increases upto ~37% of Zn beyond which the ductility falls. This is shown in figure-1.2.4.1. Small amount of other elements viz. lead or tin imparts other properties to brass. Lead gives good machining quality
and tin imparts strength. Brass is highly corrosion resistant, easily machinable and therefore a good bearing material.
ductility
37
Zn (%)
1.2.4.1F- Variation of ductility of brass with percentage of zinc.
Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)-This is mainly a copper-tin alloy where tin percentage may vary between 5 to 25. It provides hardness but tin content also oxidizes resulting in brittleness. Deoxidizers such as Zn may be added. Gun metal is one such alloy where 2% Zn is added as deoxidizing agent and typical compositions are 88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn. This is suitable for working in cold state. It was originally made for casting guns but used now for boiler fittings, bushes, glands and other such uses.
1.2.5 Non-metals
Non-metallic materials are also used in engineering practice due to principally their low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat and electricity. Though there are many suitable non-metals, the following are important few from design point of view: Timber- This is a relatively low cost material and a bad conductor of heat and electricity. It has also good elastic and frictional properties and is widely used in foundry patterns and as water lubricated bearings. Leather- This is widely used in engineering for its flexibility and wear resistance. It is widely used for belt drives, washers and such other applications.
Rubber- It has high bulk modulus and is used for drive elements, sealing, vibration isolation and similar applications. Plastics These are synthetic materials which can be moulded into desired shapes under pressure with or without application of heat. These are now extensively used in various industrial applications for their corrosion resistance, dimensional stability and relatively low cost. There are two main types of plastics: (a) Thermosetting plastics- Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat and pressure. It initially softens and with increasing heat and pressure, polymerisation takes place. This results in hardening of the material. These plastics cannot be deformed or remoulded again under heat and pressure. Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol
formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic resins etc. (b) Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the application of heat and pressure and no chemical change takes place. They remain soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These can be re-melted and remoulded by application of heat and pressure. Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate (celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride ( PVC) etc.
1.2.6
Mechanical
properties
of
common
engineering
materials
The important properties from design point of view are: (a) Elasticity- This is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. All materials are plastic to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic than rubber.
(b) Plasticity- This is associated with the permanent deformation of material when the stress level exceeds the yield point. Under plastic conditions materials ideally deform without any increase in stress. A typical stressstrain diagram for an elastic-perfectly plastic material is shown in the figure-1.2.6.1. Mises-Henky criterion gives a good starting point for plasticity
2
analysis.
2
The
2
criterion
is
given
as ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) = 2 2 , where 1, 2, 3 and y are the y three principal stresses at a point for any given loading and the stress at the tensile yield point respectively. A typical example of plastic flow is the indentation test where a spherical ball is pressed in a semi-infinite body where 2a is the indentation diameter. In a simplified model we may write that if
P > p m plastic flow occurs where, pm is the flow pressure. This is a 2
also shown in figure 1.2.6.1.
2a
1.2.6.1F- Stress-strain diagram of an elastic-perfectly plastic material and the plastic indentation.
(c) Hardness- Property of the material that enables it to resist permanent deformation, penetration, indentation etc. Size of indentations by various types of indenters are the measure of hardness e.g. Brinnel hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness (diamond pyramid) test. These tests give hardness numbers which are related to yield pressure (MPa).
(d) Ductility- This is the property of the material that enables it to be drawn out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs. The percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area before rupture of a test specimen is the measure of ductility. Normally if percentage elongation exceeds 15% the material is ductile and if it is less than 5% the material is brittle. Lead, copper, aluminium, mild steel are typical ductile materials. (e) Malleability- It is a special case of ductility where it can be rolled into thin sheets but it is not necessary to be so strong. Lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are some materials in order of diminishing malleability. (f) Brittleness- This is opposite to ductility. Brittle materials show little deformation before fracture and failure occur suddenly without any warning. Normally if the elongation is less than 5% the material is considered to be brittle. E.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics are typical brittle materials. (g) Resilience- This is the property of the material that enables it to resist shock and impact by storing energy. The measure of resilience is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume. For a rod of length L subjected to tensile load P, a linear load-deflection plot is shown in figure-1.2.6.2. Strain energy ( energy stored) = Strain energy/unit volume =
1 1 P L 1 PL = AL = V 2 2A L 2
1 2
1.2.6.2F- A linear load-deflection plot.
(h) Toughness- This is the property which enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched under impact load or high stress before rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of the material to absorb energy in the plastic zone. The measure of toughness is the amount of energy absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture. (i) Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes a slow permanent deformation and this is termed as creep. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at elevated temperatures creep is high.
1.2.7Questions with Answers

Q.1: Classify common engineering materials. A.1: Common engineering materials can be broadly classified into metals and non-metals. Metals include ferrous and non-ferrous metal and the nonmetals include timber, leather, rubber and a large variety of polymers. Among the ferrous metals different varieties of cast iron, wrought iron and alloy steels are extensively used in industry. There are also a large variety of timber, leather and polymers that are used in industry. Q.2: What are the advantages of malleable cast iron over white or grey cast iron? A.2: Malleable cast iron are tougher than grey or white cast iron and can be twisted or bent without fracture. They also have excellent machining properties and are relatively inexpensive. Q.3: A standard alloy steel used for making engineering components is 20Cr18 Ni2. State the composition of the steel. A.3: The composition of the steel is 0.2% carbon, 18% chromium and 2% nickel. Q.4: How are plain carbon steel designated?
A.4 Properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon percentage and they are designated as C01, C45, C70 where carbon percentage is represented in terms of the digits, for example C01 steel contains 0.01% carbon. Q.5: Name two important copper alloys and give their typical compositions. A.5: Two most important copper alloys are bronze and brass. Bronze is a Cu-Sn alloy with the typical composition of 88% Cu, 10% Sn and 2% Zn. Brass is a Cu-Zn alloy with the typical composition of red brass of 85% Cu , 15% Zn. Q.6: List at least five important non-metals commonly used in machine design. A.6: Some important non-metals for industrial uses are: Timber, leather, rubber, bakelite, nylon, polythene, polytetraflutoethylene (PTFE). Q.7: State atleast 5 important mechanical properties of materials to be considered in machine design. A.7: Some important properties of materials to be considered in design are: Elastic limit, yield and ultimate strength, hardness and toughness.
Q.8: Define resilience and discuss its implication in the choice of materials in machine design. A.8: Resilience is defined as the property of a material that enables it to resist shock and impact. The property is important in choosing materials for machine parts subjected to shock loading, such as, fasteners, springs etc.
1.2.8 Summary of this Lesson In this lesson the properties and uses of different types of metals and nonmetals, generally used in machine design, are discussed. Primarily ferrous and non-ferrous metals and some non-metals are discussed. Mechanical properties of some common engineering materials are also discussed briefly.
1.2.8 Reference for Module-1 1) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India, 1991. 2) Machine design-an integrated approach by Robert L. Norton, Pearson Education Ltd. 3) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal, S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998. 4) A text book of machine design by R. S. Khurmi and J.K.Gupta, S.Chand and company ltd., 1997.
Module
Lesson
3 Brief overview of design and manufacturing
Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand: Concept of limits and fits Preferred numbers Various manufacturing processes
1.3.1 Design and Manufacturing

A machine element, after design, requires to be manufactured to give it a shape of a product. Therefore, in addition to standard design practices like, selection of proper material, ensuring proper strength and dimension to guard against failure, a designer should have knowledge of basic manufacturing aspects. In this lesson, we will discuss briefly about some of the basic manufacturing requirements and processes. First and foremost is assigning proper size to a machine element from manufacturing view point. As for example, a shaft may be designed to diameter of, say, 40 mm. This means, the nominal diameter of the shaft is 40 mm, but the actual size will be slightly different, because it is impossible to manufacture a shaft of exactly 40 mm diameter, no matter what machine is used. In case the machine element is a mating part with another one, then dimensions of both the parts become important, because they dictate the nature of assembly. The allowable variation in size for the mating parts is called limits and the nature of assembly due to such variation in size is known as fits.
1.3.2 Limits
Fig. 1.3.1 explains the terminologies used in defining tolerance and limit. The zero line, shown in the figure, is the basic size or the nominal size. The definition of the terminologies is given below. For the convenience, shaft and hole are chosen to be two mating components.
HOLE Tolerance Allowance
Upper Deviation
ZERO LINE Lower Deviation
SHAFT Min. Diameter (lower limit) Basic Size
Max. Diameter (upper limit)
Fig. 1.3.1 Interrelationship between tolerances and limits Tolerance Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of a component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit. Depending on the type of application, the permissible variation of dimension is set as per available standard grades. Tolerance is of two types, bilateral and unilateral. When tolerance is present on both sides of nominal size, it is termed as bilateral; unilateral has tolerance only on one side. The Fig.1.3.2 shows the + +x types of tolerance. 500 y , 500 x and 50 y is Basic size
Unilateral Bilateral Fig. 1.3.2 Types of tolerance
a typical example of specifying tolerance for a shaft of nominal diameter of 50mm. First two values denote unilateral tolerance and the third value denotes bilateral tolerance. Values of the tolerance are given as x and y respectively. Allowance It is the difference of dimension between two mating parts. Upper deviation It is the difference of dimension between the maximum possible size of the component and its nominal size.
Lower deviation Similarly, it is the difference of dimension between the minimum possible size of the component and its nominal size. Fundamental deviation It defines the location of the tolerance zone with respect to the nominal size. For that matter, either of the deviations may be considered.
1.3.3 Fit System

We have learnt above that a machine part when manufactured has a specified tolerance. Therefore, when two mating parts fit with each other, the nature of fit is dependent on the limits of tolerances and fundamental deviations of the mating parts. The nature of assembly of two mating parts is defined by three types of fit system, Clearance Fit, Transition Fit and Interference Fit. The fit system is shown schematically in Fig.1.3.3. There are two ways of representing a system. One is the hole basis and the other is the shaft basis. In the hole basis system the dimension of the hole is considered to be the datum, whereas, in the shaft basis system dimension of the shaft is considered to be the datum. The holes are normally made by drilling, followed by reaming. Therefore, the dimension of a hole is fixed due to the nature of the tool used. On the contrary, the dimension of a shaft is easily controllable by standard manufacturing processes. For this reason, the hole basis system is much more popular than the shaft basis system. Here, we shall discuss fit system on hole basis.
HOLE
HOLE
SHAFT
SHAFT
Clearance fit HOLE SHAFT
Transition fit
Interference fit Fig. 1.3.3 Schematic view of Fit system
Clearance Fit In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can also be fitted easily even in the hole of smallest possible diameter. Transition Fit In this case, there will be a clearance between the minimum dimension of the shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. If we look at the figure carefully, then it is observed that if the shaft dimension is maximum and the hole dimension is minimum then an overlap will result and this creates a certain amount of tightness in the fitting of the shaft inside the hole. Hence, transition fit may have either clearance or overlap in the fit.
Interference Fit
In this case, no matter whatever may be the tolerance level in shaft and the hole, there is always a overlapping of the matting parts. This is known as interference fit. Interference fit is a form of a tight fit.
1.3.4 Standard limit and fit system

Fig. 1.3.4 shows the schematic view of a standard limit and fit system. In this figure tolerance is denoted as IT and it has 18 grades; greater the number, more is the tolerance limit. The fundamental deviations for the hole are denoted by capital letters from A and ZC, having altogether 25 divisions. Similarly, the fundamental deviations for the shaft is denoted by small letters from a to zc. A + H Fundamental deviation 0 Fundamental deviation (A-ZC) Basic size ZC Tolerance (IT)
HOLE
+ Fundamental deviation (a-zc) h SHAFT a
zc
0 -
Basic size
Fig. 1.3.4 Schematic view of standard limit and fit system Here H or h is a typical case, where the fundamental deviation is zero having an unilateral tolerance of a specified IT grade.
Therefore in standard limits and fit system we find that, Standard tolerances 18 grades: IT01 ,IT0 and IT1-1T16
Fundamental deviations 25 types: A- ZC (For holes) a- zc (For shafts)
The values of standard tolerances and fundamental deviations can be obtained by consulting design hand book. It is to be noted that the choice of tolerance grade is related to the type of manufacturing process; for example, attainable tolerance grade for lapping process is lower compared to plain milling. Similarly, choice of fundamental deviation largely depends on the nature of fit, running fit or tight fit etc. The approximate zones for fit are shown in Fig. 1.3.5. Manufacturing processes involving lower tolerance grade are generally costly. Hence the designer has to keep in view the manufacturing processes to make the design effective and inexpensive. Sample designation of limit and fit, 50H6/g5. The designation means that the nominal size of the hole and the shaft is 50 mm. H is the nature of fit for the hole basis system and its fundamental deviation is zero. The tolerance grade for making the hole is IT6. Similarly, the shaft has the fit type g, for which the fundamental deviation is negative, that is, its dimension is lower than the nominal size, and tolerance grade is IT5. A HOLE + Fundamental deviation 0 Clearance fit + 0 a h SHAFT Basic size Snug Fit Tight fit H ZC Basic size
zc
Very Tight fit
Fig. 1.3.5 Typical zones of fit
1.3.5 Preferred numbers

A designed product needs standardization. It means that some of its important specified parameter should be common in nature. For example, the sizes of the ingots available in the market have standard sizes. A manufacturer does not produce ingots of sizes of his wish, he follows a definite pattern and for that matter designer can choose the dimensions from those standard available sizes. Motor speed, engine power of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a definite pattern or series. This also helps in interchangeability of products. It has been observed that if the sizes are put in the form of geometric progression, then wide ranges are covered with a definite sequence. These numbers are called preferred numbers having common ratios as,
5
10 1.58,
10
10 1.26,
20
10 1.12 and
40
10 1.06
Depending on the common ratio, four basic series are formed; these are R5 , R10 , R20 and R40 . These are named as Renard series. Many other derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc. Typical values of the common ratio for four basic G.P. series are given below. Preferred Numbers R5:
5
10 10 10 10
1.58: 1.0, 1.6, 2.5, 4.0,
R10:
10
1.26: 1.0, 1.25, 1.6, 2.0,
R20:
20
1.12: 1.0, 1.12, 1.25, 1.4,
R40:
40
1.06: 1.0, 1.06, 1.12, 1.18,..
Few examples R10 , R20 and R40 : Thickness of sheet metals, wire diameter R5 , R10 , R20 : Speed layout in a machine tool (R10 : 1000, 1250,1600, 2000) : Machine tool feed R20 or R40 R5 : Capacities of hydraulic cylinder
1.3.6 Common manufacturing processes

The types of common manufacturing processes are given below in the Fig.1.3.6. Manufacturing processes
Shaping
Joining Surface finishing
Machining
Non-conventional machining Heat treatment of the product Fig. 1.3.6 Common manufacturing processes The types of shaping processes are given below in the Fig.1.3.7. Shaping processes Casting Forging
Extruding
Rolling
Fig. 1.3.7 Shaping processes Following are the type of machining processes, shown in Fig.1.3.8. Machining Turning Shaping
Milling
Drilling
Fig. 1.3.8 Machining processes Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
Various joining processes are shown in Fig.1.3.9. Joining processes
Welding Brazing
Riveting Screw fastening
Fig. 1.3.9 Joining processes The surface finishing processes are given below (Fig.1.3.10),
Surface finishing processes
Grinding Lapping Electroplating
Honing Buffing
Fig. 1.3.10 Surface finishing processes The non-conventional machining processes are as follows (Fig.1.3.11), Non-conventional machining processes
Ultrasonic Machining Electrochemical Machining
Laser Beam Machining
Chemical Machining
Abrasive jet Machining Fig. 1.3.11 Non conventional machining processes
Questions and answers

Q1. What is meant by tolerance? How many types of tolerance is there? A1. Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of a component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit. Depending on the type of application, the permissible variation of dimension is set as per available standard grades. Tolerance is of two types, bilateral and unilateral. When tolerance is present on both sides of nominal size, it is termed as bilateral; unilateral has tolerance only on one side. Q2. What are the types fit? Describe the differences. A2. The nature of assembly of two mating parts is defined by three types of fit system, Clearance Fit, Transition Fit and Interference Fit. Clearance Fit: In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can be fitted easily in the hole of smallest possible diameter. Interference Fit : In this type of fit, irrespective of tolerance grade there is always a overlapping of the matting parts. Transition Fit: In this case, a clearance is present between the minimum dimension of the shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. However, the fit is tight, if the shaft dimension is maximum and the hole dimension is minimum. Hence, transition fit have both the characteristics of clearance fit and interference fit.
Q3. What are preferred numbers? A3. Preferred numbers are the numbers belonging to four categories of geometric progression series, called basic series, having common ratio of,
5
10 1.58,
10
10 1.26,
20
10 1.12 and
40
10 1.06
Preferred numbers of derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc. These numbers are used to build-up or manufacture a product range. The range of operational speeds of a machine or the range of powers of a typical machine may be also as per a series of preferred numbers.
References
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989. 2. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi. 3. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003. 4. Chapman, W.A.J., Workshop Technology (part 2), ELBS, 4th edition, 1975 5. Maitra, G.M., Handbook of Design, Tata McGraw Hill Publication, New Delhi, 1998.
Module
Lesson
1 Design philosophy
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of Basic concept of design in general. Concept of machine design and their types. Factors to be considered in machine design.
1.1.1Introduction
Design is essentially a decision-making process. If we have a problem, we need to design a solution. In other words, to design is to formulate a plan to satisfy a particular need and to create something with a physical reality. Consider for an example, design of a chair. A number of factors need be considered first: (a) The purpose for which the chair is to be designed such as whether it is to be used as an easy chair, an office chair or to accompany a dining table. (b) Whether the chair is to be designed for a grown up person or a child. (c) Material for the chair, its strength and cost need to be determined. (d) Finally, the aesthetics of the designed chair. Almost everyone is involved in design, in one way or the other, in our daily lives because problems are posed and they need to be solved.
1.1.2
Basic concept of machine design
Decision making comes in every stage of design. Consider two cars of different makes. They may both be reasonable cars and serve the same purpose but the designs are different. The designers consider different factors and come to certain conclusions leading to an optimum design. Market survey gives an indication of what people want. Existing norms play an important role. Once a critical decision is made, the rest of the design features follow. For example,
once we decide the engine capacity, the shape and size, then the subsequent course of the design would follow. A bad decision leads to a bad design and a bad product. Design may be for different products and with the present specialization and knowledge bank, we have a long list of design disciplines e.g. ship design, building design, process design, bridge design, clothing or fashion design and so on. Here we are concerned with machine design. We now define a machine as a combination of resisting bodies with successfully constrained relative motions which is used to transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or transmit and modify available energy to do some useful work. If it converts heat into mechanical energy we then call it a heat engine. This is illustrated in figure1.1.2.1.
Q1
W = pdv
ANIMATE
Q2
1.1.2.1A- Conversion of heat to mechanical energy in a piston cylinder arrangement.
In many cases however, the machines receive mechanical energy and modify it so that a specific task is carried out, for example a hoist, a bicycle or a handwinch. This modification or transformation of energy requires a number of machine elements, some small and some large. Machine design involves primarily designing these elements so that they may transmit the forces safely and perform their task successfully. Consider the following simple mechanisms: (a) Hand winch (b) Small press operated by a power screw..
In each one of these mechanisms some useful work is being obtained with certain combinations of a number of machine parts. Designing these mechanisms would involve firstly designing these elements and then assembling them in order.
CLIPPING
1.1.2.1V Introduction to machine design
1.1.3 Types of design

There may be several types of design such as Adaptive design This is based on existing design, for example, standard products or systems adopted for a new application. Conveyor belts, control system of machines and mechanisms or haulage systems are some of the examples where existing design systems are adapted for a particular use. Developmental design Here we start with an existing design but finally a modified design is obtained. A new model of a car is a typical example of a developmental design . New design This type of design is an entirely new one but based on existing scientific principles. No scientific invention is involved but requires creative thinking to solve a problem. Examples of this type of design may include designing a small vehicle for transportation of men and material on board a ship or in a desert. Some research activity may be necessary.
1.1.4 Types of design based on methods

Rational design This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and thereby deciding their dimensions.
Empirical design This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience and experiments. For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or the stresses induced cannot be determined exactly but experience shows that the tightening force may be given by P=284d where, d is the bolt diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg. There is no mathematical backing of this equation but it is based on observations and experience. Industrial design These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey, external look, production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard products.
1.1.5 Factors to be considered in machine design

There are many factors to be considered while attacking a design problem. In many cases these are a common sense approach to solving a problem. Some of these factors are as follows: (a) What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the relative arrangement of the constituent elements. (b) Material (c) Forces on the elements (d) Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the product is also a major concern. (e) The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly. (f) How will it operate?
(g) Reliability and safety aspects (h) Inspectibility (i) Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.
What device or mechanism to be used- This is best judged by understanding the problem thoroughly. Sometimes a particular function can be achieved by a number of means or by using different mechanisms and the designer has to decide which one is most effective under the circumstances. A rough design or
layout diagram may be made to crystallize the thoughts regarding the relative arrangement of the elements. Material- This is a very important aspect of any design. A wrong choice of material may lead to failure, over or undersized product or expensive items. The choice of materials is thus dependent on suitable properties of the material for each component, their suitability of fabrication or manufacture and the cost. Load- The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and these stresses must be determined accurately since these will be used in determining the component size. Loading may be due to: i) Energy transmission by a machine member. ii) Dead weight. iii) Inertial forces. iv) Thermal effects. v) Frictional forces.
In other ways loads may be classified as: i) Static load- Does not change in magnitude and direction and normally increases gradually to a steady value. ii) Dynamic load- a) changes in magnitude- for e.g. traffic of varying weight passing a bridge. b) changes in direction- for e.g. load on piston rod of a double acting cylinder. The nature of these loads are shown in figure-1.1.5.1.
Load
Time
Static load
Load
Load
Load
Time
Time
Time
Dynamic Loading 1.1.5.1F The nature of static and dynamic load Vibration and shock loading are types of dynamic loading. Size, shape, space requirements and weight- Preliminary analysis would give an approximate size but if a standard element is to be chosen, the next larger size must be taken. Shapes of standard elements are known but for nonstandard element, shapes and space requirements must depend on available space in a particular machine assembly. A scale layout drawing is often useful to arrive at an initial shape and size.
Weight is important depending on application. For example, an aircraft must always be made light. This means that the material chosen must have the required strength yet it must be light. Similar arguments apply to choice of material for ships and there too light materials are to be chosen. Portable equipment must be made light.
Manufacture Care must always be taken to ensure that the designed elements may be manufactured with ease, within the available facilities and at low cost. How will it operate In the final stage of the design a designer must ensure that the machine may be operated with ease. In many power operated machines it is simply a matter of pressing a knob or switch to start the machine. However in many other cases, a sequence of operations is to be specified. This sequence must not be complicated and the operations should not require excessive force. Consider the starting, accelerating and stopping a scooter or a car. With time tested design considerations, the sequences have been made user-friendly and as in any other product, these products too go through continuous innovation and development.
Reliability and safety Reliability is an important factor in any design. A designed machine should work effectively and reliably. The probability that an element or a machine will not fail in use is called reliability. Reliability lies between 0 R< 1. To ensure this, every detail should be examined. Possible overloading, wear of elements, excessive heat generation and other such detrimental factors must be avoided. There is no single answer for this but an overall safe design approach and care at every stage of design would result in a reliable machine. Safety has become a matter of paramount importance these days in design. Machines must be designed to serve mankind, not to harm it. Industrial regulations ensure that the manufacturer is liable for any damage or harm arising out of a defective product. Use of a factor of safety only in design does not ensure its overall reliability.
Maintenance, cost and aesthetics Maintenance and safety are often interlinked. Good maintenance ensures good running condition of machinery. Often a regular maintenance schedule is maintained and a thorough check up of moving and loaded parts is carried out to
avoid catastrophic failures. Low friction and wear is maintained by proper lubrication. This is a major aspect of design since wherever there are moving parts, friction and wear are inevitable. High friction leads to increased loss of energy. Wear of machine parts leads to loss of material and premature failure.
Cost and aesthetics are essential considerations for product design. Cost is essentially related to the choice of materials which in turn depends on the stresses developed in a given condition. Although in many cases aesthetic considerations are not essential aspects of machine design, ergonomic aspects must be taken into considerations.
1.1.6Problems with Answers

Q.1: Define machine design. A.1: A machine is a combination of several machine elements arranged to work together as a whole to accomplish specific purposes. Machine design involves designing the elements and arranging them optimally to obtain some useful work.
Q.2: What is an adaptive design? A.2: Adaptive design is based on an existing design adapted for a new system or application, for example, design of a new model of passenger car.
Q.3: Suggest briefly the steps to be followed by a designer. A.3: Machine design requires a thorough knowledge of engineering science in its totality along with a clear decision making capability. Every designer follows his own methodology based on experience and analysis. However, the main steps to be followed in general are : Define the problem. Make preliminary design decisions. Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
Make design sketches. Carry out design analysis and optimization. Design the elements for strength and durability. Prepare documentations to be followed for manufacture.
Q.4: Discuss factor of safety in view of the reliability in machine design. A.4: Reliability of a designed machine is concerned with the proper functioning of the elements and the machine as a whole so that the machine does not fail in use within its designed life. There is no single answer to this and an overall safe design approach at every stage of the design is needed. Use of factor of safety in designing the elements is to optimize the design to avoid overdesign for reliability.
1.1.7Summary of this Lesson

The lesson essentially discusses the basic concept of design in general leading to the concept of machine design which involves primarily designing the elements. Different types of design and the factors to be considered have been discussed in detail.
2 Stresses in machine elements

Module
1 Simple stresses
Lesson
At the end of this lesson, the student should have adequate knowledge of Simple stresses in machine elements; tensile, compressive, bearing and shear stresses. Flexture formula and their limitations. Torsion formula and its limitations. Design of members subjected to combined bending, torsion and axial loading. Buckling of beams.
2.1.1 Introduction
Stresses are developed in machine elements due to applied load and machine design involves ensuring that the elements can sustain the induced stresses without yielding. Consider a simple lever as shown in figure-2.1.1.1: Hinge Pin
A B
Spring Stiffness
2.1.1.1F- A simple lever subjected to forces at the ends.
A proper design of the spring would ensure the necessary force P at the lever end B. The stresses developed in sections AB and AC would decide the optimum cross-section of the lever provided that the material has been chosen correctly. Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
The design of the hinge depends on the stresses developed due to the reaction forces at A. A closer look at the arrangement would reveal that the following types of stresses are developed in different elements: Lever arms AB and AC Hinge pin Spring Bending stresses Shear and bearing stresses. Shear stress.
It is therefore important to understand the implications of these and other simple stresses. Although it is more fundamental to consider the state of stress at a point and stress distribution, in elementary design analysis simple average stresses at critical cross-sections are considered to be sufficient. More fundamental issues of stress distribution in design analysis will be discussed later in this lecture.
2.1.2 Some basic issues of simple stresses

Tensile stress The stress developed in the bar ( figure-2.1.2.1) subjected to tensile loading is P given by t = A
2.1.2.1F- A prismatic bar subjected to tensile loading.
Compressive stress The stress developed in the bar ( figure-2.1.2.2) subjected to compressive loading is given by
c =
P A
P
2.1.2.2F- A prismatic bar subjected to compressive loading.
Here the force P is the resultant force acting normal to the cross-section A. However, if we consider the stresses on an inclined cross-section B ( figure2.1.2.3) then the normal stress perpendicular to the section is
P cos A / cos P sin A / cos
and shear stress parallel to the section
2.1.2.3F- Stresses developed at an inclined section of a bar subjected to tensile loading.
Bearing stress When a body is pressed against another, the compressive stress developed is termed bearing stress. For example, bearing stress developed at the contact P br = between a pillar and ground (figure- 2.1.2.4a) is , at the contact A surface between a pin and a member with a circular hole (figure- 2.1.2.4b) is = P and at the faces of a rectangular key fixing a gear hub on a shaft br Ld 4T (figure- 2.1.2.4c) is br = . aLd
L
P
L
Gear
Pillar
a a
Area of cross-section
Diameter, D
Key
d
Shaft
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.1.2.4F- The bearing stresses developed in pillar and machine parts.
The pressure developed may be irregular in the above examples but the expressions give the average values of the stresses.
Shear stress When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stresses ( figure2.1.2.5) and the average values of the shear stresses are given by
P A P = 2A
in single shear in double shear
Shear area A P P P
2P
2.1.2.5F- Stresses developed in single and double shear modes
In design problems, critical sections must be considered to find normal or shear stresses. We consider a plate with holes under a tensile load (figure-2.1.2.6) to explain the concept of critical sections.
D H2 P
C H2
A P
H2 D C
H1 B A
2.1.2.6F- The concept of critical sections explained with the help of a loaded plate with holes at selected locations.
Let the cross-sectional area of the plate, the larger hole H1 and the smaller holes H2 be A, a1, a2 respectively. If 2a2 > a1 the critical section in the above example is CC and the average normal stress at the critical section is P = A 2a 2
2.1.3 Bending of beams

2.1.3.1 Bending stresses Consider two sections ab and cd in a beam subjected to a pure bending. Due to bending the top layer is under compression and the bottom layer is under tension. This is shown in figure-2.1.3.1.1. This means that in between the two extreme layers there must be a layer which remains un-stretched and this layer is known as neutral layer. Let this be denoted by NN.
M a
M c
M N
b
R
d
d
M N' c'
y
a'
b'
d'
2.1.3.1.1F- Pure bending of beams
We consider that a plane section remains plane after bending- a basic assumption in pure bending theory. If the rotation of cd with respect to ab is d the contraction of a layer y distance away from the neutral axis is given by ds=y d and original length of the layer is x=R d, R being the radius of curvature of the beam. This gives the strain in the layer as
y R
We also consider that the material obeys Hookes law = E. This is another basic assumption in pure bending theory and substituting the expression for we E = have y R
Consider now a small element dA y distance away from the neutral axis. This is shown in the figure 2.1.3.1.2
M
y
M A
M A
d d x N
N' A'
dA Section AA'
A'
max
2.1.3.1.2F- Bending stress developed at any cross-section
= and considering the linearity in stress Axial force on the element dFxx dA x y y y we have where and = variation across the section x max are the max d = d max stresses at distances y and d respectively from the neutral axis.
The axial force on the element is thus given by dFx =
max y dA . d max For static equilibrium total force at any cross-section F= d ydA = 0 A
This gives ydA = yA = 0 and since A 0,y = 0 .This means that the neutral axis
passes through the centroid. Again for static equilibrium total moment about NA must the applied moment M. This is given by y Md max ydA = M and this givesmax = I d A Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
For any fibre at a distance of y from the centre line we may therefore write My = I We therefore have the general equation for pure bending as
M E = = y I R
2.1.3.2 Shear stress in bending In an idealized situation of pure bending of beams, no shear stress occurs across the section. However, in most realistic conditions shear stresses do occur in beams under bending. This can be visualized if we consider the arguments depicted in figure-2.1.3.2.1 and 2.1.3.2.2.
M1 A C
M2
B
No change in bending moment along the length.
Bending moment changes along the length of the beam
ANIMATE
2.1.3.2.1F- Bending of beams with a steady and varying moment along its length.
M dx A
M+dM C
M A
1 3
M+dM C
2 4
A F1 1
C F2 2
A beam element ACDB of length dx
Stress distribution in the section ACDB.
Forces on the layer AC12
2.1.3.2.2F- Shear stress developed in a beam subjected to a moment varying along the length When bending moment changes along the beam length, layer AC12 for example, would tend to slide against section 1243 and this is repeated in subsequent layers. This would cause interplanar shear forces F1 and F2 at the faces A1 and C2 and since the F = x dA force at any cross-section is given by , we may write
A
F1 =
M Q and F = ( M + dM ) Q 2 I I
Here M and dM are the bending moment and its increment over the length dx and Q is the 1st moment of area about the neutral axis. Since shear stress across the layers can be given by dM and = VQ shear force dx It dF is given by V = = we may write tdx
2.1.4 Torsion of circular members

A torque applied to a member causes shear stress. In order to establish a relation between the torque and shear stress developed in a circular member, the following assumptions are needed:
1. Material is homogeneous and isotropic 2. A plane section perpendicular to the axis of the circular member remains
plane even after twisting i.e. no warping. 3. Materials obey Hookes law.
Consider now a circular member subjected to a torque T as shown in figure 2.1.4.1
B l
2.1.4.1F- A circular member of radius r and length L subjected to torque T.
The assumption of plane section remaining plane assumes no warping in a circular member as shown in figure- 2.1.4.2
2.1.4.2F- Plane section remains plane- No warping.
However, it has been observed experimentally that for non-circular members warping occurs and the assumption of plane sections remaining plane does not apply there. This is shown in figure-2.1.4.3.
2.1.4.3F-Warping during torsion of a non-circular member.
Let the point B on the circumference of the member move to point C during twisting and let the angle of twist be . We may also assume that strain varies linearly from the central axis. This gives
l = r and from Hooke 's law =
where is the shear stress developed and G is the modulus of rigidity. This gives
G = r l
Consider now, an element of area dA at a radius r as shown in figure-2.1.4.4. The torque on the element is given by T = rdA
max
2.1.4.4F- Shear stress variation in a circular cross-section during torsion. For linear variation of shear stress we have
max
r R
Combining this with the torque equation we may write T= Now
max R
r dA
2
r dA
2
may be identified as the polar moment of inertia J .
And this gives T =
T Therefore for any radius r we may write in general = J r We have thus the general torsion equation for circular shafts as
T G = = J r l
max J. R
2.1.5 Buckling
The compressive stress of P/A is applicable only to short members but for long compression members there may be buckling, which is due to elastic instability. The critical load for buckling of a column with different end fixing conditions is given by Eulers formula ( figure-2.1.5.1)
Pcr = n
2 EI l2
where E is the elastic modulus, I the second moment of area, l the column length and n is a constant that depends on the end condition. For columns with both
ends hinged n=1, columns with one end free and other end fixed n=0.25, columns with one end fixed and other end hinged n=2, and for columns with both ends fixed n=4.
P
Hinge
2.1.5.1F- Buckling of a beam hinged at both ends
2.1.6 Stress at a pointits implication in design

The state of stress at a point is given by nine stress components as shown in figure 2.1.6.1 and this is represented by the general matrix as shown below.
x yx zx
xy y zy
xz yz z
y z
yx yz xz
x
xy xz
x
xy yx
yz
2.1.6.1F- Three dimensional stress field on an infinitesimal element.
Consider now a two dimensional stress element subjected only to shear stresses. For equilibrium of a 2-D element we take moment of all the forces about point A ( figure-2.1.6.2) and equate to zero as follows:
( xyyz ) x ( yx xz ) y = 0
yx xy
A y x
xy
yx
2.1.6.2F- Complimentary shear stresses on a 2-D element. This gives xy=yx indicating that xy and yx are complimentary. On similar arguments we may write yz=zy and zx=xz . This means that the state of stress at a point can be given by six stress components only. It is important to understand the implication of this state of stress at a point in the design of machine elements where all or some of the stresses discussed above may act.
For an example, let us consider a cantilever beam of circular cross-section subjected to a vertical loading P at the free end and an axial loading F in addition to a torque T as shown in figure 2.1.6.3. Let the diameter of cross-section and the length of the beam be d and L respectively.
L
A
P
T
2.1.6.3F- A cantilever beam subjected to bending, torsion and an axial loading.
The maximum stresses developed in the beam are :

Bending stress, B = 32PL d 3 4F d 2 16T d 3
Axial stress,
A =
Torsional shear stress, =
It is now necessary to consider the most vulnerable section and element. Since the axial and torsional shear stresses are constant through out the length, the most vulnerable section is the built-up end. We now consider the three elements A, B and C. There is no bending stress on the element B and the bending and axial stresses on the element C act in the opposite direction. Therefore, for the safe design of the beam we consider the stresses on the element A which is shown in figure 2.1.6.4.

B A
B A
2.1.6.4F- Stresses developed on element A in figure-2.1.6.3
Principal stresses and maximum shear stresses can now be obtained and using a suitable failure theory a suitable diameter of the bar may be obtained.
2.1.7Problems with Answers

Q.1: What stresses are developed in the pin A for the bell crank mechanism shown in the figure-2.1.7.1? Find the safe diameter of the pin if the allowable tensile and shear stresses for the pin material are 350 MPa and 170 MPa respectively.
5 KN 100 mm
B A
P
A
150 mm
2.1.7.1F
A.1: Force at B =
5x0.1 = 3.33KN 0.15

52 + 3.332 kN = 6 kN.
Resultant force at A=
Stresses developed in pin A:
(a) shear stress
(b) bearing stress

2x6x103 m = 4.7 mm x170x106
Considering double shear at A, pin diameter d =
6x103 Considering bearing stress at A, pin diameter d = m = 8mm 0.01x7.5x106
A safe pin diameter is 10 mm.
Q.2: What are the basic assumptions in deriving the bending equation? A.2: The basic assumptions in deriving bending equation are: a) The beam is straight with a constant area of cross-section and is symmetrical about the plane of bending. b) Material is homogeneous and isotropic. c) Plane sections normal to the beam axis remain plane even after bending. d) Material obeys Hookes law Q.3: Two cast iron machine parts of cross-sections shown in figure-2.1.7.2 are subjected to bending moments. Which of the two sections can carry a higher moment and determine the magnitude of the applied moments? b=100 mm
m m 10 0
10 0 m m
h=100 mm
(a) (b)
2.1.7.2F Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
A.3: Assuming that bending takes place about the horizontal axis, the 2nd moment of areas of the two sections are:
3
b.b Ia = 12
Ib = 2
b 2b 2 +2 36
b 2 2b 4 2 b 2 = b 3 12 2
Ia = Ib
Considering that the bending stress B is same for both the beams and moments applied Ma and Mb, we have
B =
M a ya M b y b = Ia Ib
Here, ya = 0.5b, yb = b/ 2 . Then M a = 2M b Q.4: Under what condition transverse shear stresses are developed in a beam subjected to a bending moment? A.4: Pure bending of beams is an idealized condition and in the most realistic situation,bending moment would vary along the bending axis ( figure-2.1.7.3).
M1
M2
M1M2
2.1.7.3F Under this condition transverse shear stresses would be developed in a beam.
Q.5: Show how the transverse shear stress is distributed in a beam of solid rectangular cross-section transmitting a vertical shear force.
A.5: Consider a beam with a rectangular cross-section (figure-2.1.7.4). Consider now a longitudinal cut through the beam at a distance of y1 from the neutral axis isolating an area ABCD. An infinitesimal area within the isolated area at a distance y from the neutral axis is then considered to find the first moment of area Q.
P
t=b
A h y1 D B C
y
Shear stress distribution
A simply supported beam with a Concentrated load at the centre.
Enlarged view of the rectangular cross-section
2.1.7.4F
Horizontal shear stress at y, =
VQ V = bydy It It y
1
This gives
V h2 2 y1 indicating a parabolic distribution of shear 2I 4
stress across the cross-section. Here, V is shear force, I is the second moment of area of the beam cross-section, t is the beam width which is b in this case.
Q.6: A 3m long cantilever beam of solid rectangular cross-section of 100mm width and 150mm depth is subjected to an end loading P as shown in the figure-2.1.7.5. If the allowable shear stress in the beam is 150 MPa, find the safe value of P based on shear alone.
P
3m
100 mm
150 mm
2.1.7.5F A.6: Maximum shear stress in a rectangular cross-section is max = where, A is the cross-section area of the beam. Substituting values we have max= 100P and for an allowable shear stress of 150 MPa the safe value of P works out to be 1.5 MN.
3V 2A
Q.7: What are the basic assumptions in deriving the torsion equation for a circular member? A.7: Basic assumptions in deriving the torsion formula are: a) Material is homogenous and isotropic. b) A plane section perpendicular to the axis remains plane even after the torque is applied. This means there is no warpage. c) In a circular member subjected to a torque, shear strain varies linearly from the central axis. d) Material obeys Hookes law.
Q.8: In a design problem it is necessary to replace a 2m long aluminium shaft of 100mm diameter by a tubular steel shaft of the same outside diameter transmitting the same torque and having the same angle of twist. Find the inner radius of the steel bar if GAl = 28GPa and GSt = 84GPa.
A.8: Since the torque transmitted and angle of twist are the same for both the solid and hollow shafts, we may write from torsion formula
Al J Al = St JSt
and
Al G Al = St G St
where , J and G are shear stress, polar moment of inertia and modulus of rigidity respectively. This gives
4 d 0 d i4 28 = 4 84 d0
and with d 0 = 100 mm d i = 90.36 mm
Q.9: An axially loaded brass strut hinged at both ends is 1m long and is of a square cross-section of sides 20mm. What should be the dimension of a steel strut of the same length and subjected to the same axial loads? A.9: Considering that both the steel and brass strut would just avoid buckling, we may write
2 E br I br 2 Est Ist = 2 l2 lst br
where the suffixes br and st represent brass and steel respectively. Substituting values we have,
I br 200 = Ist 90
and this gives sides of the square cross-section of beam strut to be 16.38 mm.
Q.10: Show the stresses on the element at A in figure-2.1.7.6.

300 KN 4 3 25 mm 25mm
300 mm
500mm
20mm A
50mm
50mm
2.1.7.6F A.10: The element A is subjected to a compressive stress due to the vertical component 240 KN and a bending stress due to a moment caused by the horizontalcomponent 180 KN. Compressive stress, c =
240 = 48 MPa 0.05x0.1
Bending (tensile) stress, B =
(180x0.3) x0.03 = 388.8 MPa

0.05x0.13 12
Shear stress due to bending =
VQ = 8.64 MPa It
48 MPa 8.64 MPa
388.8 MPa
2.1.8 Summary of this Lesson

It is important to analyse the stresses developed in machine parts and design the components accordingly. In this lesson simple stresses such as tensile, compressive, bearing, shear, bending and torsional shear stress and buckling of beams have been discussed along with necessary formulations. Methods of combining normal and shear stresses are also discussed.

Module
2 Compound stresses in machine parts

Lesson
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to understand Elements of force system at a beam section. Superposition of axial and bending stresses. Transformation of plane stresses; principal stresses Combining normal and shear stresses.
2.2.1 Introduction
The elements of a force system acting at a section of a member are axial force, shear force and bending moment and the formulae for these force systems were derived based on the assumption that only a single force element is acting at the section. Figure-2.2.1.1 shows a simply supported beam while figure-2.2.1.2 shows the forces and the moment acting at any cross-section X-X of the beam. The force system can be given as: Axial force : =
P A My I
Bending moment : = Shearforce Torque
: = VQ It
T=
J : r
where, is the normal stress, the shear stress, P the normal load, A the crosssectional area, M the moment acting at section X-X, V the shear stress acting at section X-X, Q the first moment of area, I the moment of inertia, t the width at which transverse shear is calculated, J the polar moment of inertia and r the radius of the circular cross-section.
P1
P2
X
P3
2.2.1.1F- A simply supported beam with concentrated loads
2.2.1.2F- Force systems on section XX of figure-2.2.1.1 Combined effect of these elements at a section may be obtained by the method of superposition provided that the following limitations are tolerated: (a) Deformation is small (figure-2.2.1.3)
P
ANIMATE
2.2.1.3A- Small deflection of a simply supported beam with a concentrated load If the deflection is large, another additional moment of P would be developed. (b) Superposition of strains are more fundamental than stress superposition and the principle applies to both elastic and inelastic cases.
2.2.2 Strain superposition due to combined effect of axial force P and bending moment M.
Figure-2.2.2.1 shows the combined action of a tensile axial force and bending moment on a beam with a circular cross-section. At any cross-section of the beam, the axial force produces an axial strain a while the moment M causes a Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
bending strain. If the applied moment causes upward bending such that the strain at the upper most layer is compressive (-2) and that at the lower most layer is tensile (+1), consequently the strains at the lowermost fibre are additive (a+1) and the strains at the uppermost fibre are subtractive (a-2). This is demonstrated in figure-2.2.2.1.
+a
M F F +
-2
a-2
M
+1
Axial strain Bending strain
a+1
Combined strain
2.2.2.1F- Superposition of strain due to axial loading and bending moment.
2.2.3 Superposition of stresses due to axial force and bending moment

In linear elasticity, stresses of same kind may be superposed in homogeneous and isotropic materials. One such example (figure-2.2.3.1) is a simply supported beam with a central vertical load P and an axial compressive load F. At any 4F section a compressive stress of and a bending stress of My are 2 I d produced. Here d is the diameter of the circular bar, I the second moment of area and the moment is PL where the beam length is 2L. Total stresses at the 2 32M 4F upper and lower most fibres in any beam cross-section are + 2 and 3 d 2d 4F 32M 2 respectively. This is illustrated in figure-2.2.3.2 3 d 2d
F
L L
2.2.3.1F- A simply supported beam with an axial and transverse loading.
A
F
Md 2I
=
M F
F + A + Md 2I
F Md 2I A
F Md + A 2I
2.2.3.2F- Combined stresses due to axial loading and bending moment.
2.2.4 Superposition of stresses due to axial force, bending moment and torsion
Until now, we have been discussing the methods of compounding stresses of same kind for example, axial and bending stresses both of which are normal stresses. However, in many cases members on machine elements are subjected to both normal and shear stresses, for example, a shaft subjected to torsion, bending and axial force. This is shown in figure-2.2.4.1. A typical example of this type of loading is seen in a ships propeller shafts. Figure-2.2.4.2 gives a schematic view of a propulsion system. In such cases normal and shearing stresses need to be compounded.
P
F F
2.2.4.1F- A simply supported shaft subjected to axial force bending moment and torsion.
PROPELLER
PROPELLER SHAFT
BEARING BLOCK
THRUST BLOCK
GEAR BOX
PRIME MOVER
2.2.4.2F- A schematic diagram of a typical marine propulsion shafting
2.2.5 Transformation of plane stresses

Consider a state of general plane stress in x-y co-ordinate system. We now wish to transform this to another stress system in, say, x- y co-ordinates, which is inclined at an angle . This is shown in figure-2.2.5.1.
y'
yx
A
xy
xy
x
x'
yx y
x
2.2.5.1F- Transformation of stresses from x-y to x-y co-ordinate system.
A two dimensional stress field acting on the faces of a cubic element is shown in figure-2.2.5.2. In plane stress assumptions, the non-zero stresses are x, y and xy=yx.We may now isolate an element ABC such that the plane AC is inclined at an angle and the stresses on the inclined face are x and xy .
x'y'
x
x'
xy
B
xy
y
2.2.5.2F- Stresses on an isolated triangular element
Considering the force equilibrium in x-direction we may write
x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy sin cos

This may be reduced to x + y x y x ' = + cos 2 + xy sin 2 (1) 2 2 Similarly, force equilibrium in y-direction gives y x x ' y ' = sin 2 + xy cos 2 (2) 2 Since plane AC can assume any arbitrary inclination, a stationary value of x is given by d x ' =0 d This gives
tan 2 =
xy ( x y ) / 2
(3)
This equation has two roots and let the two values of be 1 and (1+90o). Therefore these two planes are the planes of maximum and minimum normal stresses. Now if we set x ' y ' = 0 we get the values of corresponding to planes of zero shear stress. This also gives xy tan 2 = x y / 2
And this is same as equation (3) indicating that at the planes of maximum and minimum stresses no shearing stress occurs. These planes are known as Principal planes and stresses acting on these planes are known as Principal stresses. From equation (1) and (3) the principal stresses are given as
1,2 = x + y 2 x y 2 + xy 2
2
( 4)
In the same way, condition for maximum shear stress is obtained from d (x ' y ' ) = 0 d tan 2 =
( x y ) / 2
xy
(5)
This also gives two values of say 2 and (2+90o), at which shear stress is maximum or minimum. Combining equations (2) and (5) the two values of maximum shear stresses are given by
max x y 2 = + xy (6) 2
2
One important thing to note here is that values of tan22 is negative reciprocal of tan21 and thus 1 and 2 are 45o apart. This means that principal planes and planes of maximum shear stresses are 45o apart. It also follows that although no shear stress exists at the principal planes, normal stresses may act at the planes of maximum shear stresses.
2.2.6 An example
Consider an element with the following stress system (figure-2.2.6.1) x=-10 MPa, y = +20 MPa, = -20 MPa. We need to find the principal stresses and show their senses on a properly oriented element.
Solution: The principal stresses are

1,2 = 10 + 20 2 10 20 + ( 20 ) 2 2
2
y=20 MPa
yx
x
20 MPa x=10 MPa
This gives 20MPa and 30 MPa The principal planes are given by tan21 = 20 ( 10 20 ) / 2
yx
y= 20 MPa
2.2.6.1F- A 2-D element with normal and shear stresses.
= 1.33 The two values are 26.56o and 116.56o
The oriented element to show the principal stresses is shown in figure-2.2.6.2.
yx
x
Pa
y=20 MPa
20
30 M Pa
20 MPa x=10 MPa

Pa M
20 M Pa
yx
y= 20 MPa
30
26.56o
2.2.6.2F- Orientation of the loaded element in the left to show the principal stresses.
2.2.7 Problems with Answers

A 5mm thick steel bar is fastened to a ground plate by two 6 mm diameter pins as shown in figure-2.2.7.1. If the load P at the free end of the steel bar is 5 KN, find (a) The shear stress in each pin (b) The direct bearing stress in each pin.
Q.1:
6 mm diameter
5 mm
100 mm
P 50mm
2.2.7.1F
A.1:
Due to the application of force P the bar will tend to rotate about point O causing shear and bearing stresses in the pins A and B. This is shown in figure-2.2.7.2F. Let the forces at pins A and B be FA and FB and equating moments about O , 5x103x0.125 = (FA+FB)x 0.025 Also, from force balance, FA+P = FB (1) (2)
Solving equations-1 and 2 we have, FA =10 KN and FB = 15 KN. (a) Shear stress in pin A = 10x103 x0.0062 4 15x103 x0.0062 4 = 354 MPa
Shear stress in pin B =
= 530.5 MPa
(b) Bearing stress in pin A =
10x10 3 = 333MPa ( 0.006x0.005)
15x10 3 Bearing stress in pin B = = 500 MPa ( 0.006x0.005)
A
FA
FB
100 mm
50mm
2.2.7.2F
Q.2:
A 100 mm diameter off-set link is transmitting an axial pull of 30 KN as shown in the figure- 2.2.7.3. Find the stresses at points A and B.
A B
50 mm 30 KN
2.2.7.3F
A.2:
The force system at section AB is shown in figure-2.2.7.4.
A = 30x103 x0.05x0.05 30x103 + = 11.46 MPa 4 2 ( 0.1) ( 0.1) 64 4
B =
30x103 x0.05x0.05 30x103 + = 19.1MPa 4 2 ( 0.1) ( 0.1) 64 4
A 30 KN B 50 mm 30 KN
2.2.7.4F A vertical load Py = 20 KN is applied at the free end of a cylindrical bar of radius 50 mm as shown in figure-2.2.7.5. Determine the principal and maximum shear stresses at the points A, B and C.
Q.3:
x B
C
100 mm
60 m m
Py z
m 50 m
2.2.7.5F
A.3:
At section ABC a bending moment of 1.2 KN-m and a torque of 1KN-m act.On elements A and C there is no bending stress. Only torsional shear stress acts and
= 16T = 40.7 MPa d 3
=40.7 MPa
On element B both bending (compressive) and torsional shear stress act.
B =
32M = 97.78 MPa d 3
=97.78 MPa
= 40.7 MPa
2 97.78 2 97.78 Principal stresses at B = + ( 40.7 ) 2 2
=40.7 MPa
B1 = 112.5MPa;
B2 = 14.72MPa
Maximum shear stress at B =
2 97.78 + ( 40.7 ) 2
= 63.61 MPa
Q.4:
A propeller shaft for a launch transmits 75 KW at 150 rpm and is subjected to a maximum bending moment of 1KN-m and an axial thrust of 70 KN. Find the shaft diameter based on maximum principal stress if the shear strength of the shaft material is limited to 100 MPa.
A.4:
Torque, T = 75x103 24.3 = 4775 Nm; then, = 3 KPa 2x150 d 60 10.19 KPa d3
Maximum bending moment = 1KNm; then, b = Axial force = 70 KN; then, =
70 89.12 KPa = 2 KPa 2 d d 4

2 2
89.12 10.19 24.3 3 Maximum shear stress = + = 100x10 2d 2 2d 3 d 3
Solving we get the value of shaft diameter d = 63.4 mm.

The stresses developed at a section within a loaded body and methods of superposing similar stresses have been discussed. Methods of combining normal and shear stresses using transformation of plane stresses have been illustrated. Formulations for principal stresses and maximum shear stresses have been derived and typical examples are solved.

Module
Lesson
3 Strain analysis
At the end of this lesson, the student should learn Normal and shear strains. 3-D strain matrix. Constitutive equation; generalized Hookes law Relation between elastic, shear and bulk moduli ( E, G, K). Stress- strain relation considering thermal effects.
2.3.1 Introduction
No matter what stresses are imposed on an elastic body, provided the material does not rupture, displacement at any point can have only one value. Therefore the displacement at any point can be completely given by the three single valued components u, v and w along the three co-ordinate axes x, y and z respectively. The normal and shear strains may be derived in terms of these displacements.
2.3.2 Normal strains

Consider an element AB of length x ( figure-2.3.2.1). If displacement of end A is u, that of end B is u +
u u x . This gives an increase in length of ( u + x -u) and x x
u .Similarly, strains in y and z directions are x
therefore the strain in x-direction is
v w and .Therefore, we may write the three normal strain components as y z x = u v w , y = and z = . x y z
u+
u x x
B B'
A'
2.3.2.1F- Change in length of an infinitesimal element.
2.3.3 Shear strain

In the same way we may define the shear strains. For this purpose consider an element ABCD in x-y plane and let the displaced position of the element be ABCD ( Figure-2.3.3.1). This gives shear strain in xy plane as xy = + where is the angle made by the displaced line BC with the vertical and is the angle made by the displaced line AD with the horizontal. This gives
u y u y and = = y y v x v x = = x x
y
u+ u y y
u y y
v+ v y y
B A'
B' C
C'
D'
v+
v
A u D
u+ u x x
v x x
2.3.3.1F- Shear strain associated with the distortion of an infinitesimal element.
We may therefore write the three shear strain components as xy = u v v w w u , yz = and zx = + + + y x z y x z
Therefore, the complete strain matrix can be written as

= x 0 0 x 0 z 0 y 0 y y 0 0 0 z 0 z x
x y
z xy
yz zx
u v w
2.3.4 Constitutive equation

The state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six strain components and the strain components in their turns can be completely defined by the displacement components u, v, and w. The constitutive equations relate stresses and strains and in linear elasticity we simply have =E where E is modulus of elasticity. It is also known that x produces a strain of direction, x E in y-direction and x E in z-direction x E in x-
. Therefore we may
write the generalized Hookes law as

x = 1 1 1 x ( y + z ) , y = y ( z + x ) and z = z ( x + y ) E E E
It is also known that the shear stress = G , where G is the shear modulus and is shear strain. We may thus write the three strain components as
xy =
xy G
, yz =
yz G
and zx =
zx G
In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write
x K11 K y 21 z K 31 = xy K 41 yz K 51 zx K 61
K12 K 22 K 32 K 42 K 52 K 62
K13 K 23 K 33 K 43 K 53 K 63
K14 K 24 K 34 K 44 K 54 K 64
K15 K 25 K 35 K 45 K 55 K 65
K16 x K 26 y K 36 z K 46 xy K 56 yz K 66 zx
For isotropic material
K11 = K 22 = K 33 =
1 E E
K12 = K13 = K 21 = K 23 = K 31 = K 32 = K 44 = K 55 = K 66 = 1 G
Rest of the elements in K matrix are zero. On substitution, this reduces the general constitutive equation to equations for isotropic materials as given by the generalized Hookes law. Since the principal stress and strains axes coincide, we may write the principal strains in terms of principal stresses as
1 [ 1 (2 + 3 )] E 1 2 = [ 2 (3 + 1 ) ] E 1 3 = [ 3 (1 + 2 ) ] E 1 =
From the point of view of volume change or dilatation resulting from hydrostatic pressure we also have
= K
where =
1 ( x +y + z ) = 1 ( 1 +2 + 3 ) and = ( x + y + z ) = (1 + 2 + 3 ) 3 3
These equations allow the principal strain components to be defined in terms of principal stresses. For isotropic and homogeneous materials only two constants viz. E and are sufficient to relate the stresses and strains. The strain transformation follows the same set of rules as those used in stress transformation except that the shear strains are halved wherever they appear.
2.3.5 Relations between E, G and K

The largest maximum shear strain and shear stress can be given by
max = 2 3 and max =
2 3 and since max = max we have 2 G
1 1 1 2 3 2 ( 1 + 3 ) E 3 ( 1 + 2 ) = G 2 and this gives E
G=E
2(1 + )
Considering now the hydrostatic state of stress and strain we may write
1 ( 1 +2 + 3 ) = K(1 + 2 + 3 ) . Substituting 1, 2 and 3 in terms of 1 , 2 and 3 3
we may write
1 ( 1 +2 + 3 ) = K [(1 + 2 + 3 ) 2 (1 + 2 + 3 )] and this gives 3
K=E
3(1 2)
2.3.6 Elementary thermoelasticity

So far the state of strain at a point was considered entirely due to applied forces. Changes in temperature may also cause stresses if a thermal gradient or some external constraints exist. Provided that the materials remain linearly elastic, stress pattern due to thermal effect may be superimposed upon that due to applied forces and we may write
1 x = x ( y + z ) + T E 1 y = y ( z + x ) + T E 1 z = z ( x + y ) + T E
xy =
xy G yz zx G
and yz = G
zx =
It is important to note that the shear strains are not affected directly by temperature changes. It is sometimes convenient to express stresses in terms of strains. This may be done using the relation = x + y + z . Substituting the above expressions for x, y and z we have,
= 1 (1 2 ) ( x + y + z ) + 3T E
and substituting K = E
=
3(1 2)
we have
1 ( x + y + z ) + 3T . 3K
Combining
this
x =
with
x =
1 x ( y + z ) + T E
we
have
E x 3K( 3T) ET + 1+ 1+ 1+
Substituting G = E stresses as
2(1 + )
and =
3K 1+
we may write the normal and shear
x = 2G x + 3KT y = 2G y + 3KT z = 2G z + 3KT xy = G xy yz = G yz zx = G zx

These equations are considered to be suitable in thermoelastic situations.

Q.1: A rectangular plate of 10mm thickness is subjected to uniformly distributed load along its edges as shown in figure-2.3.7.1. Find the change in thickness due to the loading. E=200 GPa, = 0.3
1 KN /mm
A.1:
Here x = 400 MPa, y = 100 MPa and z = 0 This gives z = Now, z =

x + y = 7.5x104 E
t where, t is the thickness and t is the change in thickness. t
Therefore, the change in thickness = 7.5 m. At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane stress exists and the strains are
50mm 100mm
4 KN/mm
2.3.7.1F
Q.2:
x= -90x10-6, y= -30x10-6 and xy=120x10-6. If the elastic
constants E , and G are 200 GPa , 0.3 and 84 GPa respectively, determine the normal stresses x and y and the shear stress xy at the point.
A.2:
x = y = 1 x y E 1 y x E xy G E x + y 1 2
xy =
This gives x = y =
E y + x 1 2
Substituting values, we get
x = -21.75 MPa, y = -12.53 MPa and xy = 9.23 MPa.

Q.3: A rod 50 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is compressed axially by an uniformly distributed load of 250 KN. Find the change in diameter of the rod if E = 200 GPa and =0.3.
A.3: Axial stress x =

250 2 ( 0.05 ) 4 = 127.3MPa
Axial strain, x = 0.636x103 Lateral strain = x = 1.9x104 Now, lateral strain, L =

and this gives D
= 9.5 m.
If a steel rod of 50 mm diameter and 1m long is constrained at the ends and heated to 200oC from an initial temperature of 20oC, what would be the axial load developed? Will the rod buckle? Take the coefficient of thermal expansion, =12x10-6 per oC and E=200 GPa.
Q.4:
A.4: Thermal strain, t = T = 2.16x103 In the absence of any applied load, the force developed due to thermal expansion, F = E t A = 848KN For buckling to occur the critical load is given by
2 EI Fcr = 2 = 605.59 KN . l
Therefore, the rod will buckle when heated to 200oC.
2.3.8 Summary of this Lesson

Normal and shear strains along with the 3-D strain matrix have been defined. Generalized Hookes law and elementary thermo-elasticity are discussed.
2.3.9 Reference for Module-2

1) Mechanics of materials by E.P.Popov, Prentice hall of India, 1989. 2) Mechanics of materials by Ferdinand P. Boer, E. Russel Johnson, J.T Dewolf, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004. 3) Advanced strength and applied stress analysis by Richard G. Budyens, McGraw Hill, 1999. 4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill, 1986.
Module
3 Design for Strength
1 Design for static loading

Lesson
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand Types of loading on machine elements and allowable stresses. Concept of yielding and fracture. Different theories of failure. Construction of yield surfaces for failure theories. Optimize a design comparing different failure theories
3.1.1Introduction
Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces exceed their strength. The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and the component size depends on the stresses developed. Stresses developed in a link subjected to uniaxial loading is shown in figure-3.1.1.1. Loading may be due to: a) The energy transmitted by a machine element. b) Dead weight. c) Inertial forces. d) Thermal loading. e) Frictional forces.
3.1.1.1A- Stresses developed in a link subjected to uniaxial loading In another way, load may be classified as: a) Static load- Load does not change in magnitude and direction and normally increases gradually to a steady value. b) Dynamic loadLoad may change in magnitude for example, traffic of varying weight passing a bridge.Load may change in direction, for example, load on piston rod of a double acting cylinder. Vibration and shock are types of dynamic loading. Figure-3.1.1.2 shows load vs time characteristics for both static and dynamic loading of machine elements.
Load
Time
Static Loading
Load
Load
Load
Time
Time
Time
Dynamic Loading
3.1.1.2F - Types of loading on machine elements.
3.1.2
Allowable Stresses: Factor of Safety
Determination of stresses in structural or machine components would be meaningless unless they are compared with the material strength. If the induced stress is less than or equal to the limiting material strength then the designed component may be considered to be safe and an indication about the size of the component is obtained. The strength of various materials for engineering applications is determined in the laboratory with standard specimens. For example, for tension and compression tests a round rod of specified dimension is used in a tensile test machine where load is applied until fracture occurs. This test is usually carried out in a Universal testing machine of the type shown in clipping- 3.1.2.1. The load at which the specimen finally ruptures is known as Ultimate load and the ratio of load to original cross-sectional area is the Ultimate stress.
3.1.2.1V
SPACE FOR A UNIVERSAL TENSILE TEST CLIPPING
Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for different materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an allowable stress is used in place of the critical stress to take into account the uncertainties including the following: 1) Uncertainty in loading. 2) Inhomogeneity of materials. 3) Various material behaviors. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep. 4) Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.
5) Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and plot- ultimate strength depends on number of cycles. 6) Safety and reliability. For ductile materials, the yield strength and for brittle materials the ultimate strength are taken as the critical stress. An allowable stress is set considerably lower than the ultimate strength. The ratio of ultimate to allowable load or stress is known as factor of safety i.e.
Ultimate Stress = F.S. Allowable Stress

The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of stresses since this applies to material properties.
3.1.3 Theories of failure

When a machine element is subjected to a system of complex stress system, it is important to predict the mode of failure so that the design methodology may be based on a particular failure criterion. Theories of failure are essentially a set of failure criteria developed for the ease of design. In machine design an element is said to have failed if it ceases to perform its function. There are basically two types of mechanical failure: (a) Yielding- This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the machine part unsuitable to perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile materials. (b) Fracture- in this case the component tears apart in two or more parts. This mostly occurs in brittle materials. There is no sharp line of demarcation between ductile and brittle materials. However a rough guideline is that if percentage elongation is less than 5% then the material may be treated as brittle and if it is more than 15% then the
material is ductile. However, there are many instances when a ductile material may fail by fracture. This may occur if a material is subjected to (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Cyclic loading. Long term static loading at elevated temperature. Impact loading. Work hardening. Severe quenching.
Yielding and fracture can be visualized in a typical tensile test as shown in the clipping- Typical engineering stress-strain relationship from simple tension tests for same engineering materials are shown in figure- 3.1.3.1.
(True)
Stress
U
f (Engineering)
y P
Elastic range
Plastic range
Strain
3.1.3.1F- (a) Stress-strain diagram for a ductile material e.g. low carbon steel.
Stress
U Y
(True) f (Engineering)
0.2 % offset
Stress
Strain
3.1.3.1F- (b) Stress-strain diagram for low ductility.
f (Ultimate fracture)
Strain
3.1.3.1F- (c) Stress-strain diagram for a brittle material. Stress
Strain
3.1.3.1F- (d) Stress-strain diagram for an elastic perfectly plastic material.
For a typical ductile material as shown in figure-3.1.3.1 (a) there is a definite yield point where material begins to yield more rapidly without any change in stress level. Corresponding stress is y . Close to yield point is the proportional limit which marks the transition from elastic to plastic range. Beyond elastic limit for an elastic- perfectly plastic material yielding would continue without further rise in stress i.e. stress-strain diagram would be parallel to parallel to strain axis beyond the yield point. However, for most ductile materials, such as, low-carbon steel beyond yield point the stress in the specimens rises upto a peak value known as ultimate tensile stress o . Beyond this point the specimen starts to neck-down i.e. the reduction in cross-sectional area. However, the stress-strain curve falls till a point where fracture occurs. The drop in stress is apparent since original crosssectional area is used to calculate the stress. If instantaneous cross-sectional area is used the curve would rise as shown in figure- 3.1.3.1 (a) . For a material with low ductility there is no definite yield point and usually off-set yield points are defined for convenience. This is shown in figure-3.1.3.1. For a brittle material stress increases linearly with strain till fracture occurs. These are demonstrated in the clipping- 3.1.3.2 .
SPACE FOR FATIGUE TEST CLIPPING
3.1.3.2V
3.1.4 Yield criteria

There are numerous yield criteria, going as far back as Coulomb (1773). Many of these were originally developed for brittle materials but were later applied to ductile materials. Some of the more common ones will be discussed briefly here.
3.1.4.1
Maximum principal stress theory ( Rankine theory)
According to this, if one of the principal stresses 1 (maximum principal stress), 2 (minimum principal stress) or 3 exceeds the yield stress, yielding would occur. In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where tensile and compressive yield stress are nearly of same magnitude 1 = y 2 = y Using this, a yield surface may be drawn, as shown in figure- 3.1.4.1.1. Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle. Consider, for example, the state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel. Here 1= 22, 1 being the circumferential or hoop stress and 2 the axial stress. As the pressure in the vessel increases the stress follows the dotted line. At a point (say) a, the stresses are still within the elastic limit but at b, 1 reaches y although 2 is still less than y. Yielding will then begin at point b. This theory of yielding has very poor agreement with experiment. However, the theory has been used 2 successfully for brittle materials.
+y a -y
..
b 1
+y -y
3.1.4.1.1Ftheory
Yield surface corresponding to maximum principal stress
3.1.4.2
Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venants theory)
According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum principal strain just exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple tension or compression. If 1 and 2 are maximum and minimum principal strains corresponding to 1 and 2, in the limiting case
1 = 2 = 1 ( 1 2 ) E 1 ( 2 1 ) E 1 2 2 1
This gives, E1 = 1 2 = 0 E 2 = 2 1 = 0
The boundary of a yield surface in this case is thus given as shown in figure-
3.1.4.2.1
2 +y -y +y 1
2=0+1
-y
1=0+2
3.1.4.2.1- Yield surface corresponding to maximum principal strain theory
3.1.4.3
Maximum shear stress theory ( Tresca theory)
According to this theory, yielding would occur when the maximum shear stress just exceeds the shear stress at the tensile yield point. At the tensile yield point 2= 3 = 0 and thus maximum shear stress is y/2. This gives us six conditions for a three-dimensional stress situation:
1 2 = y 2 3 = y 3 1 = y
2 +y +y 1
-y
-y
3.1.4.3.1F- Yield surface corresponding to maximum shear stress theory In a biaxial stress situation ( figure-3.1.4.3.1) case, 3 = 0 and this gives
1 2 = y 1 2 = y 2 = y 1 = y 1 = y 2 = y if 1 > 0, 2 < 0 if 1 < 0, 2 > 0 if 2 > 1 > 0 if 1 < 2 < 0 if 1 > 2 > 0 if 2 < 1 < 0
This criterion agrees well with experiment. In the case of pure shear, 1 = - 2 = k (say), 3 = 0 and this gives 1- 2 = 2k= y This indicates that yield stress in pure shear is half the tensile yield stress and this is also seen in the Mohrs circle ( figure- 3.1.4.3.2) for pure shear.
2 1
3.1.4.3.2F- Mohrs circle for pure shear
3.1.4.4
Maximum strain energy theory ( Beltramis theory)
According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy absorbed at a point per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point. This 1 y y by 2 1 y y 2
1 ( 11 + 2 2 + 33 ) = may be given 2 1 ( 11 + 2 2 + 33 ) = 2
Substituting, 1, 2 , 3 and y in terms of stresses we have 12 + 2 2 + 32 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 31 ) = y 2 This may be written as
1 2 + 2 1 22 = 1 y y y
This is the equation of an ellipse and the yield surface is shown in figure3.1.4.4.1 .
2 y
y E(1+ ) -y y E(1 )
y -y
3.1.4.4.1F- Yield surface corresponding to Maximum strain energy theory.
It has been shown earlier that only distortion energy can cause yielding but in the above expression at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure 1 = 2 = 3 = (say), yielding may also occur. From the above we may write 2 ( 3 2 ) = 2 y and if ~ 0.3, at stress level
lower than yield stress, yielding would occur. This is in contrast to the experimental as well as analytical conclusion and the theory is not appropriate.
3.1.4.5
Distortion energy theory( von Mises yield criterion)
According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy absorbed per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and strain energy for volume change EV can be given as
ET = 1 3 ( 11 + 2 2 + 33 ) and E V = av av 2 2
Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as
Ed = ET- EV =
2(1 + ) 2 1 + 2 2 + 32 1 2 2 3 31 6E
At the tensile yield point, 1 = y , 2 = 3 = 0 which gives
E dy =
2(1 + ) 2 y 6E
The failure criterion is thus obtained by equating Ed and Edy , which gives
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 )
2
+ ( 3 1 ) = 2 2 y
2
In a 2-D situation if 3 = 0, the criterion reduces to
12 + 2 2 1 2 = y 2 i.e. 1 + 2 1 2 = 1 y y y y
This is an equation of ellipse and the yield surface is shown in figure-3.1.4.5.1 . This theory agrees very well with experimental results and is widely used for ductile materials.
2 2
2 45o
y
y
-y -y
0.577 y
3.1.4.5.1F- Yield surface corresponding to von Mises yield criterion.
3.1.5
Superposition of yield surface
A comparison among the different failure theories can be made by superposing the yield surfaces as shown in figure- 3.1.5.1.
2 y -y
Maximum principal strain theory Maximum distortion energy theory

y -y 1
Maximum shear stress theory Maximum principal stress theory
3.1.5.1F- Comparison of different failure theories.
It is clear that an immediate assessment of failure probability can be made just by plotting any experimental in the combined yield surface. Failure of ductile materials is most accurately governed by the distortion energy theory where as the maximum principal strain theory is used for brittle materials.

Q.1:
A shaft is loaded by a torque of 5 KN-m. The material has a yield point of 350 MPa. Find the required diameter using (a) Maximum shear stress theory (b) Maximum distortion energy theory Take a factor of safety of 2.5.
A.1:
Torsional shear stress induced in the shaft due to 5 KN-m torque is

= 16 x(5 x103 ) where d is the shaft diameter in m. d 3
(b) Maximum shear stress theory,
max
x y 2 = + 2
Y 350 x106 = 2xF.S. 2x 2.5
Since x = y = 0, max=25.46x103/d3 =
This gives d=71.3 mm. (b) Maximum distortion energy theory In this case 1 = 25.46x103/d3 2 = -25.46x103/d3 According to this theory,
2 2 2 ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 ( Y
F.S
Since 3 = 0, substituting values of 1 , 2 and Y D=68 mm. The state of stress at a point for a material is shown in the figure-3.1.6.1.
Q.2:
Find the factor of safety using (a) Maximum shear stress theory (b) Maximum distortion energy theory. Take the tensile yield strength of the material as 400 MPa.
x=40 MPa
=20 MPa
y=125 MPa
3.1.6.1F
A.2:
From the Mohrs circle, shown in figure-3.1.6.2 1 = 42.38 MPa 2 = -127.38 MPa (a) Maximum shear stress theory
1 2 = Y 2 2xF.S
This gives F.S = 2.356. (b) Maximum distortion energy theory

2 2 2 ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 ( Y
F.S
If 3 = 0 this gives F.S = 2.613.
2
x=20 MPa
1
y=120 MPa
=-20 MPa
80 MPa
44.72 MPa
2
x=20 MPa
1
y=120 MPa
=-20 MPa
80 MPa
44.72 MPa
3.1.6.2F
Q.3:
A cantilever rod is loaded as shown in the figure- 3.1.6.3. If the tensile yield strength of the material is 300 MPa determine the rod diameter using (a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum shear stress theory (c) Maximum distortion energy theory.
120 mm
A
D
B
C
F=2KN
T =800 Nm
3.1.6.3F
P=
10
KN
A.3:
At the outset it is necessary to identify the mostly stressed element. Torsional shear stress as well as axial normal stress is the same throughout the length of the rod but the bearing stress is largest at the welded end. Now among the four corner elements on the rod, the element A is mostly loaded as shown in figure-3.1.6.4
16T (Torsional shear stress) d 3 2 d P (Axial stress) 4 32FL (Bending stress) d 3
3.1.6.4F
Shear stress due to bending
VQ is also developed but this is neglected It
due to its small value compared to the other stresses. Substituting values of T, P, F and L, the elemental stresses may be shown as in figure3.1.6.5:
12732 2445 + 3 2 d d 4074 3 d

3.1.6.5F
This gives the principal stress as

1,2 1 12732 2445 1 12732 2445 4074 = + 3 + 3 + 3 2 2 d 4 d2 d d d
2 2
(a) Maximum principal stress theory, Setting 1 = Y we get d = 26.67 mm. (b) Maximum shear stress theory, Setting
1 2 Y = , we get d = 30.63 mm. 2 2
2 2 2 ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 ( Y ) 2
(c) Maximum distortion energy theory, Setting
We get d = 29.36 mm.

Different types of loading and criterion for design of machine parts subjected to static loading based on different failure theories have been demonstrated. Development of yield surface and optimization of design criterion for ductile and brittle materials were illustrated.

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1 Fundamentals of machine design

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1.2.2 Ferrous materials

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1.2.4 Non-ferrous metals

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1.2.4.1F- Variation of ductility of brass with percentage of zinc.

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also shown in figure 1.2.6.1.

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1.2.6.2F- A linear load-deflection plot.

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1.2.7Questions with Answers

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1.3.1 Design and Manufacturing

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HOLE Tolerance Allowance

ZERO LINE Lower Deviation

SHAFT Min. Diameter (lower limit) Basic Size

Max. Diameter (upper limit)

Unilateral Bilateral Fig. 1.3.2 Types of tolerance

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1.3.3 Fit System

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Clearance fit HOLE SHAFT

Interference fit Fig. 1.3.3 Schematic view of Fit system

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1.3.4 Standard limit and fit system

+ Fundamental deviation (a-zc) h SHAFT a

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Fundamental deviations 25 types: A- ZC (For holes) a- zc (For shafts)

Very Tight fit

Fig. 1.3.5 Typical zones of fit

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1.3.5 Preferred numbers

1.58: 1.0, 1.6, 2.5, 4.0,

1.26: 1.0, 1.25, 1.6, 2.0,

1.12: 1.0, 1.12, 1.25, 1.4,

1.06: 1.0, 1.06, 1.12, 1.18,..

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1.3.6 Common manufacturing processes

Joining Surface finishing

Fig. 1.3.8 Machining processes Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur

Various joining processes are shown in Fig.1.3.9. Joining processes

Riveting Screw fastening

Surface finishing processes

Grinding Lapping Electroplating

Ultrasonic Machining Electrochemical Machining

Laser Beam Machining

Abrasive jet Machining Fig. 1.3.11 Non conventional machining processes

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Questions and answers

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