A SURVEY OF MICRO-ACTUATOR TECHNOLOGIES FOR FUTURE SPACECRAFT MISSIONS

Roger G. Gilbertson and John D. Busch

First presented at the conference Practical Robotic Interstellar Flight: Are We Ready? August 29 - September 1, 1994, New York University and The United Nations, New York City

First published in The Journal of The British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 49, pp. 129-138, 1996

This survey looks at ten different methods of transforming energy into motion, and their applicability for miniature spacecraft. They include: Electromagnetic Thermomechanical Piezoelectric Magnetostrictive Electrohydrodynamic Electrostatic Phase Change Shape Memory Electrorheological Diamagnetism

Additional actuator technologies not covered in this paper include magnetohydrodynamic, shape changing polymers, and biological methods (living tissues, muscle cells, etc.)

Roger G. Gilbertson Mondo-tronics, Inc. 124 Paul Drive San Rafael, CA 94903 USA Phone: 415-491-4600
Email: rgg@mondotr o n i c s .com

This PDF file is dated March 2003, and roughly follows the format of the JBIS published version. Downloadable from: http://www.RobotStore.com/support.asp

A SURVEY OF MICRO-ACTUATOR TECHNOLOGIES FOR FUTURE SPACECRAFT MISSIONS

Roger G. Gilbertson and John D. Busch

The development of spacecraft technology has historically resulted in an abundance of commercial spin-offs. Ironically, future spacecraft may rely on many technologies now under development for commercial markets. The medical, automotive, robotics, and instrumentation markets have stimulated great advances in the field of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). Commercial MEMS products today include chemical sensors, acceleration and pressure transducers, and micro valves. In fact, many of these devices are so small that they are best observed with the aid of a microscope. The requirements for new types of spacecraft destined to travel throughout our solar system and beyond require examination of the full range of these new actuation and control methods, to focus on those having appropriate performance, efficiency and size. Designers of future spacecraft must consider these new MEMS technologies which will play key roles in future electronic and mechanical spacecraft components. This paper reviews ten basic actuator technologies and covers recent micro-actuator developments, their method of operation, design limitations, comparative performance, and their potential spacecraft applications. 1. INTRODUCTION Additionally, thermally driven actuators (including thermomechanical, phase change and shape memory methods) require cooling to reverse their action. This can occur through passive thermal radiation, or via active cooling systems, both electrical and mechanical. For the purposes of spacecraft, actuators produce useful motion for performing actions such as: (1) Engaging, disengaging or separating spacecraft components. (2) Opening and closing of covers and shields. (3) Deploying, positioning, and retracting sensors, actuators, antennas and instruments. (4) Enabling, disabling and controlling electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic and attitude control systems. 2. 2.1 TEN METHODS OF TRANSFORMING ENERGY INTO MOTION Electromagnetic

For purposes of this survey, we define an actuator as a device that transforms electrical or thermal energy into controllable motion. Spacecraft utilize various sources of electrical and thermal energy, i..e.: Electrical Energy Sources: a. Capture of solar or stellar photons as in solar cells. b. On-board electrochemical reactions as in batteries and fuel cells. c. On-board thermoelectric nuclear reactions, including Peltier junction generators operated by the decay of radioactive isotopes. d. Collected interstellar energy and materials. Thermal Energy Sources: a. Captured solar or stellar thermal radiation. b. Electrical resistance heating. c. Radioactive decay heating. d. Particle beam heating. e. Exothermic chemical reaction. f. Mechanical friction.

Energy Input
Electric + Thermal

Actuator Mechanism
Machine Geometry & Material Properties

Work Output
Motion! Heat

Loss
Figure 1 - Schematic of actuator function 1

Electromagnetism arises from electric current moving through a conducting material. Attractive or repulsive forces are generated adjacent to the conductor and proportional to the current flow. Structures can be built which gather and focus electromagnetic forces, and harness them to create motion. Typical examples of electromagnetic devices include electric motors, solenoids, relays, speaker coils, and cathode ray tubes. Electromagnetic fields arise and disappear rapidly, thus permitting devices with very fast operation speeds. Since electromagnetic fields can exist over a wide range of temperatures, performance is primarily limited by the properties of the materials used in constructing the actuator.

 Arises from motion of an electric current Magnetic Field

Flo Current w
Electric Conductor

Force arises from build-up of free electrons Attractive Force

Positive Charge

Negative Charge

Figure 2 - Electromagnetism 2.1.1. Examples The Bulova Accutron watch (c 1970) gives an example of a mass produced miniature electromechanical resonator. It uses an electromagnet to vibrate a tiny tuning fork at 100 Hz. Attached to one side of the fork, a tiny pawl advanced a gear wheel at about 380,000 steps per hour, driving the watch mechanism. [1] One example of a micro fabricated electromagnetic actuator is a micro valve developed in Japan which uses a small electromagnetic coil wrapped around a silicon micro machined valve structure. [2]

Figure 4 - Electrostatic force oppositely charged objects, or a repulsive force on similarly charged objects. Structures can be built which harness the electrostatic force to create motion. Van de Graaf generators produce large electrostatic charges that literally make hair stand on end. Rubbing an inflated balloon or walking across a carpet on a dry date can develop a small but noticeable charge. As with the electromagnetic fields, electrostatic fields also arise and disappear rapidly. Such devices will likewise demonstrate very fast operation speeds, and be little affected by ambient temperatures. 2.2.1. Oscillating Electromagnet Motion of Pawl Examples

Tuning Fork (<3 mm wide)

Drive Gear
From Pisano, 1989

Recent investigations have produced many examples of miniature devices using the electrostatic force for actuation. One category includes tiny silicon micro motors having rotors on the order of 100 micrometers in diameter, operating at 25 to 36 V at speeds of 2,500 to 15,000 RPM, and producing torques of up to 13 pN-m [3] Other examples include larger silicon micro motors [4], wobble type micro motors [5], electrostatically driven silicon micro valves [6], and a novel set of micro tweezers 200 micrometers in length and 2.7 micrometers wide. [7]

p
Figure 3 - The Bulova Accutron watch 2.1.2. Benefits / Drawbacks Rotor Diameter 130 m Gap Charge 25-36 Volts

Electromagnetic devices have found wide ranging applications in spacecraft, using motors and solenoids to position antennas and solar panels. However, the downward scaleability of electromagnetic actuators into the micro and nano realm may be limited by the difficulty of fabricating small electromagnetic coils. Further, most electromagnetic devices require perpendicularity between the current conductor and the moving element, presenting a difficulty for planar fabrication techniques commonly used to make silicon devices. An important advantage of electromagnetic devices is their high efficiency in converting electrical energy into mechanical work. This translates into less current consumption from the power source. 2.2 Electrostatic

From Mehregany, 1990

Figure 5 - Silicon micro motor 2.2.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Electrostatic charge arises from a build up or deficit of free electrons in a material, which can exert an attractive force on 2

Electrostatic fields can exert great forces, but generally across very short distances. When the electric field must act over larger distances, a higher voltage will be required to maintain a given force. The extremely low current consumption associated with electrostatic devices makes for highly efficient actuation.

2.3.2.

Benefits / Drawbacks

Material dimensions change with temperature

Thermomechanical actuators are, by their very nature, affected by changes in temperature. Therefore, performance and energy consumption of these devices will be directly related to the surrounding temperature. Temperature changes may be induced using resistive heating at low voltages, thermally, radioactively, or ultrasonically. Thermal actuators may require passive or active cooling systems for their reverse transformation. They behave in a linear fashion with respect to temperature. 2.4 Phase Change

Material B

Figure 6 - Thermomechanical changes 2.3 Thermomechanical

Material B

Material A

Material A

Thermomechanical systems use the physical expansion or contraction that occurs in materials as they undergo temperature changes within their phase (solid, liquid or gas). Structures can be built which harness the forces exerted by the physical change in dimension. Typical examples include bimetallic thermostat elements used in home temperature regulation and toaster mechanisms. These devices use the differing expansion rates of two materials bonded together to produce a curving displacement. Thermal changes result from the conduction of heat energy into a material, and may occur over a wide range of speeds. Nakajima and team have demonstrated a micro Sterling cycle engine having a high thermal efficiency. [8] The tiny gas filled engine can be operated with any heat source and can be driven in reverse to make an active cooling system. Thermomechanical actuators generally require the removal of heat energy to reestablish the previous condition. Because heat dissipation is directly related to the volume to be cooled, thermal cycling occurs much faster in micro devices than in macro devices. 2.3.1. Examples

Phase change systems use the dimensional changes (expansion and contraction) that occur in materials as they undergo changes between phases (solid, liquid and gas). Actuators can be built which harness the forces exerted by the phase changes, and they generally demonstrate full reversibility. Depending on the material, a phase change may be induced electrically, thermally, or ultrasonically, and may happen over a wide range of speeds and pressures.

Dimensional changes: solid, liquid, gas

Figure 8 - Phase change 2.4.1. Examples

Several devices have demonstrated the usefulness and speed of thermal dimensional change in micro devices. Bimetallic cantilever micro actuators using gold on silicon with a beam length of 500 micrometers produced deflections of up to 100 micrometers, while using about 200 mW of power. [9] A 200 micrometers long thermally activated cantilever beam made only of silicon, silicon oxides and phosphorous doped silicon - standard elements of CMOS-type electronic circuits produced a displacement of 4 micrometers and operated at a frequency of over 1 kHz. [10]
Material A

p
Beam Length 200 m Vertical Deflection 4 m Heating Element Oscillation Rate >1 kHz
From Parameswaran, 1990

The novelty toy known as the drinking bird demonstrates a form of phase change actuation on a macro scale. Evaporation from the birds beak cools the working fluid sealed inside, shifting the devices center of gravity and causing it to tip. Pin puller type actuators filled with paraffin wax have flown on many space missions. Paraffin exhibits a significant increase in volume as it changes from solid to liquid. [11] Similar materials have been used successfully in commercially available micro valves [12], with an overall actuator size of 0.5 mm3. With all such actuators, activation speeds and cycle rates are relatively slow due to the heat transfer properties of the working material. The micro steam engine developed by Lin et al uses a tiny resistive heater (2 by 60 micrometers) to heat a non-conductive fluorine-based working fluid and create a small gas bubble. The bubble, from 34 to 76 micrometers in diameter, lifts an etched silicon plate by up to 25 micrometers. With power removed, the bubble quickly cools and collapses in place, lowering the plate. The device requires only 20 to 40 mW to create the bubble, and can be fully cycled at 10 Hz. [13] 2.4.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Material A

Figure 7 - Cantilever actuator 3

Phase change transformations are, by their very nature, greatly influenced by the surrounding temperature and pressure. Phase change systems require cooling in order to undergo their

Resistive Etched plate Heater and beam

Captive Vapor Bubble Stroke Height 25 m Oscillation Rate 10 Hz

Example - Silicon Water Pump

Piezo Stack 54 mm3

Si Diaphragm 50 m thick Volume 15 l/min @ 90 V Max Pressure 780 mm H20/cm2

Non-conductive working fluid

Etched silicon base

From Lin, 1991

Out

In

From Esashi, 1989

Figure 9 - Micro steam engine reverse transformation, so actuators may require special considerations for heat dissipation. Materials undergoing phase changes generally exert a very high force for their mass, and are completely reversible if the working material is retained by the device. As the phase change is a bulk property of the actuator material, devices can in theory be scaled to any dimension, large or small. 2.5 Piezoelectric Figure 11 - Silicon micro fluid pump 2.5.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Piezo materials operate with high force and speed, and return to a neutral position when unpowered. They exhibit very small strokes (under 1 percent). Alternating electric currents produce oscillation in the piezo material, and operation at the samples fundamental resonant frequency produces the largest elongation and highest power efficiency [16]. 2.6 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)

Piezoelectric motion arises from the dimensional changes generated in certain crystalline materials when subjected to an electric field or to an electric charge. Structures can be built which gather and focus the force of the dimensional changes, and harness them to create motion Typical piezoelectric materials include quartz (SiO2), lead zirconate titanate (PZT), lithium niobate, and polymers such as polyvinyledene fluoride (PVDF). Piezoelectric materials respond very quickly to changes in voltages and with great repeatability. They can be used to generate precise motions with repeatable oscillations, as in quartz timing crystals used in many electronic devices. Piezo materials can also act as sensors, converting tension or compression strains to voltages.

Dimensional change in crystal subjected to voltage

Shape memory actuators use a change in material properties known as the Shape Memory Effect (SME) which arises in some metal alloys when cycled above or below a specific transition temperature. The SME transformation involves changes in the materials strength, deformability, Youngs Modulus, as well as the ability of the material to return to a previously trained physical shape. The shape change effects are generally much greater and occur over a much smaller temperature range than those of thermal expansion or contraction. Typical Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) include combinations of metal elements such as NiTi (Nitinol) and CuZnAl. As the materials conduct electricity, change in temperature can be internally generated by resistance heating, or induced by an external heat source.

+
From Petrucci, 1994

Change in deformability at specific temperature

Heating

Figure 10 - Piezoelectric effect 2.5.1. Examples

Deforming

Cooling

Scanning Tunneling Electron Microscopes use piezoelectric actuators to rapidly move the sensing tip over a very small range. Piezoelectric materials are commonly found in ultrasonic transducers, (sonar range finder cameras), digital watch beepers, and some small audio speakers. On the micro scale, piezoelectric materials have been used in linear inchworm drive devices [14], and micro pumps [15]. 4

Figure 12 - Shape Memory Effect Structures can be built which harness the shape change property and use them to create motion. SMAs are typically formed into wires, springs, torsion beams, as well as tubes and vacuum deposited thin films. Shape Memory changes can occur over a wide range of speeds, and are generally reversible upon the removal of heat

energy from the material and with the application of a small external bias force (typically 10 to 30 percent of the force available when heated). However, performance is highly dependent on surrounding temperature and heat conduction conditions, as well as strain level in the material, prior training, cycling and strain history. 2.6.1. Examples

so actuators may require special considerations for heat dissipation. SMA materials generally exert a very high force for their mass, but have a low efficiency in converting electrical energy to motion. As the Shape Memory Effect is a bulk property of the material, SMA nano structures should exhibit the same general behaviors as the bulk materials [21]

Example - Fluid Valve

NiTi Diaphragm 10 m thick Bias Spring

Actuator devices using the Shape Memory Effect include permanent shrink to fit metal tubing connectors for high performance jet engines, spacecraft release mechanisms [17], miniature walking machines [18], as well as a variety of instrument pointing systems, latch release devices and positioning systems. Micro scale device include fiber optic switching mechanisms [19] and micro valves using thin film NiTi applied to etched silicon. [20]

Power 1V @ 0.5 A Cycle Rate 50 Hz Flow Rate 1 liter/min

In

Out
From Johnson, 1990

SMA cylinder lengthens when heated

Notched bolt broken by tension

Figure 15 - Micro fluid valve 2.7 Magnetostrictive

Separation plane Heater coil

From TiNi Alloy Company, 1992

Figure 13 - Frangibolt SMA Release Mechanism. 2.6.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Shape Memory changes are affected by, and greatly dependent on, the surrounding temperature conditions. SMA actuators require cooling in order to undergo their reverse transformation,

Magnetostrictive materials exhibit very small but strong shape changes when subjected to magnetic fields. The displacements exert high forces but over small dimensional changes, typically less than 1 percent. Devices can harness these high forces to create moving mechanisms. Typical magnetostrictive materials include combinations of rare earth elements with iron such as TbFe (Terfenol) and TbDyFe (Terfenol-D). They are often activated by an external magnetic field such as a coil wound around the shape changing core. Magnetostrictive materials operate extremely fast, and follow the presence or absence of the magnetic field. Their performance generally decreases with higher temperatures. Some of the strongest materials only operate at cryogenic temperatures (below 150 Kelvin), while others perform as high as 400 C.

To computer interface

100 m dia SMA wires

Full motion: walk forward, back, rotate left and right

Figure 14 - Boris, an SMA-actuated walking machine

Length 14 cm Weight 30 gr
From Mondo-tronics, 1992
5

 Dimensional changes in a magnetic field

Applied voltage changes fluid viscosity

No Magnetic Field

High Magnetic Field (>500 Oe)

Figure 16 - Magnetostrictive effect Rod Extends 10 m Locks in place Fast, High Strength, Reversable No power required to hold position Controllable to better than 1 m TeFe Rod Electromagnets
From Roth, 1992

Figure 18 - Electrorheology Input Shaft Output Shaft

Voltage Plates

ER Fluid Cavity

Seal
From Hosseini-Sianaki, 1992

Figure 17 - Magnetostrictive linear wave motor 2.7.1. Examples

Figure 19 - Electrorheological fluid clutch control [27], and a sophisticated hydraulic actuator system for steering flight surfaces in aerospace applications. [28] 2.8.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Demonstrated devices include miniature linear inchworm motors [22], low frequency, high power sonar transducers, slow speed high torque motors [23], and active damping devices. [24] 2.7.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Magnetostrictive driven devices require high magnetic biases for operation, and can operate at low voltages. The current generation of materials exhibit small displacements (0.1 to 0.5 percent), but with very high work output per unit mass. Magnetostrictive materials are generally very brittle, difficult to machine and develop heat during operation which must be dissipated to prevent damage to the actuator. [25] 2.8 Electrorheological

The bulk conductance of the carrier fluid can present a difficulty to power usage, true non-conducting fluids work best. Problems with separation of fluid and particles due to evaporation, sedimentation, centrifugal forces, and electrophoresis (electrical induced separation) can lead to device failures. [29] Wear due to abrasion from particles in fluid also cause device failure. Electrorheological fluids have a high sensitivity to ambient temperatures. Water based fluids can develop thermal runaway problems if not adequately cooled, thermal stresses can dry out the working fluid, and low temperatures cause problems, especially around the fluids freezing point. [30] 2.9 Electrohydrodynamic

Subjecting certain fluids to an electric field creates a change in their viscosity or flow rate (their rheology). Devices can be built which harness the change in rheology to control or generate fluid motion, and activate mechanical components as with hydraulic systems. Typical electrorheological fluids consist of a fine powder suspended in a nonconducting fluid. When subjected to an electric field, the particles can react in the millisecond range lining up and causing the fluid to become thicker or even non-flowing. 2.8.1. Examples

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) motion arises when the particle of a polar fluid are subjected to a strong electric field. The resulting motion can be used to generate a fluid pressure, and create flow or fluid circulation. 2.9.1 Examples

Demonstrated primarily on the macro scale, electrorheological devices include clutches and transmissions having few or no moving parts [26], variable shock absorbers providing vibration 6

An as-yet fictional macro scale EHD application is represented by the caterpillar drive depicted in the movie The Hunt for Red October. It shows a submarine using unspecified voltages to pump huge quantities of sea water through tubes to drive the craft without the noise of rotating propellers. On the factual side, a micro scale ethanol pump has been demonstrated that develops a pressure of up to 2480 Pa at 700 Volts and a flow rate of up to 14 ml/min. [31] The charged grids were constructed from etched silicon.

 Electric force induces flow in dielectric fluids

Fluid Filled Channel Direction of induced flow Alternating 3-phase traveling wave (positive, negative, neutral)

Reflection of a magnetic field

Permanent Magnet

N S
S

Diamagnetic Material (Usually Superconducting)

Reflection Generated in Material

Figure 20 - Electrohydrodynamic effect

Out

Figure 22 - Diamagnetism (the Meissner effect) Slider (10 mm long)

S N S N S N S N

Silicon Grids: 3 mm x 3 mm 30 m thick Fluid Reservoir

Pressure 2480 Pa Bias: 700 V Flow Rate: 14 ml/min

Levitation: 1 mm Horizontal Drive Force: 31 mg

Stator
From Richter, 1990

Superconducting thin film elements

From Kim, 1989

Figure 21 - Solid state electrohydrodynamic ethanol pump 2.9.2. Benefits / Drawbacks

Figure 23 - Levitating Linear Motor Kim et al demonstrated a micro scale superconducting linear actuator made of the high temperature superconductor YBCO with a transition temperature of 90 K. Under a 180 mg load, the 1 x 1 x 10 mm slider levitates about 1 mm and could be driven horizontally with about 31 mg of force. [33] 2.10.2. Benefits / Drawbacks Devices levitated using the diamagnetic effect require no lubrication, and remain in operation as long as proper temperature conditions exist. The forces are generally very weak per unit mass, and diamagnetic materials are highly susceptible to impurities. 3. COMPARISON OF BASIC ACTUATOR PROPERTIES

Electrohydrodynamic devices have an inherently simple design, providing direct conversion of electricity to fluid flow. They produce the fluid motion without moving parts that can stick or wear. They require high operating voltages, but at low currents. Their operation depends greatly on the electric properties of the working fluid. They can produce a high volume of flow compared to piezoelectric or thermally driven pumps, and have the potential to can act as drivers for pumps to move other types of fluids unsuitable for direct EHD flow. 2.10 Diamagnetism (Meissner Effect)

Superconductor materials exhibit diamagnetism: the ability to reflect an external magnetic field. A magnet floating steadily above a superconductor sample represents a common image of the Meissner Effect at work. Surprisingly, some non-superconducting materials, notably bismuth, graphite and silicon, also possess this ability, but at very low levels. Pelrine has demonstrated that these diamagnetic materials may be used to generate the Meissner Effect in micro mechanical devices. [32] Diamagnetic materials can levitate magnets against gravity, while operating below specific temperatures. Above their operating temperature range, the materials generally lose their field reflecting abilities. 2.10.1. Examples The diamagnetic effect may be used to create frictionless, selflevitating bearings, and to prevent or reduce wear, especially in micro and nano scale devices which are highly susceptible to stiction and friction. 8

While all the technologies described above have been studied and tested in the laboratory, not all have been applied yet in commercial products or spacecraft components. However, all of these techniques have the potential for miniaturization, and permit the creation of very small devices to save considerable space and weight, thereby reducing cost. However, miniaturization of these technologies into the micro and nano scale brings new challenges for design and manufacturing. The six most developed micro actuator technologies are electromagnetic, electrostatic, piezoelectric, thermomechanical, phase change, and shape memory alloy. Table I presents these methods and some of their basic properties. This data reflects only one set of comparisons, actual performance depends greatly on the specific application and actuator design. The actuators have varied but flexible driving requirements. Electromagnetic, electrostatic, and piezoelectric typically require 70 to 100 volts to perform reasonable amounts work on

a microscopic basis. In each of these cases, the force generated is directly proportional to the voltage level. The primary advantages of these three technologies are their rapid actuation potential and low power consumption. Further, electromagnetic and electrostatic devices can be highly efficient actuators. The phase change, thermomechanical, and shape memory alloy technologies all require heat as a primary driving mechanism. With indirect heating, such as with a nearby heater, impedance may be tailored to match the available power supply. This is especially true with thermomechanical and phase change actuators. Shape memory alloys may be heated externally as well, and their inherently high resistivity also permits direct joule heating by passing an electrical current through the material. In some SMA applications the design of the actuator can achieve impedance matching by using multiple small parallel elements instead of one larger element, and by other schemes. The phase change, thermomechanical, and shape memory alloy technologies have a disadvantage in their thermodynamic inefficiencies. Thermally driven actuators lose heat to the environment and to adjacent components. Thermal isolation requires additional space and material, and generally increases the time required to remove heat for de-actuation. In general, thermally driven actuators exhibit slower cycle rates than other methods. The piezoelectric micro actuators are typically capable of cycle rates in the thousands of cycles per second range. Electromagnetic and electrostatic devices can often operate equally fast, and are usually only limited by their mechanical design and their driving electronics. The materials used in constructing a micro actuator greatly influence its method of manufacture. Most current actuator technologies rely on methods developed for fabricating silicon

integrated circuits. Other materials and methods may become available as techniques advance. Device design and performance also rely on the materials used for construction, and how the device will interact with associated components, and its environment. For spacecraft applications, designs may have to consider exposure to radiation and highly corrosive atomic oxygen. Actuator designs must also consider ambient operating conditions and temperature fluctuations. With thermally driven actuators (thermal, phase change, and shape memory), the energy required for actuation depends greatly on the difference between the surrounding temperature and the temperature required for activation. If the local temperature can vary (as in space applications), the actuators heating source may need to accommodate a wider range in power levels for operation. If the ambient temperature becomes too great, problems with auto-actuation might occur. Conversely, variations in temperature do not greatly impede performance of the electromagnetic, electrostatic, or piezoelectric devices, provided that their component materials can tolerate the changes. An actuators work output density, or work output per unit volume, provides a key measure for comparing various actuator technologies. Reducing spacecraft mass directly lowers the launch costs, hence the overall mission price. The launch cost for every piece of material placed into Earth orbit by the U.S. Space Shuttle equals more than half the items weight in gold. [41] Therefore, technologies which perform more work with less mass have great economic value. Even for methods having lower thermodynamic efficiencies, the savings from reduced mass can make them preferable over more thermodynamically efficient methods.

TABLE 1: Actuator Method and Device Electromagnetic (theoretical) Electrostatic (theoretical) Thermomechanical Micro valve Phase Change Micro valve Piezoelectric Micro valve Piezoelectric Meander line actuator Shape Memory Micro valve Voltage 100 volts 100 volts 12 volts 15 volts 90 volts 2 volts 5 volts Work per Unit Vol. 0.9 J/cm3 0.4 J/cm3 0.02 J/cm3 4 J/cm3 0.02 J/cm3 0.01 J/cm3 6 J/cm3 Typical Response <<1 ms <<1 ms 100 ms 300 ms <20 ms <1 ms 30 ms Temperature Sensitive? No No Yes Yes No No Yes Power Use Very Low Very Low Medium Medium Low Low Medium Ref. # [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40]

4.

CONCLUSIONS can be actuated directly by joule heating. Both of these technologies, as well as thermomechanical methods, are best suited to applications with moderate ambient temperature variations. Several methods await appropriate space applications. Magnetostrictive can provide extremely high work output density and fair energy efficiency. Electrorheological and electrohydrodynamic techniques provide ways of directly manipulating fluids and may provide great mass savings by reducing the supporting parts needed for pneumatic and hydraulic systems. Superconducting materials exhibiting the Meissner effect should find wide use in space applications, where low operating temperatures are readily produced. Additionally, appropriate combinations of various methods should lead to synergetic gains. For example, the Meissner effect may find application in reducing friction in micro scale electromagnetic and electrostatic devices, thereby increasing their performance and efficiency. Expect many more beneficial combinations as techniques advance. As the past twenty years have seen great advances in micro electronics, the next twenty should bring similar progress in micro electromechanical devices. The commercial prospects for the technologies explored here should continue to drive research and development efforts, and lead to an ever larger number of micro and nano scale actuator systems. ###

A number of technologies presently exist for micro spacecraft actuator systems. Researchers are currently exerting significant efforts towards miniaturizing them for both scientific and commercial purposes. Many micro mechanical commercial devices exist including micro thermostats, valves, pumps, and positioners. Additionally, researchers are studying many new technologies. The actuator methods which have already been realized as micro machined products or in advanced laboratory studies include electromagnetic, electrostatic, piezoelectric, thermomechanical, phase change, and shape memory alloy technologies. Methods for actuation which have been demonstrated in the laboratory on a micro scale include electrohydrodynamic, magnetostrictive and diamagnetism technologies. The other methods have been demonstrated in macro devices and will likely be studied in micro devices in the near future. For present consideration as micro actuators in small spacecraft, several general conclusions can be drawn. First, electrostatic and electromagnetic type devices provide efficient operation and low forces. Piezoelectric devices are excellent for large force, small displacement applications where higher voltages are available. Phase change actuators exhibit large amounts of work output per unit volume and are good choices for applications where ambient temperatures remain fairly constant. Shape memory alloy devices provide extremely high work output density and

Method 1 Electromagnetic 2 Electrostatic 3 Thermomechanical 4 Phase Change 5 Piezoelectric 6 Shape Memory 7 Magnetostrictive 8 Electrorheological 9 Electrohydrodynamic 10 Diamagnetism
Figure 24 - Summary of methods and properties

Efficiency high very high very high very high very high low medium medium medium high

Speed Power Density fast high fast low medium medium medium high fast high medium very high fast very high medium medium medium low fast high

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Lhermet N, Claeyssen F, Wendling P, Grosso G, - Actuators Based on Biased Magnetostrictive Rare Earth-Iron Alloys - Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 133, 1992. 24. Clark A E - High Power Magnetostrictive Transducer Materials Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 127, 1992. 25. Roth R C - The Elastic Wave Motor - A Versatile Terfenol Driven, Linear Actuator With High Force and Great Precision - Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 138, 1992. 26. Hosseini-Sianaki A, Bullough W A, Firoozian R, Makin J, Johnson A R, Shi X - The High Speed Electrorheological Catch - Characteristics, Dimensional Considerations and Non Linear Operational Aspects Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 118, 1992. 27. Sproston J L, Stanway R - Electrorheological Fluids In Vibration Isolation - Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 116, 1992. 28. Brooks D A - A Practical High Speed ER Actuator - Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 110, 1992. 29. Monkman G J - Solid Dielectrophoretic Electrorheological Enhancement - Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 123, 1992. 30. Block H - The Nature, Action and Applications of ER Fluids Actuator 92, 3rd International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany, p. 105, 1992. 31. Richter A, Sandmaier H - An Electrohydrodynamic Micropump Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Napa Valley, CA, USA, p. 99, 1990. 32. Pelrine R E - Room Temperature, Open-loop Levitation of Microdevices Using Diamagnetic Materials - Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Napa Valley, CA, USA, p. 34, 1990. 33. Kim Y, Katsurai M, Funita H - A Proposal for a Superconducting Actuator Using Meissner Effect - Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Salt Lake City, UT, USA, p. 107, 1989. 34. Busch-Vishniac I J - The Case for Magnetically Driven Microactuators - Sensors and Actuators A 33, p. 207, 1992. 35. Ibid. 36. Jerman H - Electrically Activated, Normally-Closed Diaphragm Valves - Transducers 91, Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, San Francisco, CA, USA, p. 1045, 1991. 37. Product literature for Silicon Microvalves, Redwood MicroSystems, Menlo Park, CA, USA, c 1993. 38. Esashi M, Shoji S, Nakano A - Normally-Closed Microvalve and Micropump Fabricated on Silicon Wafer - Sensors and Actuators, vol 20, nos 1 and 2, 1989. 39. Robbins W P, Polla D L, Tamagawa T, Glumac D E, Judy J W Linear Motion Microactuators Using Piezoelectric Thin Films Transducers 91, Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, San Francisco, CA, USA, p. 55, 1991. 40. Ray C A, Sloan C L, Johnson A D, Busch J B, Petty B R - A SiliconBased Shape Memory Alloy Microvalve - Proceedings of the Spring Materials Research Society Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA, 1992. 41. $8,800 per kilogram. Hinton D E - Shuttle Glow - Exploring Space, Scientific American Special Issue, Jonathan Piel, ed., p. 34, 1990. ###

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