Extraction (as the term is pharmaceutically used) is the separation of medicinally active portions of plant (and animal) tissues

using selective solvents through standard procedures. Such extraction techniques separate the soluble plant metabolites and leave behind the insoluble cellular marc. The products so obtained from plants are relatively complex mixtures of metabolites, in liquid or semisolid state or (after removing the solvent) in dry powder form, and are intended for oral or external use. These include classes of preparations known as decoctions, infusions, fl uid extracts, tinctures, pilular (semisolid) extracts or powdered extracts. Such preparations have been popularly called galenicals, named after Galen, the second century Greek physician. (5132) Ekstrak merupakan kumpulan senyawa-senyawa dari berbagai golongan yang terlarut didalam pelarut yang sesuai, termasuk didalamnya senyawa-senyawa aktif atau yang tidak aktif (Sidik dan Mudahar, 2000). Pengolahan ekstraksi bahan tumbuhan obat dengan pelarut yang sesuai (air, alkohol dan pelarut organik lain) menjadi ekstrak cair atau ekstrak kering banyak dilakukan untuk tujuan standarisasi sediaan obat herba sekaligus memberi keuntungan dari segi formulasi sediaannya (Sinambela, 2003). Pemilihan pelarut sangat penting dalam proses ekstraksi sehingga bahan berkhasiat yang akan ditarik dapat tersari sempurna. Departemen Kesehata merekomendasikan air, alkohol dan air dengan alkohol untuk cairan penyari ekstrak untuk keperluan bahan baku obat tradisional (Farouq, 2003). (5d) 2.1. Extraction The extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials is the first step in the utilization of phytochemicals in the preparation of dietary supplements or nutraceuticals, food ingredients, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. Phenolics can be extracted from fresh, frozen or dried plant samples. Usually before extraction plant samples are treated by milling, grinding and homogenization, which may be preceded by air-drying or freeze-drying. Generally, freeze-drying retains higher levels of phenolics content in plant samples than air-drying [9]. For example, Asami et al. showed that freezedried Marion berries, strawberries and corn consistently had a higher total phenolic content level compared with those air-dried [10]. However, drying processes, including freeze-drying, can cause undesirable effects on the constituent profiles of plant samples, therefore, caution should be taken when planning and analyzing research studies on the medicinal properties of plants [9]. (molecules) Ekstraksi adalah kegiatan penarikan kandungan kimia yang dapat larut sehingga terpisah dari bahan yang tidak larut dengan pelarut cair. Senyawa aktif yang terdapat dalam berbagai simplisia dapat digolongkan ke dalam golongan minyak atsiri, alkaloid, flavonoid, dan lainlain. Dengan diketahuinya senyawa aktif yang dikandung simplisia akan mempermudah pemilihan pelarut dan cara ekstraksi yang tepat (Ditjen POM, 2000). Pemabagian metode ekstraksi menurut DitJen POM (2000) yaitu :

A. Cara dingin 1. Maserasi Maserasi adalah proses pengekstrakan simplisia dengan menggunakan pelarut dengan beberapa kali pengocokan atau pengadukan pada temperatur ruangan (kamar). Cairan penyari akan menembus dinding sel dan masuk ke dalam rongga sel yang mengandung zat aktif yang akan larut, karena adanya perbedaan konsentrasi antara larutan zat aktif di dalam sel dan di luar sel maka larutan terpekat didesak keluar. 2. Perkolasi Perkolasi adalah ekstraksi dengan pelarut yang selalu baru sampai sempurna yang umumnya dilakukan pada temperatur ruangan. Proses terdiri dari tahapan pengembangan, tahap maserasi antara, tahap perkolasi sebenarnya terus-menerus sampai diperoleh ekstrak (perkolat). Cara perkolasi lebih baik dibandingkan dengan cara maserasi karena: - Aliran cairan penyari menyebabkan adanya pergantian larutan yang terjadi dengan larutan yang konsentrasinya lebih rendah, sehingga meningkatkan derajat perbedaan konsentrasi. - Ruangan diantara butir-butir serbuk simplisia membentuk saluran tempat mengalir cairan penyari. Karena kecilnya saluran kapiler tersebut, maka kecepatan pelarut cukup untuk mengurangi lapisan batas, sehingga dapat meningkatkan perbedaan konsentrasi. B. Cara Panas 1. Refluks Refluks adalah ekstraksi dengan pelarut pada temperatur titik didihnya, selama waktu tertentu dan jumlah pelarut terbatas yang relatif konstan dengan adanya pendingin balik. 2. Sokletasi Sokletasi adalah ekstraksi dengan menggunakan pelarut yang selalu baru dan yang umumnya dilakukan dengan alat khusus sehingga terjadi ekstrak kontinu dengan jumlah pelarut relatif konstan dengan adanya pendingin balik. 3. Digesti Digesti adalah maserasi kinetik (dengan pengadukan kontinu) pada temperatur yang lebih tinggi dari temperatur ruangan, yaitu secara umum dilakukan pada temperatur 40-50 0C. 4. Infundasi Infundasi adalah proses penyarian yang umumnya dilakukan untuk menyari zat kandungan aktif yang larut dalam air dari bahan-bahan nabati. Proses ini dilakukan pada suhu 90 0C selama 15 menit. 5. Dekok Dekok adalah infus pada waktu yang lebih lama dan temperatur sampai titik didih air, yakni 30 menit pada suhu 90-100 0C. (chapter ii) 6.1. Extraction of plant material Most of the bulk of the biomass, irrespective of whether it is plants or microbes, exists as fairly inert, insoluble, and often polymeric material, such as cellulose of plants or fungi and

the microbial cell wall (CANNELL 1998). The first step of the extraction is therefore to release and solubilize the smaller secondary metabolites in the matrix, resulting in the initial extract. In liquid extractions the choice of extraction solvent or solvents provides the first and most obvious means of sample preparation (HOSTETTMANN et al. 1998). Initial extraction with low-polarity solvents yields the more lipophilic components, while alcohols isolate a broader spectrum of apolar and polar compounds from the material. In addition to the choice of extraction solvent, there are also different approaches to the actual extraction procedure. While stirring or mechanical agitation are the most common methods, percolation or even pressurized solid-liquid extraction are possible. The most commonly used extraction methods are reviewed in the following chapter. 6.1.1. Selection of extraction method The most widely used extraction processes have traditionally been based either on different liquid extraction methods or on vapor-phase extraction methods (STARMANS and NIJHUIS 1996). A more recent method whose application has steadily increased is supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), which is based on the properties of gases compressed and heated to a state above their critical pressure and temperature, at which no distinction between the gas and liquid phases can be discerned (TSERVISTAS et al. 2000). At the present time, there are also a number of non-conventional extraction methods in use that are all, in principle, solid-liquid extractions (SLE) but which introduce some form of additional energy to the process in order to facilitate the transfer of analytes from sample to solvent. These methods include ultrasonic extraction, microwave-assisted extraction and pressurized liquid extraction (HUIE 2002, ZYGMUNT and NAMIESNIK 2003), as well as vortical (turbo) extraction. Even extraction by electrical energy has been studied (VINATORU 2001). Forced-flow solid-liquid extraction (FFSLE) techniques, such as medium-pressure solid-liquid extraction (MPSLE) and rotation planar extraction (RPE), are methods in which the extraction solvent is forced through the sample bed either by means of pressure or by centrifugal force, respectively, thus increasing the efficiency of the extraction process. (NYIREDY 2001a). The main advantage of these non-conventional methods compared to conventional SLE methods is the increased extraction efficiency, which leads to increased yields and/or shorter extraction times. The simplest method of extraction, however, needs no extraction medium. Mechanical pressing has been traditionally applied to the extraction of oils from oilseeds (ABU-ARABI et al. 2000, VINATORU 2001). This process may be combined with some form of pretreatment such as cleaning, dehulling, crushing or flaking before the extraction but, in general, the only equipment needed is a hydraulic press. Despite the simple operating principle, there are several operating parameters that need to be controlled in order to obtain a sufficient extraction rate and yield. The most important parameters affecting the yield of the extraction procedure are the moisture content of the seeds and temperature (ZHENG et al. 2004). Traditional extraction processes may be classified as follows: extraction with organic solvents: percolation, maceration, and extraction using a Soxhlet apparatus; and extraction with water: infusion, decoction, and steam distillation (SILVA et al. 1998). An old method also worth mentioning is extraction with cold fat, called enfleurage, used mainly for the extraction of fragrances from flowers (STARMANS and NIJHUIS 1996, VINATORU 2001). Percolation is one of the most widespread methods employed in plant extraction since it does not require much sample manipulation or long pre-treatment times (SILVA et al. 1998). The only equipment required is a conical glass container with a tap at the base used to set the rate of solvent elution. Percolation is a continuous process in which the saturated solvent is constantly displaced by fresh solvent, but normally the sample is steeped in solvent in the

percolator for 24 hours for up to three times, and the extracts are then collected and pooled. In maceration the sample is placed in a stoppered container and is in contact with the solvent. This allows the solvent to penetrate into the cellular structure in order to dissolve the soluble compounds (SILVA et al. 1998). Its efficiency may be increased by occasionally shaking the container or by using a mechanical or magnetic stirrer to homogenize the final solution and saturate the solvent. As maceration is a discontinuous method, the solvent should be renewed until the plant material is exhausted; this requires filtration steps that may result in the loss of solvent, analytes, and/or plant material. Soxhlet extraction is a very old, clean-up method, but it is still relatively widely used in plant analysis (ZYGMUNT and NAMIESNIK 2003). It is used mainly with one solvent at a time due to the fact that individual solvents may distill off at different temperatures, with the result that the mixture in the chamber containing the drug becomes enriched in the solvent of lower boiling point (SILVA et al. 1998). The main advantages of the Soxhlet technique are that it is an automatic and continuous method that does not require much manipulation. It has also been shown to be very effective in terms of extraction yield and therefore often used as a reference method for newer extraction methods. One disadvantage is that the extractives are heated during extraction at the boiling point of the solvent employed and thermally labile compounds may hydrolyze, decompose, or produce artifacts. Infusion and decoction are simple methods for extraction with water (SILVA et al. 1998). In the infusion technique, boiling or cold water is added to the milled sample; in decoction the 16 sample is boiled for about 15 minutes in water. Extraction with pure water, however, is seldom used for plant material as hydrophilic compounds are usually extracted with methanol-water or ethanol-water mixtures. Steam distillation is an old extraction method that is primarily used to obtain essential oils from plant material. In this method, a packed bed of plant material is continuously flushed with steam and the volatile organic compounds present in the material are taken up by the vapor phase due to their low partial vapor pressure (STARMANS and NIJHUIS 1996). Compounds carried by the vapor stream are then separated after decreasing the temperature of the vapor by forced condensation. Ultrasonic extraction takes advantage of the very high effective temperatures (which increase solubility and diffusivity) and pressures (which favor penetration and transport) at the interphase between the solvent solution subjected to ultrasonic energy and a solid matrix, combined with the oxidative energy of radicals created during sonolysis, resulting in high extractive power (LUQUE-GARCIA and LUQUE DE CASTRO 2003). Ultrasonically assisted extraction methods have been employed for a great number of different plant materials, e.g. Salvia officinalis L., Valeriana officinalis L., Calendula officinalis L., Gentiana lutea L., Hibiscus tiliaeus L., and chrysanthemum flowers to name a few (SALISOVA et al. 1997, VINATORU et al. 1997, HROMADKOVA et al. 1999, OTTERBACH and WENCLAWIAK 1999, VALACHOVIC et al. 2001, VINATORU 2001, MELECCHI et al. 2002). Compound groups that have been obtained by ultrasonic extraction include polysaccharides, volatile oils, fatty acids and their esters, stigmasterol derivatives, and pyrethrins. Another way of increasing the efficiency of conventional extraction methods is to use microwave irradiation. Microwave-assisted extraction consists of heating the solvent in contact with the sample by means of microwave energy. The process involves disruption of hydrogen bonds, as a result of microwave-induced dipole rotation of molecules, and migration

of the ions, which enhance penetration of the solvent into the matrix, allowing dissolution of the components to be extracted (HUDAIB et al. 2003). The main advantages of microwaveassisted extraction over the conventional extraction techniques are reduced solvent consumption, shorter operational times, moderately high recoveries, good reproducibility and minimal sample manipulation for extraction process (GARCIA-AYUSO and LUQUE de CASTRO 1999, PAN et al. 2000, GARCIA-AYUSO and LUQUE DE CASTRO 2001, BRACHET et al. 2002, HUDAIB et al. 2003). Microwave-assisted extraction methods have been applied to the extraction of oil from olive seeds, pigments from paprika powders, glycyrrhizic acid from liquorice root, lipids from several oleaginous seeds, cocaine and benzoylecgonine from coca leaves, and alkamides from Echinacea purpurea L. roots (GARCIA-AYUSO and LUQUE de CASTRO 1999, CSIKTUSNADI KISS et al. 2000, PAN et al. 2000, GARCIA-AYUSO and LUQUE DE CASTRO 2001, BRACHET et al. 2002, HUDAIB et al. 2003). 17 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE, also commonly known as accelerated solvent extraction; ASE) works according to the principle of static extraction with superheated liquids (BENTHIN et al. 1999). The method uses an organic solvent at high pressures and temperature above the boiling point (ONG et al. 2000). The main reasons for the enhanced performance of PLE are the higher solubility of analytes in solvent at higher temperatures, higher diffusion rate as a result of higher temperatures, and disruption of the strong solutematrix interaction caused by van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole attractions between solute molecules and active sites on the matrix. The PLE technique is well suited for the extraction of various types of compound from different plant materials because parameters other than temperature can be varied and the polarity of the extraction solvent can be chosen from a wide range and adapted to the respective matrix. PLE has been reported to have been applied to e.g. the extraction of dianthrons from Hypericum perforatum L., deacylsaponins from Aesculus hippocastanum L., silybin from Silybum marianum L., curcumin from Curcuma xanthorrhiza, thymol from Thymus vulgaris L., flavanones and xanthones from Maclura pomifera, aristolochic acids from Radix aristolochiae, berberine from Coptidis rhizoma and oxysterols from whole egg powder and egg-containing foods (BENTHIN et al. 1999, da COSTA et al. 1999, ONG et al. 2000, BOSELLI et al. 2001). Subcritical water extraction (SWE, also called pressurized hot water extraction, PHWE, or superheated water extraction) is based on the unique solvent properties of water, namely its disproportionately high boiling point for its mass, a high dielectric constant and high polarity (SMITH 2002). The method involves heating water above its boiling point but below its critical point (i.e. 374C) under elevated pressure so that the water remains in a liquid state. As the temperature rises there is a marked and systematic decrease in permittivity, an increase in the diffusion rate and a decrease in the viscosity and surface tension. SWE has been found to be an efficient extraction method and a potential alternative to steam distillation and solvent extraction in the extraction of essential oils from plant material. Satisfactory results have been reported for SWE of essential oils from marjoram (Thymus mastichina), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) and sage (Salvia officinalis) (JIMENEZ-CARMONA et al. 1999, ROVIO et al. 1999, GAMIZ-GRACIA and LUQUE de CASTRO 2000, OLLANKETO et al. 2001). Besides essential oils, the method has also been applied to the extraction of lactones from kava root (Piper methysticum) and iridoid

glycosides from Veronica longifolia leaves (SUOMI et al. 2000, KUBATOVA et al. 2001). (extracti)

Proses pemisahan ekstrak dari cairan penyarinya dengan pemanasan yang dipercepat oleh putaran dari labu alas bulat, cairan penyari dapat menguap sekitar 5-10 C di bawah titik didih pelarutnya disebabkan oleh karena adanya penurunan tekanan. Dengan bantuan pompa vakum, uap larutan penyari akan menguap naik ke kondensor dan mengalami kondensasi menjadi molekul-molekul cairan pelarut murni yang ditampung dalam labu alas bulat penampung (Sudjadi, 1986). Vaccuum Rotary Evaporator adalah alat yang berfungsi untuk memisahkan suatu larutan dari pelarutnya sehingga dihasilkan ekstrak dengan kandungan kimia tertentu sesuai yang diinginkan. Cairan yang ingin diuapkan biasanya ditempatkan dalam suatu labu yang kemudian dipanaskan dengan bantuan penangas, dan diputar. Uap cairan yang dihasilkan didinginkan oleh suatu pendingin (kondensor) dan ditampung pada suatu tempat (receiver flask). Kecepatan alat ini dalam melakukan evaporasi sangat cepat, terutama bila dibantu oleh vakum. Terjadinya bumping dan pembentukan busa juga dapat dihindari. Kelebihan lainnya dari alat ini adalah diperolehnya kembali pelarut yang diuapkan. Prinsip kerja alat ini didasarkan pada titik didih pelarut dan adanya tekanan yang menyebabkan uap dari pelarut terkumpul di atas, serta adanya kondensor (suhu dingin) yang menyebabkan uap ini mengembun dan akhirnya jatuh ke tabung penerima (receiver flask). Setelah pelarutnya diuapkan, akan dihasilkan ekstrak yang dapat berbentuk padatan (solid) atau cairan (liquid) (Nugroho, et al. 1999). Biasanya ekstrak yang dihasilkan dari ekstraksi awal ini (ekstraksi dari bahan tumbuhan) disebut sebagai ekstrak kasar (crude extract). (kajian)