Chapter W2 Mechanical Systems I: Figure W2.1 Translatory Spring Combinations: (A) Series (B) Parallel

Lobontiu: System Dynamics for Engineering Students
Website Chapter 2 1
Chapter W2 Mechanical Systems I

Introduction
This companion website chapter gives more details on a few topics that have been
introduced in the printed-book Chapter 2, namely:
Equivalent stiffness for series and parallel spring connections
Viscous damping coefficient for translatory and rotary motions
Equivalent damping coefficients for linear-motion dampers connected in series
and in parallel
Mechanical lever systems
Gear shaft systems
Pulley systems
The principle of work and energy method applied to single-DOF conservative and
nonconservative systems
Critically-damped and overdamped free response of single-DOF mechanical
systems

W2.1 Series and Parallel Combinations of Translatory Springs ( 2.1.2)
To vary the stiffness properties of a mechanical system, several springs can be
combined in series or in parallel, as sketched in Fig. W2.1 where it is assumed that the
serial and parallel translatory spring chains are clamped at one end.

Figure W2.1 Translatory spring combinations: (a) series; (b) parallel

(a) (b)
x1
k1
f
k2
x2
x
k1
f
k2

Website Chapter 2 2
For serial springs, the force is the same in each component, whereas the total deformation
is the sum of individual deformations; conversely, for parallel spring combinations, the
displacements are identical, whereas the sum of individual spring forces equals the
externally applied force.
The task is to obtain a system whose force-deformation equation is:

e eq
f f k x = = (W2.1)
where k
eq
= k
s
is the equivalent series stiffness and k
eq
= k
p
is the equivalent parallel
stiffness. For the series connection, the total displacement x is expressed as:

1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 f f
x x x f
k k k k
| |
= + = + = +
|
\ .
(W2.2)
Comparing Eqs. (W2.1) and (W2.2), it follows that the equivalent series stiffness is:

1 2
1 1 1
s
k k k
= + (W2.3)
When n springs instead of two are coupled in series, Eq. (W2.3) becomes

1 2
1 1 1 1
... = + + +
s n
k k k k
(W2.4)
For the parallel connection sketched in Fig. W2.1(b), the total force can be expressed as:
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 e e
f f f k x k x k k x = + = + = + (W2.5)
Comparing Eqs. (W2.1) and (W2.5), it follows that:

1 2 p
k k k = + (W2.6)
For a parallel connection comprising n springs, the equivalent stiffness is

1 2
... = + + +
p n
k k k k (W2.7)
Equations (W2.4) and (W2.7) are collected in Eqs. (2.18) in the printed book

W2.2 Translatory and Rotary Viscous Damping Coefficients ( 2.1.3)

W2.2.1 Translatory Viscous Damping Coefficient
Consider the translatory (linear-motion) system with viscous damping of Fig. W2.2. It
consists of a piston of diameter D
i
and length l inside a cylinder of inner diameter D
o

filled with fluid of dynamic viscosity and mass density .

Website Chapter 2 3

Figure W2.2 Linear-motion damper

When the piston translates to the left with a velocity v, two categories of damping
forces act on it that are produced at the fluid-piston interface. One force is due to the
lateral friction between the cylindrical face and the surrounding fluid while the other
force is generated by the pressure difference between the front and rear cylinder planar
faces. Equation (2.26) in the printed book gives the damping force applied by a fluid to a
plate when the gap is g and the common (superposition) area is A as

, d l
A
f A v
g
u
= = (W2.8)
For this case the gap is

2
o i
D D
g

= (W2.9)
while the contact area is approximated to

i
A Dl = (W2.10)

Equations (W2.9) and (W2.10) are substituted in Eq. (W2.8), which becomes:

,
2
i
d l
o i
Dl
f A v
D D
u
= =
(W2.11)
l
R (hydraulic resistance)
fixed cylinder
Di
Do
piston
v
fluid
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The frontal damping force can be found by first expressing the fluid mass flow rate
(more details on this topic are provided in Chapter 4) corresponding to the fluid motion to
the right through the fluid resistor of resistance R as:

m
dq p
dt R
= (W2.12)
where p is the pressure difference between the two fluid compartments lying in the front
and in the rear of the piston and q
m
is the mass flow rate. The quantity of fluid being
displaced within the cylinder is equal to the quantity of fluid moving backwards through
the resistance conduit. For an elementary distance x travelled horizontally by the piston
the corresponding mass flow rate is:

2
4
i
m
D
dq dx
= (W2.13)
By combining Eqs. (W2.12) and (W2.13), and by also taking into account that dx/dt = v,
it follows that:

2
4
m i
dq D
p R R v
dt
= = (W2.14)
The frontal damping force can now be calculated as area times pressure difference:

2 2 4
,
4 16
i i
d f
D D
f p Rv

= = (W2.15)
The total damping force is found by adding up the two components of Eqs. (W2.11) and
(W2.15):

2 4
, ,
2
16
i i
d d l d f t
o i
Dl D
f f f v Rv c v
D D
u
= + = + =
(W2.16)
where the translatory-motion damping coefficient is:

2 4 3
2 2
16 16
i i i
t i
o i o i
Dl D D l
c R D R
D D D D
u u

| |
= + = +
|

\ .
(W2.17)
as given in Eq. (2.28) in the printed book.

W2.2.2 Rotary Viscous Damping Coefficient
Consider the piston-cylinder system of Fig. W2.2 is studied when the piston rotates
with an angular velocity inside the fluid-filled cylinder; it is also assumed the cylinder
Website Chapter 2 5
does not translate inside the cylinder and therefore, does not change its axial position, as
indicated in Fig. W2.3. There are also no losses due to fluid-piston frontal interaction.

Figure W2.3 Rotary-motion damper

In this situation, since the linear tangential velocity of a point on the cylinders
surface is angular velocity times radius, the damping force which is produced at the
rotary piston-fluid interface is:

2
i
d
D A
f
g
u
= (W2.18)
The interface area A of Eq. (W2.10) and g of Eq. (W2.9) are substituted in Eq. (W2.18),
which results in

2
2
2
i i i
d
o i o i
Dl D D l
f
D D D D
u u
= =

(W2.19)
As a consequence, the damping torque is computed as:

( )
2 3
2 2 2
i i i i
d d
o i o i
D D D l D l
m f
D D D D
u u
= = =

(W2.20)
According to its definition of Eq. (2.22), the rotary damping torque is:

d r
m c = (W2.21)
Comparing Eqs. (W2.20) and (W2.21), it follows that the viscous damping coefficient in
rotary motion is:

( )
3
2
i
r
o i
D l
c
D D
u
=
(W2.22)
fixed cylinder
rotary piston
fluid
l

Di Do
Website Chapter 2 6
as indicated in Eq. (2.28) in the printed book.

W2.3 Series and Parallel Combinations of Viscous Dampers ( 2.1.3)
Translatory viscous dampers can be combined in series, in parallel or in series-
parallel to change the damping coefficient provided by single dampers. Figure W2.4
shows two linear-motion dampers defined by the coefficients c
1
and c
2
, which are
connected in series Fig. W2.4(a) and in parallel Fig. W2.4(b).

Figure W2.4 Translatory damper combinations: (a) series; (b) parallel

The objective of combining dampers in either series or parallel is to obtain an
equivalent system with a single damper whose force-velocity equation is:

d eq
f f c x = = (W2.23)
where c
eq
= c
s
is the equivalent series damping coefficient and c
eq
= c
p
is the equivalent
parallel damping coefficient. For the series connection, the total velocity at the chain's
end in Fig. W2.4(a) can be expressed as the sum of individual dampers velocities taking
into account that the force is identical on each component:

1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 f f
x x x f
c c c c
| |
= + = + = +
|
\ .
(W2.24)
Comparison of Eqs. (W2.23) and (W2.24) yields the equivalent series damping
coefficient:

1 2
1 1 1
s
c c c
= + (W2.25)
When n linear-motion dampers are connected in series, the equivalent damping
coefficient becomes
(a) (b)
c1 c2
x1 x2
f
f
x
c1
c2

Website Chapter 2 7

1 2
1 1 1 1
... = + + +
s n
c c c c
(W2.26)

For the parallel connection of the 2 dampers shown in Fig. W2.4(b), the total force
considers that individual dampers have identical velocities and the total damping force is
the sum of individual damping forces:
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 d d
f f f c x c x c c x = + = + = + (W2.27)
Comparing Eqs. (W2.23) and (W2.27), it follows that the parallel-connection equivalent
damping coefficient is:

1 2 p
c c c = + (W2.28)
When n linear-motion dampers are coupled in parallel, the equivalent damping
coefficient becomes:

1 2
... = + + +
p n
c c c c (W2.29)
Equations (W2.26) and (W2.29) are collected in Eq. (2.31) in the printed book.

W2.4 Lever Systems ( 2.2.2)
Equations for calculating the mass and stiffness corresponding to point masses and springs
that are relocated on a lever are derived here. Also discussed in this section is the topic of serially
coupling several levers.

W2.4.1 Relocating Mass and Stiffness on Levers
Not always masses and/or springs are connected at the same point on a lever; in cases
where masses and/or springs are attached at various positions, it is useful to transfer these
lumped inertia and stiffness properties from their original positions to a mobile end of the
lever. The mass m
A
for instance is placed at point A on the lever of Fig. W2.5; it is of
interest to determine the mass m
B
, which is located at the free end B, and which is
dynamically equivalent to the original mass m
A
. The equivalence between the levers of
Fig. W2.5 requires that the two systems have identical displacement fields (the same
displacement z
B
for instance) and the same kinetic energy at all times. Considering the
rod is massless, the kinetic energy of the original lever system is:

Website Chapter 2 8
( )
2 1
2
=
A A
T m z (W2.30)
Taking into account Eq. (2.47) in the printed book, which is:

B B
A A
z l
z l
= (W2.31)
the following relationship can be written between the velocities at A and B:
=
A
A B
B
l
z z
l
(W2.32)

Figure W2.5 Equivalent lever-mass systems with: (a) original mass position; (b) displaced mass position

Substitution of Eq. (W2.32) into Eq. (W2.30) produces:
( )
2
2 1
2
| |
=
|
\ .

A
A B
B
l
T m z
l
(W2.33)
On the other hand, the kinetic energy of the equivalent lever system with a mass m
B

located at point B (and which is equal to the kinetic energy of the original system, as
mentioned) is:
( )
2 1
2
=
B B
T m z (W2.34)
Equations (W2.33) and (W2.34) indicate that the equivalent mass is:

2
| |
=
|
\ .
A
B A
B
l
m m
l
(W2.35)
which is Eq. (2.50) in the printed book.
Stiffness properties can similarly be transferred between various locations on a lever
system, as indicated in Fig. W2.6.

A
lA
lB
zB
O
B
zA
mA
lB
zB O
B
mB
(a) (b)
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Figure W2.6 Equivalent lever-spring systems with: (a) original spring position; (b) displaced spring position

The original and equivalent lever-spring systems of Fig. W2.6 need to possess the same
potential energy and their displacement fields need to be identical. Taking into account
Eq. (W2.31), the elastic potential energy of the original system is:
( ) ( )
2
2 2 1 1
2 2
| |
= =
|
\ .
A
A A A B
B
l
U k z k z
l
(W2.36)
whereas the elastic potential energy of the equivalent system is:
( )
2 1
2
=
B B
U k z (W2.37)
Comparison of Eqs. (W2.36) and (W2.37) results in:

2
| |
=
|
\ .
A
B A
B
l
k k
l
(W2.38)

W2.4.2 Serially-Coupled Levers
Levers can be coupled serially, as sketched in Fig. W2.7, to increase displacement
amplification and force reduction. The output displacement from the first stage, z
B
, is the
input to the second stage, whose output displacement is z
D
(displacements are not shown
in Fig. W2.7). The following stage amplifications (a
1
and a
2
) can be calculated:

1
2
= =
= =
B B
A A
D D
C C
z l
a
z l
z l
a
z l
(W2.39)
A
lA
lB
zB O
B
zA
kA
B
lB
zB
O
kB
(a) (b)
Website Chapter 2 10

Figure W2.7 Two-stage lever system

The push-rod BC is assumed rigid and, for small displacements, it moves vertically such
that z
B
= z
C
. It then follows that:

1 2
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
D B D
A A C
z z z
a a
z z z
(W2.40)
which indicates that the motion at D is a
1
times a
2
larger than the motion at A.
Considering that the work done by f
A
is equal to the work done by the force f
D
, it follows
that:

1 2
1
= =
D A
A D
f z
f z a a
(W2.41)
Equation (W2.41) indicates that the force f
D
is a
1
times a
2
smaller than the force at A, f
A

in the quasi-static case.

W2.5 Gear Shaft Transmissions ( 2.2.2)
Rotary motion needs to be transmitted from one shaft to another in many mechanical
engineering applications and one modality to realize this is through gear trains. Part of a
geared wheel is shown in Fig. W2.8 (a). The median circle is the pitch circle and the
distance measured on this circle between two consecutive teeth is known as the circular
pitch and is denoted by p. The radius of the pitch circle is R. Two gears that mesh (or
engage) are schematically shown in Fig. W2.8 (b) where the corresponding pitch circles
are tangent.

lC
A
lA
lB
O1
B
fA
fD
lD
C
D
O2


Figure W2.8 Toothed gears: (a) Main parameters of a toothed gear pair; (b) Meshing gears

The length of the pitch circle can be computed as:
2 = = l R pN (W2.42)
where N represents the number of teeth. It is necessary that two engaging toothed gears
have the same circular pitch, and therefore, by using Eq. (W2.42) for the meshing gears 1
and 2 of Fig. W2.8 (b), it follows that:

1 1
2 2
=
R N
R N
(W2.43)
Since there is no slippage between the two pitch circles (the actual gear engaging is
equivalent to a pure rolling of the two pitch circles), the following is true:

1 1 2 2
= R R (W2.44)
which leads to:

1 2
2 1
=
R
R
(W2.45)
The same non slippage condition makes that the two engaging gears have the same
velocity at the contact point, namely:

1 1 2 2
= = v R R (W2.46)
and this equation, combined with Eq. (W2.45), results in:

1 2 2
2 1 1
= =

R
R

(W2.47)
mt1, 1
v
mt2, 2
R1
R2
N1
N2
R1
R2
p
pitch circles
(b) (a)
Equation (W2.47) could have been obtained by taking the time derivative of Eq.
(W2.45). By applying the time derivative twice to Eq. (W2.45) yields:

1 2
2 1
=

R
R
(W2.48)
Under ideal conditions, the power is fully transmitted from one gear to the other in
meshing. Assuming the power torque on gear 1 is m
t1
and that a torque m
t2
is transmitted
to gear 2 through meshing, the power equality requires that:

1 1 2 2
=

t t
m m (W2.49)
which results in:

2 2
1 1
=
t
t
m
m
(W2.50)
Equations (W2.43), (W2.45), (W2.47), (W2.48) and (W2.50) can be combined into a
single equation, namely:

1 1 1 2 2 2
2 2 1 1 1 2
= = = = =

t
t
m N R
N R m

(W2.51)

W2.6 Pulley Systems
Pulleys are utilized to change the direction and characteristics (displacement, velocity
and acceleration) of translatory motion by utilizing their rotation capability. Quasi-
statically, pulleys are similar to levers, as they can amplify (or reduce) the mechanical
displacement. Figure W2.9 for instance shows two discs or radii R
A
and R
B
, which are
assembled rigidly on the same shaft. One wire is fixed over the circumference of each
cylinder and two forces, f
A
and f
B
pull the wires in opposite directions.


Figure W2.9 Two-disc pulley

Considering the discs rotate by a small angle in the direction of z
A
, the two
displacements at the discs peripheries are:

=
A A
B B
z R
z R
(W2.52)
which indicates that:
= =
B B
A A
z R
a
z R
(W2.53)
where a denotes the displacement amplification, very much similar to the function
realized by levers. Since the quasistatic works done by the two forces are equal, it follows
that:

1
= =
B A
A B
f z
f z a
(W2.54)
which is, again, identical to the mechanical lever.
The similitude between levers and pulleys in the quasistatic domain is also valid for a
multi-stage (specifically, a two-stage) pulley system, as the one sketched in Fig. W2.10.
The following individual displacement amplification ratios can be formulated:

1
2
= =
= =
B B
A A
D D
C C
z R
a
z R
z R
a
z R
(W2.55)

zA
fA
RA
RB
fB
zB
A
B

Figure W2.10 Two-stage disc pulley system

By also taking into account that the periphery displacements along the wire that connects
the R
C
and R
B
discs are identical, it follows that:

1 2
= =
D B D
A A C
z z z
a a
z z z
(W2.56)
and therefore the displacement at the periphery of the disc R
D
is a
1
times a
2
larger than
the displacement at the periphery of disc R
A
. By equating the works done by the two
forces, f
A
and f
D
, it follows that:

1 2
1
=
D A
f f
a a
(W2.57)
which indicates that the force f
D
is a
1
times a
2
smaller than the force f
A
.

Figure W2.11 Equivalence between pulley and gear connections

Since pulleys are normally located on shafts, the inertia and stiffness of a given
pulley-shaft systems can be transferred to the connecting pulley-shaft system exactly the
D
zD
RC
RD
fD
zA
fA
RA
RB
zC
B
ZB
A
C
Pulley system Gear system
same as for gear trains, as long as the belt connecting the two adjacent pulleys functions
without slippage Fig. W2.11 is an illustration of this similitude.

W2.7 The Principle of Work and Energy (the Energy Method)
Energy equations are given in the printed-book Chapter 2 for the mass (inertia),
springs and dampers. While being systematically introduced and applied in Chapter 3, the
energy method can also be utilized to model basic mechanical systems, such as the
single-DOF ones of Chapter 2. Presented here is the principle of work and energy (or
simply, the energy method) as applied to conservative and nonconservative systems.

W2.7.1 Conservative Systems
For a mechanical system with no external forcing acting on it and no losses (such as
those owing to damping), the total energy E (which comprises kinetic T, elastic potential
U
e
and gravitational potential U
g
energy fractions) is constant and the corresponding
systems are known as conservative systems. As a consequence, the time derivative of the
total energy is zero for a conservative system, namely:

( )
0
e g
dE d
T U U
dt dt
= + + = (W2.58)
The generic Eq. (W2.58) can be used to derive the mathematical model of conservative
systems, as an alternative to Newtons second law of motion.

Example W2.1
Derive the mathematical model and determine the natural frequency corresponding to the free
vibrations of the torsional dynamic vibration absorber sketched in Fig W2.12. Assume the rod
connecting the two masses is rigid and massless, and that the displacements are small, such that
the four springs directions remain unchanged. Also assume the motion takes place in a horizontal
plane such that gravitational effects can be neglected. Known are: m = 1kg, k = 100 N/m, l
1
=
0.25 m, and l
2
= 0.5 m.


Figure W2.12 Torsional dynamic vibration absorber

Solution:
The total energy of this system is formed of kinetic and elastic potential energy contributions,
namely:

2 2 2 2
1 1
2 4
2 2 2
e
k
E T U mx y mx ky
| | | |
= + = + = +
| |
\ . \ .
(W2.59)
because there are two identical masses and four identical springs. For small motions:

2
1
x l
y l
=
(W2.60)
Substituting Eqs. (W2.60) in Eq. (W2.59) changes the total energy to:

2 2 2 2
2 1
E ml kl = +
(W2.61)
The system is conservative and therefore, the time derivative of E is zero:

( )
2 2
2 1
2 0
dE
ml kl
dt
= + =

(W2.62)
Equation (W2.62) is satisfied at all times only when the parenthesis is zero (because the rod
angular velocity cannot be zero always):

2 2
2 1
0 ml kl + =
(W2.63)
Equation (W2.63) is the mathematical model of the torsional dynamic vibration absorber; its
natural frequency is

2
1 1
2
2 2
n
kl l k
ml l m
= = (W2.64)
With the numerical parameters of this example, the natural frequency of Eq. (W2.65) is
n
= 5
rad/s.

l1 l1
l2 l2
k/2
k/2
k/2
k/2
m
x
m
x
y
y
Example W2.2
Consider the mechanical system of Fig. W2.13 comprising a wheel of mass m
1
and a spring
of stiffness k
1
. The wheel undergoes pure rolling on a fixed horizontal surface during the systems
free vibrations. Determine the conditions k
1
and m
1
need to satisfy such that the natural frequency
of this system be identical to the one of the system studied in Example W2.1 and sketched in Fig.
W2.12.

Figure W2.13 Mechanical system with rolling wheel and spring

Solution:
The mechanical system is conservative and its total energy comprises the kinetic energy of
the wheel and the elastic potential energy stored in the spring. For the system moving to the left,
as shown in Fig. W2.13, the total energy is expressed as:

2 2
1
1 1
2 2
e I C
E T U J k x = + = +
(W2.65)
The kinetic energy contribution is rotational because the wheel undergoes a pure rotation with
respect to the instant center I (the point of contact between wheel and the horizontal surface). The
wheel mass moment of inertia with respect to I is calculated by using the parallel axis theorem as

2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1 3
2 2
I C
J J m R m R m R m R = + = + = (W2.66)
where J
C
= 1/2mR
2
is the wheel mass moment of inertia with respect to its center C. The
horizontal motion coordinate x
C
of the center C is calculated considering the instantaneous
rotation of this point with respect to I as

C
x R = (W2.67)
Substituting J
I
and x
C
of Eqs. (W2.66) and (W2.67) into Eq. (W2.65) results in

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1 3 1 3 1
2 2 2 4 2
e
E T U m R k R m k R
| | | |
= + = + = +
| |
\ . \ .

(W2.68)
The time derivative of the total energy is zero and therefore, the following equation results from
Eq. (W2.68) as
C
x
m1
I

k1
R


2
1 1
3
2
dE
m k R
dt
| |
= +
|
\ .

(W2.69)
Equation (W2.69) is valid at all times when

1 1
3
0
2
m k + =
(W2.70)
which yields the natural frequency

1
1
2
3
n
k
m
= (W2.71)
This natural frequency is identical to the one of the vibration absorber given in Eq. (W2.64) for:

1 1
2 1
2
3
l k k
l m m
= (W2.72)
which yields

2
1 1
2
1 2
3
2
k l k
m l m
= (W2.73)
For the particular parameter values of Example W2.1, it follows from Eq. (W2.73) that k
1
/m
1
=
37.5 rad/sec
2
. When a mass m
1
= 1 kg is used for instance, the resulting stiffness is k
1
= 37.5 N/m.

W2.7.2 Nonconservative Systems
A mechanical system which receives and/or loses energy is a nonconservative system.
For such a system, forces (or moments) other the inertial, spring or gravity act on the
respective system and which are known as nonconservative. As known from dynamics,
the principle of work and energy applies in these situations, according to which the
variation in the total energy (kinetic and potential) between two system states (positions)
is equal to the work done by the nonconservative forces between the same positions.
Mathematically, this is formulated as

12 1 2
E W
= (W2.74)
Applying the time derivative to Eq. (W2.74) results in

12 1 2
d d
E W
dt dt

= (W2.75)
Equation (W2.75) can be utilized as an alternative to Newtons second law of motion to
derive the mathematical model of nonconservative mechanical systems.

Example W2.3
Use the energy method to derive the mathematical model of the mass-spring system (spring of
stiffness is k) shown in Fig. W2.14 by studying the downward motion of the body of mass m. Consider
there is friction between the body and the incline, the coefficient of kinematic friction being .

Figure W2.14 Mass-spring single DOF mechanical system: (a) schematic representation; (b) two positions on
the incline

Solution:
Figure W2.14 (b) shows the original position of the body when the spring is undeformed, and
also indicates a generic position, underneath the original one, where the spring has a deformation
x and the body is situated at a distance h underneath the datum line, which passes through the
original position. The total energy variation of this mechanical system between the two points
shown in Fig. W2.14 (b) is:

( )
2 2
1 1
sin
2 2
e g
E T U U mx kx mgx = + + = + (W2.76)
where the minus sign appears in front of the gravitational potential energy because the body is
underneath the datum line in its generic position; it was also considered that h = xsin. The work
done by the friction force between the motion origin and the current point of abscissa x is
negative and is expressed as:
cos
f
W f x mgx u = = (W2.77)
According to the principle of work and energy
( ) ( ) sin cos x mx kx mg x mg u + = (W2.78)
x
k
m

x
datum line
h
original position
generic (displaced) position
(a) (b)
which results in
sin cos mx mg mg kx u = (W2.79)
Newtons second law of motion is applied to the body of mass m, which is

t f e
mx f f f = (W2.80)
where f
t
(the tangential component of the gravity force), f
f
(the friction force), and f
e
(the spring
elastic force) are:

sin
cos
t
f
e
f mg
f mg
f kx
u
=
(W2.81)
Substituting the forces of Eqs. (W2.81) in Eq. (W2.80) yields Eq. (W2.79), which was the
mathematical model for this mechanical system derived by the principle of work and energy.

W2.8 Free Damped Response Critical Damping and Overdamping ( 2.2.2)
The free underdamped response of single DOF-systems has been studied in Chapter 2
of the printed book. Briefly discussed are here the underdamped response (0 < < 1), the
critically-damped response ( = 1) and the overdamped response ( > 1). The differential
equation governing the free damped response of a single-DOF system is
0 mx cx kx + + = (W2.82)
which can be written in terms of the natural frequency
n
and the damping ratio as

2
2 0
n n
x x x + + = (W2.83)
Searching for solutions of the type x = e
t
further transforms Eq. (W2.83) into

( )
2 2
2 0
t
n n
e
+ + = (W2.84)
and therefore to

2 2
2 0
n n
+ + = (W2.85)
which is the characteristic equation.
Underdamping refers to situations where 0 < < 1 and the eigenvalues (the roots of
Eq. (W2.85)) in this case are complex. As shown in Appendix A, the general solution to
the homogeneous Eq. (W2.85) contains terms of the form:
( ) ( ) cos ; sin
t t
e t e t

(W2.86)

where is the real part of the complex root and is the imaginary part. The roots of Eq.
(W2.85) can be written in the form:

2
1,2
1 =
n n
j (W2.87)
so that:

2
; 1 = =
n n
(W2.88)
and the general solution is of the form:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
2 2
1 2
( ) cos sin
cos 1 sin 1
= +

= +

n
t t
n n
x t c e t c e t
e c t c t

(W2.89)
An alternative form to Eq. (W2.89) is:

( )
2
( ) sin 1
= +
n
t
n
x t Xe t
(W2.90)
For critical damping, the damping ratio is equal to 1, and therefore, the two roots of
the characteristic Eq. (W2.85) are identical, namely:

1 2 n
= = = (W2.91)
As explained in Appendix A, the general solution in this case is of the form:
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
( )
n
t t
x t c c t e c c t e

= + = + (W2.92)
Known initial displacement x
0
and velocity v
0
lead to the following constants:

1 0
2 0 0
=
= +
n
c x
c v x
(W2.93)
and therefore Eq. (W2.92) becomes:
( )
0 0 0
( )

= + +

n
t
n
x t x v x t e

(W2.94)
It is probably the right place to elaborate a bit on the damping ratio, which is actually
defined as the ratio of an actual damping coefficient c and the critical damping coefficient
c
cr
, namely:
=
cr
c
c
(W2.95)
As mentioned here, the two eigenvalues are identical in critical damping, and one can
analyze the characteristic equation, which results from Eq. (W2.82):

2
0 + + = m c k (W2.96)
In order for Eq. (W2.96) to have identical roots, the discriminant needs to be zero, which
means that the critical damping coefficient is:

2
4 0 or 2 = =
cr cr
c mk c mk (W2.97)
and, therefore:

n
cr
m c mk
c mk mk

= = = (W2.98)
In overdamping, the damping ratio is larger than 1 and therefore, the roots of the
characteristic equation
1
and
2
are real. As shown in Appendix A, the general solution
of the homogeneous Eq. (W2.83) is of the form:

( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
1 1
1 2 1 2
( )
+
= + = +
n n
t t
t t
x t c e c e c e c e

(W2.99)
Known initial displacement x
0
and velocity v
0
lead to the following constants:

( )
( )
2
0 0
1
2
2
0 0
2
2
1
2 1
1
2 1
n
n
n
n
v x
c
v x
c

+ +
(W2.100)

Chapter W2 Mechanical Systems I: Figure W2.1 Translatory Spring Combinations: (A) Series (B) Parallel

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