IMMUNE SYSTEM

-bodys line of defense against foreign molecules, viruses, & infections Innate Immunity -defense that is active immediately upon infection (e.g. outer covering) Molecular recognition -detection of non-self-molecules where receptor molecules bind specifically to molecules from foreign cells or viruses Adaptive Immunity -defense found only in vertebrate -also known as acquired immune response & is activated after innate immune response & develops slowly -enhanced by previous exposure to infecting pathogen (e.g. vaccines) INNATE IMMUNITY Invertebrates -exoskeleton as first line of defense

Vertebrates -innate immunity coexists with adaptive Barrier Defenses -epithelial tissues (skin, lining of digestive, urinary, respiratory, & reproductive tracts) -secretions create environment hostile to bacteria 1.) Mucus- viscous fluid that helps trap microbes 2.) Saliva, tears -skin pH acidic enough to prevent growth of bacteria (3-5) Cellular Innate Defenses -phagocytic cells detect foreign molecules -Toll-like receptor (TLR) binds to fragments of molecules characteristic to set of pathogens -natural killer cells circulate through body & detect abnormal arrays of surface proteins of virus & cancerous cells Phagocytic Cells

-chitin provides effective barrier against pathogens -blocks infection ingested in food Lysozyme- enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls Hemocytes- Immune cells Phagocytosis- cellular ingestion & digestion of foreign substances Antimicrobial peptides- short chains of amino acids that circulate through the body & kill fungi & bacteria by disrupting plasma membrane Cell wall: Fungal: polysaccharide; Bacterial: polymers

1.) Neutrophils -circulate in blood -attracted by signals from infected tissues -engulfs & destroys pathogens 2.) Macrophages -larger phagocytic cells -some migrate in body, some permanent in organs 3.) Dendritic Cells -mainly populate tissues that have contact with the environment 4.) Eosinophils -often found beneath mucosal surfaces -low phagocytic activity

-important in defending against multicellular invaders Antimicrobial Peptides & Proteins Interferons -proteins that interfere with viral infections -limit cell-to-cell spread of viruses & control infection Complement System -consists of 30 proteins in blood plasma -circulate in inactive state & are activated by substances on surfaces of microbes -activation results in chemical reactions that lead to lysing of invading cells Inflammatory Response -changes brought about by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection -cycle of signaling & response transform the site -activated complement proteins carry out additional phagocytosis and delivery of antimicrobial peptides -results in accumulation of pus Histamine -inflammatory signaling molecule stored in granules (vesicles) of mast cells -triggers blood vessels to dilate & become more permeable Cytokines -signaling molecules that enhance immune response -promote blood flow to site of injury or infection

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY -relies on T cells & B cells which are lymphocytes (types of white blood cells) -originate from stem cells in bone marrow -recognition occurs when B or T cell binds to an antigen through an antigen receptor T Cells -lymphocytes that migrate from bone marrow o thymus B Cells -lymphocytes that remain in bone marrow Antigen -substance that elicits a response from a B or T cell -usually foreign & large molecules Antigen Receptor -specific enough to bind to just one part of one molecule -also called an epitope or antigenic determinant ANTIGEN RECOGNITION BY B CELLS -B cell receptors are Y shaped with 4 polypeptide chains: 2 heavy, 2 light -B cell activation leads to secretion of soluble form of receptor Antibody -proteins secreted rather than membrane bound

-help defend against pathogens ANTIGEN RECOGNITION BY T CELLS -antigen consists of two polypeptide chains: chains, chains -T cells bind only to fragments that are displayed on surface f host cells -interaction of MHC, antigen fragment, & antigen receptor is necessary for T Cells adaptive immune response Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) -host protein that displays the antigen fragment on cell surface Antigen Presentation -display of antigen fragment in exposed groove of MHC protein B CELL & T CELL DEVELOPMENT 4 Major Characteristics of Adaptive Immunity 1.) Immense diversity of lymphocytes & receptors 2.) Normally has self-tolerance 3.) Cell proliferation greatly increases number of T Cells and B Cells for specific antigen 4.) There is a stronger & more rapid response to an antigen encountered previously; also known as immunological response Generation of B & T Cells -result of combining variable elements -assembling functional genes require rearrangement of DNA -enzyme complex recombinase links chains together -antigen receptors are synthesized after rearrangement of genes

Origin of Self-Tolerance -immature lymphocytes produce receptors specific for epitopes on organisms own molecules -if not eliminated or inactivated, immune system cannot distinguish self from non-self -lymphocytes mature in bone marrow or thymus & tested for self-reactivity & some are destroyed by apoptosis (cell death) Proliferation of B Cells & T Cells -once activated, cells undergo multiple divisions & clone original cell -some cells become -Effector Cells: short-lived cells that take effect immediately against antigens -B Cells: Plasma Cells -T Cells: Helper Cells -Memory Cells: long-lived cells that give rise to effector cell if the same antigen is encountered again Clonal Selection -process of dividing lymphocytes to produce a clonal population of thousands of identical cells IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY -responsible for long term protection -prior exposure to antigen alters speed, strength, & duration of immune response (production of effector cells) DEFENSE OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY Humoral Immune Response -occurs in blood & lymph & helps neutralize or eliminate toxins & pathogens

Cell-Mediated Immune Response -specialized T Cells destroy infected host cells HELPER T CELLS -triggers both humoral & cell-mediated responses -do not carry out responses but transmit signals that initiate production of antibodies Activation needs: 1.) Foreign molecule must be present that can bind to the antigen receptor of T Cell 2.) Antigen must be displayed on surface of an antigen-presenting cell (can be dendritic cell, macrophage, B Cell) -antigen-presenting cells have both class I & class II MHC molecules -antigen receptors on surface of helper T Cell bind to antigen fragment & class II MHC molecules -accessory proteins of Helper T Cells also bind to class II MHC molecules keeping them joined -as cell interact, cytokines are transmitted both directions CYTOTOXIC T CELLS -uses toxic gene product to kill infected cells & require signaling from helper T cells -fragments of foreign proteins associate with class I MHC molecules & are displayed on cell surface t be recognized by cytotoxic T cells -targeted destruction involves secretion of proteins that disrupt membrane integrity & trigger apoptosis B CELLS & ANTIBODIES Activation of B Cells -aided by cytokines secreted by helper T cells

-B cell proliferates & differentiates into memory B cells & plasma cells Antibody Function -dont kill pathogens but mark them for inactivation or destruction Neutralization -antibodies bind to viral surface proteins, blocking its ability to bind with host cells Opsonization -antibodies bind to antigens on the surface of bacteria for phagocytosis Complement System & Pore Formation -antibodies bind to antigens on surface of foreign cell to activate complement system -activation triggers membrane attack complex that form pores on foreign cells membrane allowing water & ions to rush in & make cell lyse 5 Different Forms of Immunoglobulin (Ig) 1.) 2.) 3.) 4.) 5.) IgD: membrane bound IgG: most abundant antibody in blood IgM: first class of soluble antibody IgA: present in breastmilk IgE

ACTIVE & PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION Active Immunity -defenses that arise when a pathogen infects the body & prompts a primary or secondary immune response -can develop from introduction of antigens into the body (immunization/ vaccination) Passive Immunity -does not involve the recipients B & T cells, persists only as long as the transferred antibodies last

ANTIBODIES AS TOOLS -some tools are polyclonal; they are products of many different clones of plasma cells -other tools are monoclonal; they are prepared from single clone of B cells grown in culture IMMUNE REJECTION -rejection of transplanted tissue as response of immune system to non-self BLOOD GROUPS -A with type A carbohydrate -B with type B carbohydrate -AB with both A & B carbohydrates -O with no carbohydrate TISSUE & ORGAN TRANSPLANTS -try to match MHC molecules of donor to recipient as much as possible DISRUPTIONS IN IMMUNE SYSTEM EXAGGERATED, SELF-DIRECTED, & DMINISHED IMMUNE RESPONSES Allergies -hypersensitive responses to certain antigens & most commonly involve antibodies from IgE class -inducing mast cells to release histamine & other inflammatory chemicals from granules -acute allergic response sometimes leads to anaphylactic shock which develops when widespread release of mast cell contents trigger abrupt dilation of peripheral blood vessels -hormone epinephrine counters allergic response

Autoimmune Diseases -immune system is active against particular molecules of the body Lupus -immune system generates antibodies against histones & DNA released by normal breakdown of body cells Rheumatoid Arthritis -leads to damage & painful inflammation of cartilage & bone of joints Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus -insulin-producing beta cells of pancreas are targets of autoimmune cytotoxic cells Multiple Sclerosis -T cells infiltrate the central nervous system & destroy the myelin sheath that surrounds parts of many neurons leading to muscle paralysis Exertion, Stress, the Immune System -exercise & sleep improves immune system IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES -disorder where immune system response to antigens is defective or absent -inborn immunodeficiency: results from genetic or developmental effect o immune system -acquired immunodeficiency: develops later in life following exposure to chemical or biological agents