Manual

Interactive Heat Transfer Help Menu .......................................................... 3 IHT Environment .............................................................................................................. 4 Software Philosophy ...................................................................................................... 5 The Workspace.................................................................................................................
7 IHT Windows...................................................................................................................... 9 Workspace Menu Items ..............................................................................................10 File Commands................................................................................................................11 Edit Commands ...............................................................................................................13 Cutting, Copying, Pasting, and Exporting ..........................................................14 User-Defined Functions ..............................................................................................16 Lookup Tables..................................................................................................................20 Resetting the Solver ......................................................................................................24 Text Commands ..............................................................................................................25 Tools......................................................................................................................................26 Tools Overview ................................................................................................................27 Models ..................................................................................................................................28 Solution ................................................................................................................................29 Notepad ...............................................................................................................................30 Toolbar Items ....................................................................................................................31 Properties ...........................................................................................................................32 Rate Equations ................................................................................................................33 Browser ................................................................................................................................34 Solver ....................................................................................................................................37 Solver Overview ..............................................................................................................38 How the Solver Works .................................................................................................39 Initial Guesses..................................................................................................................42 Convergence Criteria....................................................................................................43 Initial Conditions ..............................................................................................................44 Solver Warnings ..............................................................................................................45 Intrinsic Functions ..........................................................................................................48 Units ......................................................................................................................................51 Explorer ...............................................................................................................................52 Grapher ................................................................................................................................53 Report Generation..........................................................................................................56 Post-Processing ..............................................................................................................57 Post-Processing Overview.........................................................................................58 Examples ............................................................................................................................59 Extended Surfaces ........................................................................................................61 Heat Exchangers ............................................................................................................64
First Law ..............................................................................................................................66 Finite-Difference Equations .......................................................................................68 Convection Correlations ..............................................................................................70 1-D Steady-State Conduction ..................................................................................72 Thermal Resistances ....................................................................................................74 Transient Conduction ...................................................................................................75 Radiation Exchange ......................................................................................................77 Solution Strategies and Hints ...................................................................................79 Lumped Capacitance....................................................................................................81 Models Overview ............................................................................................................83 IHT Tutorial ........................................................................................................................84 ID's .........................................................................................................................................87
Interactive Heat Transfer Help Menu

IHT Environment IHT Tutorial Models Tools Examples Solver Post-Processing Solution Strategies and Hints
IHT Environment
Software Philosophy The Workspace IHT Windows Menu Items Toolbar Items Exporting Results Report Generation
Software Philosophy
Introduction Why Use IHT? IHT as an Educational Tool IHT as a Productivity Tool Getting Started Introduction Interactive Heat Transfer (IHT) is a software package developed by Intellipro and John Wiley & Sons to facilitate the solution of heat transfer problems. IHT centers around a Workspace where model equations are assembled, a Solver that solves the set of equations and performs parametric studies, and a Browser and Graphing tool that display results. IHT enhances the heat transfer educational experience by providing a powerful, intuitive tool that allows the student to model heat transfer processes and applications taught in the classroom and text. This tool eases the difficult task of model building so that the student is able to more thoroughly explore heat transfer phenomena and attain a firmer grasp of the underlying physical phenomena. Simplifying assumptions made to facilitate hand-written solutions can be relaxed, thereby encouraging students to explore the validity of thermal models. The software also serves to teach the student good problem solving methodology applicable to all fields of engineering. Moreover, the benefits of IHT are not limited to the student new to heat transfer; sophisticated problems involving multiple heat transfer phenomena can be easily modeled, thereby providing the practicing engineer with a useful tool. Why Use IHT? There are other software packages that solve simultaneous equations, perform parametric studies, and plot results. The distinction between IHT and these packages is its ability to solve a wide range of heat transfer problems by using models that help the user solve common heat transfer problems, as well as toolpads that enhance the models by providing thermophysical property functions, convection heat transfer correlations, finite-difference equations, and other tools required to solve realistic engineering problems. The ability to combine these tools streamlines the process of model building and guides users through traditional heat transfer models for a variety of processes and technologies. IHT as an Educational Tool IHT is intended to accompany the engineering student through a course in undergraduate heat transfer. The organization of the software follows the development of heat transfer fundamentals in the textbook Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer1, and students are encouraged to learn to use the software as they progress through the course. Specifically, the student can implement the software to: do problems marked in the text as requiring investigation or solution using a computer, check solutions to hand-written homework problems, study for exams, and perform design calculations for class projects.
F. P. Incropera and D. P DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons (4e), 1996.
IHT as a Productivity Tool Beyond use by the student, IHT is powerful enough to be used by the practicing engineer. IHT is not just a collection of solved models or a demonstration of specific heat transfer phenomena. Rather, it is a general purpose solver capable of solving complex systems of simultaneous equations, integrating single and simultaneous differential equations, plotting results, and exporting data to other applications. The models and tools that are an integral part of the package are included to assist in solving heat transfer problems, but they in no way hinder the user from solving other types of mathematical models. Getting Started There are several different paths the user can follow towards learning how to use the IHT environment: The IHT Environment section on the main menu contains the particulars of the environment including an overview of The Workspace, Menu Items, and Toolbar Items. The IHT Tutorial includes a detailed description of steps required to solve Example 1.6 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer including the solution for unknowns and a graphical representation of a parametric study. The menu bar includes a collection of Examples illustrating each of the important features of IHT.
The Workspace
Overview Equations Variables Comments Overview The centerpiece of IHT is the Workspace. It is the first window that appears once IHT is launched, and all of the equations and input data for each model, as well as supporting materials such as comments and Schematics, may be transferred to this window. Equations A great advantage of IHT is that equations do not have to be written in any particular form for the Solver to find a solution. In addition, the user does not have to define variables before writing equations. For instance, to solve a system of two equations with two unknowns, the user simply types in the equations and clicks on the "Solve" button. As an example, try typing in the equation "x+y=8", pressing return, and then "x-y=2". Hit the "Solve" button, and the Solver requests Initial Guesses. Accept the default initial guesses by pressing the "OK" button, and the Browser will return the solution (x=5, and y=3). This emphasizes the flexibility of IHT: model equations can be generated by either using the Models and Tools supplied by IHT, or by typing them directly into the Workspace. These two approaches are illustrated by several of the Examples. The form of the equations is very flexible, but several rules must be followed: Each line usually contains only one equation, but multiple equations can be placed on one line by separating each equation by a semi-colon. Long equations can be "wrapped" around to the next line as long as no carriage return is inserted. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation are represented by -, +, *, /, and ^, respectively. The standard order of mathematical operations is followed: (1) operations in parentheses (including function evaluations), (2) exponentiation, (3) multiplication and division (moving left to right), and (4) addition and subtraction (moving left to right). User-Defined Functions, Intrinsic Functions, and Lookup Tables can be used. The IHT Workspace is limited to 70 simultaneous equations.
Variables Several rules must also be followed when creating variable names: They must begin with a letter, and are case sensitive; therefore, it is important to insure that lowercase and capital letters are used consistently. They can only include alphanumeric characters and the underscore ("_") character. Function names (both Intrinsic Functions and User-Defined Functions) cannot be used as variable names The length of variable names is limited to 32 characters.
Comments Any problem solution, whether it be on paper or computer, should include a generous amount of
documentation to define the problem, list assumptions, explain logic, and describe equations and variables. Comments can be included in the Workspace using two different methods. Single-line comments can be included by using the delimiter2 "//" before the comment. Any text to the right of the "//" will be ignored by the Solver. Comments that exceed one line can be added to the Workspace by placing the comments between "/*" and "*/". Text between these two operators will always be ignored by the Solver. Comments do not necessarily have to be placed on lines separate from the text; they can be placed to the right of equations or constant definitions to visually link the comments to the lines in the Workspace. Comments can be aligned to the right of equations by inserting tabs. To insert a tab in the workspace, press the "Tab" key while holding down the "Ctrl" key.
Delimiting an equation or line refers to placing "//" in front of the equation or line so that the solver ignores that line. To delimit multiple lines, place "/*" before the first character, and "*/" after the last.
IHT Windows
IHT is a standard Microsoft Windows application. Arrangement of windows on the desktop can be accomplished in several ways. The upper-right hand corner of the Workspace, Browse, and Graph windows includes buttons to reduce the window to an icon, maximize the window to fill the whole screen (or reduce the window to part screen if the window is already in full-screen mode), and close the window (in Windows 95). To increase the size of windows, move the cursor to an edge or corner of the window. The cursor will then change to up/down, left/right, or diagonally opposed arrows depending on whether the cursor is on a horizontal or vertical window edge or a window corner, respectively. Hold the left mouse button and drag the window edge or corner to resize the window. To move any of IHT windows on the desktop, place the cursor in the menu bar for that window, hold down the left mouse button, and drag the window to the desired position. To move within the Workspace or Browser windows, the user can use the scroll bars on the right side of the window (for Workspace and Browser windows) and the bottom of the window (for the Browser window). Scrolling through the Workspace or Browser can be accomplished in three different ways. Clicking on the up or down buttons located at the top and bottom of the scroll bars, respectively, scrolls the contents of the window up or down one line at a time. To move to a specific location, the user can drag the location indicator (the square box in the scroll bar) to the desired location. To move up or down by one screen page, click on a blank area in the scroll bar either above or below the location indicator.
Workspace Menu Items

File Edit Text Tools Models Solution Notepad
File Commands
Opening and Saving Models & Sessions Printing Exiting Opening and Saving Models & Sessions IHT worked problems can be saved in two formats: Models or complete Sessions. Saving as a Model stores only the equations and comments included in the Workspace; whereas, saving as a Session also includes Initial Guesses from the Solver, data stored in the Browser, and Graphs. The disadvantage to saving as a Session is the increased disk space required to store the files. For problems with large data sets in the Browser or multiple Graphs, the file size can easily exceed 50 kilobytes. To save a worked problem, click on the "File" item of the toolbar. Select "Save Model As" or "Save Session As". A dialog window3 will then prompt for the disk drive, directory, and file name. IHT Model files have the extension ".msm". It is important to use this extension with an eight character (or less) descriptive name before the ".msm". For instance, when saving the Workspace for Problem 8-28, a typical file name might be "prob8-28.msm". There are two reasons to keep the ".msm" extension. First, IHT searches for files with this extension when opening a file. Second, when saving a Session as opposed to a Model, IHT creates four files with the same first eight characters, and different extensions (.msm, .dsk, .eqd, and .eqs). It is also a good idea to store files in a different location from the IHT program files. This avoids confusion if the software ever has to be reinstalled or moved. To open an IHT Model or Session, click on the "File" item from the menu and select "Open". A dialog window will appear listing files in the currently active directory (usually "\heatxfer".) Change the disk drive and directory to the location where the file is stored. IHT files will have the extension ".msm", and all files with that extension will be listed in the window. Select the file you wish to load, and press "OK". Printing To print the contents of the Workspace (including Schematics), select "Print" from the "File" item on the menu bar. This will print the contents of the Workspace to the selected printer. To change the default printer or printer attributes, select "Print Setup" from the "File" menu option. The attributes that can be modified are dependent on the type of printer being used but usually include orientation (portrait or landscape), resolution, number of copies, and paper size. For Report Generation, and combining results from IHT with results from other applications, it is often advantageous to Export Results. Printing from the Browser must be done this way since 4 5 the format of rows and columns , as well as the manner in which printing continues on subsequent pages, must be specified.
Dialog boxes or windows are windows that appear requesting additional information from users.
A row is a horizontal set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.
A column is a vertical set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.
Exiting To exit IHT, select "Exit" from the "File" item on the menu bar. A dialog window will appear asking if you want to exit. Select "Yes". If changes in the Workspace have been made since the last save, a dialog window will then ask if you wish to save your work. If you select "No", IHT will close. If you select "Yes", a dialog window will appear to allow you to save your work. Once you have saved your work, IHT will close.
Edit Commands
Cutting, Copying, Pasting, and Exporting User-Defined Functions Lookup Tables Resetting the Solver
Cutting, Copying, Pasting, and Exporting

Cutting, Copying, and Pasting Text Copying and Pasting Schematics Copying and Pasting Graphs Copying and Pasting Browser Data Exporting Data to Other Applications Cutting, Copying, and Pasting Text Copying, moving, and deleting text in the Workspace can be accomplished using the "Cut", "Copy", and "Paste" commands on the "Edit" item of the menu bar. Highlight the text to be edited, and from the "Edit" item on the menu bar, select "Cut" to move or delete the text or "Copy" to copy the text. The data is then temporarily stored in the Windows clipboard6. If the text is being moved or copied, move the cursor to the area where the text is to be inserted and select "Paste" from the "Edit" menu. Short-cut keystrokes can also be used. Cutting, copying, and pasting in the Workspace can be done by using the CTRL-X, CTRL-C, and CTRL-V keystroke combinations, respectively. Copying and Pasting Schematics All of the Models contain a Schematic7 of the system that they represent. These Schematics can be copied into the Workspace, or exported to another Windows application. To copy the Schematic while the model Viewpad8 is on the screen, select the "Edit" item from the menu bar, and then "Copy Figure". This places a copy of the Schematic in the Windows clipboard. Click on the position in the Workspace to insert the figure and select "Paste" from the "Edit" menu. Alternatively, click on the schematic in the Viewpad and drag it into the Workspace. Note that once the schematic has been copied to the Workspace, it will not be updated when items in the schematic in the model Viewpad are changed. If the Viewpad Schematic is modified, be sure to re-copy it into the Workspace. Furthermore, Schematics copied into the Workspace will not be saved. If a copy of the Schematic is required, a simple way to do this is to paste the figure into a Write (or other word processor) document and save that document in the same directory as the .msm file. Copying and Pasting Graphs Graphs created using the Graph feature in IHT can also be copied into the Workspace or exported to other applications. To copy the Graph into the Workspace, select the "Copy" item on the Graph menu bar or click the right-mouse button and select "Copy" from the pop-up menu. The "Plot Size" dialog window9 will appear, and you can select what physical size the plot window
6
The clipboard is the Windows storage location for data as it is being cut, copied, or pasted in an application or between applications. Its contents can be viewed by pasting or using the Windows Clipboard Viewer.
7
Schematics are pictorial descriptions of the physical system and processes included in a model.
The Viewpads, or Model Viewpads, contain the essential information for building heat transfer models on specific topics. They often include a schematic of the physical system, a problem header, governing equations, and assigned variables. Dialog boxes or windows are windows that appear requesting additional information from users.
will be when it is copied to the clipboard (for the best quality, you should select a size that is close to the size the plot will be when it is eventually printed or displayed). This inserts a copy of the Graph into the Windows clipboard in the Windows metafile (.wmf picture) format. Click on the position in the Workspace to insert the Graph, and select the "Paste" item of the "Edit" menu. Once the Graph has been copied to the clipboard, it can also be pasted into other applications such as word-processors. Resizing the Graph at this point is not recommended, as the text may become unreadable. After the Graph has been copied to the Workspace or exported to another application, it will not be updated when the Graph is altered in the "Plot" window; be sure that if the Graph is modified from the "Plot" window that it is re-copied. Graphs copied into the Workspace or exported will not be saved. Copying and Pasting Browser Data Browser data can be copied into the Workspace but can also be exported to other applications. Browser data can easily be copied by first highlighting the rows10 and columns11 to copy. Click on the "Copy" button of the Browser toolbar and the data is copied to the clipboard. Entire rows and columns can be copied by highlighting the rows or columns containing the data to be copied and then selecting "Copy". After pressing "Copy", a dialog window will appear that asks if variable names and indices are to be included, and if the rows and columns should be transposed. Once the data has been copied, switch to the application you wish to copy the data to and paste the data. The data is copied in tab-delimited format; that is, each column is separated by a tab, and rows are separated by a carriage return. This format allows the data to easily be copied to spreadsheets or word processors. To hide variables that aren't needed, see the section on Viewing Variables. NOTE that due to limitations of the clipboard, only 64K of data can be copied in this fashion. Large data sets may have to be copied using multiple copy operations. Exporting Data to Other Applications Due to size limitations associated with saving the Workspace, Schematics and Graphs that have been copied to the Workspace will not be saved when Saving Sessions or Models. It is often important, though, to save these graphics for Report Generation. To export any item from IHT (including Graphs, Browser data, Schematics and contents of the Workspace), copy that (those) items to the clipboard as described above. Then switch to the application you wish to paste the data to (such as Notepad or a word processor or spreadsheet), and paste the data from the clipboard using that application's paste command. It is often a good idea to save the word processor file in the same directory as the .msm file.
10
11
User-Defined Functions
Overview Creating User-Defined Functions Loading and Saving User-Defined Functions Mathematical Operators Conditional Branches Looping Overview User-Defined functions are sub-programs written by the user to perform calculations. They can be used in many situations including cases which require: Performing calculations requiring logic (IF-THEN-ELSE statements), Performing calculations requiring iteration (FOR-DO looping), and So that one set of statements can be used to perform the same calculation used several times in the Workspace.
From the Workspace, User-Defined functions are used similarly to Intrinsic Functions. Function calls are included as an equation: y = fname(par1, par2, ..., parn) The function performs a calculation using the parameters, par1, par2, ..., parn, and returns a value that is assigned to the variable in the Workspace equation. Note that functions can also be used to modify the values of the parameters par1, par2, ..., parn. The User-Defined Function window can be accessed from the "Edit" menu and contains options to (1) Create New Function, (2) Load Function from File, (3) Edit Selected Function, or (4) Delete Selected Function. The area to the right of these buttons contains a list of functions currently loaded into the Solver memory. The "Selected Function" in options (3) and (4) refers to the function in this window that is currently highlighted. Each of these four option are described below. Creating User-Defined Functions User-Defined functions can be created by selecting the "Create New Function" item from the User-Defined function window. Unlike the equations listed in the equation set, the contents of a User-Defined function order-dependent. Lines are executed from top to bottom. The structure of a User-Defined function is similar to that of programming languages such as FORTRAN or C: FUNCTION fname(par1, par2, par3,...) RETURN fname (and/or par1, par21, par3,...) END The function name and parameters can all be used in the calculations and assigned new values, but for updated values to be sent to the Solver, they must be included in the RETURN list. The function name must be 12 characters or less. Any number of parameters can be passed into a User-Defined function. The following is an example of how a User-Defined function might be implemented to calculate
the Nusselt Number for jet impingement heat transfer from a single slot nozzle (Equation 7.82 from Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer12): FUNCTION NuD_SN(ReD, Pr, x, H, W) m = 0.695 - (x / 2 / W + (H / 2 / W) ^ 1.33 + 3.06) ^ -1 NuD_SN = Pr ^ 0.42 * 3.06 / (x / W + H / W + 2.78) * ReD ^ m RETURN NuD_SN END The use of comments is not supported in User-Defined functions. Loading and Saving User-Defined Functions After a User-Defined function is created or modified, click on the "OK" button. The Solver first checks the function for syntax errors, and then asks if you wish to save the function. To save the function, select "Yes". This will bring up a window prompting for the file name and directory. Function file names should be limited to eight characters (beginning with a letter and using only numbers and letters) with the extension ".udf". To load a function saved from a previous session, select the "Load Function from File" option on the User-Defined Function window. A window will appear prompting for the file name and directory. Note that once a function is created and saved, it must be loaded in the Solver memory for the Workspace to access that function. Mathematical Operators Equations in User-Defined functions can use addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation just as equations in the Workspace. In addition, any intrinsic function or heat transfer function (such as nusselt number correlations or property functions) can also be used. Conditional Branching To perform calculations requiring logic, conditional branches are available. The syntax is as follows: IF (conditional statement) THEN statement1 statement2 statementn [ELSE statementa statementb statementz] ENDIF If the conditional statement is true, statements 1 through n are executed. If statements a through
12
z are included, and the conditional statement is false, then those statements are executed. Valid conditional operators used in the conditional statements include: = <> > >= < <= Equal Not equal Greater than Greater than or equal to Less than Less than or equal to
Parentheses must be placed around the conditional statement. The IF..THEN portion of the construct must be contained on one line. For more complex logical calculations, IF-THEN constructs can be nested up to three deep, but each IF statement must have a matching ENDIF. The ELSE keyword and statements a through z are optional. The following example function uses the IF..THEN construct to determine the maximum value of two numbers. FUNCTION max(a,b) IF (a > b) THEN RETURN a ELSE RETURN b ENDIF END Looping For calculations requiring iteration, looping capability is supported. The syntax is as follows: FOR (loop_index = start, stop [by step]) statement1 statement2 statementn ENDFOR The loop_index, start, stop, and step values must be on one line. The step size is optional, and the default step size is 1.0. The loop control information, FOR(...), must be enclosed in parentheses. If the start and stop values are equal, statements 1 through n will only be executed once; however, if the stop value is greater than the start value, statements 1 through n will not be executed at all. FOR loops may be nested up to three levels, and each for statement must have a corresponding ENDFOR. The following example function uses the FOR..ENDFOR construct to calculate the value of x raised to the y power, assuming y is any integer value. FUNCTION power(x,y) r=1 FOR (ind = 1,y) r=r*x ENDFOR RETURN r END
The statement BREAK can be used to exit the loop before the iterations have been completed.
Lookup Tables
Overview Creating Lookup Tables Loading and Saving Lookup Tables Accessing Data from Lookup Tables Using Lookup Tables to Graph Data Overview Lookup Tables are used to convert tabular data into continuous functions. This is very useful when adding temperature-dependent thermophysical properties that are not already included in the Property Tool in IHT. They can also be used to Graph discrete data such as temperatures or heat fluxes generated from Finite Difference Models or other models that generate discrete data the user may wish to plot. The Lookup Table window can be accessed from the "Edit" menu and contains options to (1) Create New Table, (2) Load Table from File, (3) Edit Selected Table, or (4) Delete Selected Table. The area to the right of these buttons contains a list of tables currently loaded into the Solver memory. The "Selected Table" in options (3) and (4) refers to the table in this window that is currently highlighted. Each of these four options, commands to access lookup tables, and a technique to plot discrete data using lookup tables are described below. Creating Lookup Tables Lookup Tables can be created two ways: (1) by entering data from the keyboard, or (2) by loading a tab-delimited13 file. To enter the data into a table manually, select "Create New Table" from the Lookup Table menu. A second window will appear requesting the number of rows14 and columns15 and a name for the table. Limit the table name to eight alphanumeric characters so that it can be saved as a file later and be sure that the first character of the file name be a letter (not a number). A table will then appear with zeros in all of the cells16. As an example, the creation of a table containing thermal conductivity and specific heat for pure silver is illustrated. Using the data from Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer17, properties at temperatures of 400, 600, 800, and 1000 K will be entered. Each column in the table will
13
Tab-delimited files are text files that include tabs to separate data. These files are typically used by spreadsheets; when reading the file, the spreadsheet fills cells with data separated by the tabs. Lookup tables also store and read tab-delimited files.
14
15
16
In the Browser and Lookup Tables, each number or variable name is separated into an individual cell to separate it from other data.
17
correspond to a property (temperature, thermal conductivity, and specific heat) and each row will correspond to a temperature, so enter "4" for the number of rows, "3" for the number of columns, and "silver" for the table name. Once the blank table appears, type in the following data: 400 600 800 1000 425 412 396 379 239 250 262 277
The first column corresponds to the temperature (K), the second to thermal conductivity (W/m-K), and the third to specific heat (J/kg-K). Once this data is entered, it is important to save the table (see the next section). Click on "OK", and the table is now loaded in memory. Data can also be pasted into the table from the Browser or from another application (such as a spreadsheet) as long is it in tab-delimited format. First copy the data from the Browser or other Windows application into the clipboard18. To paste the data, click on the cell that is to contain the upper-left hand corner of the block of data being pasted and select "Paste" from the edit menu of the table window. Tables can also be created from tab-delimited files. Simply save the text file with the extension ".lut" and from the lookup table window, select "Load Table from File" (see below). The table will then be created from the tab-delimited file with data between each tab being entered into separate cells. Loading and Saving Lookup Tables Tables must be loaded into memory for them to be accessible to the Workspace. To load a table that has already been created, select "Load Table from File" from the Lookup Table window, and a dialog window19 will appear prompting for the file name and location. Once a table has been created, it should be saved to a file so that it can be used by other models. To save the table, select "Save Table" from the "Table" item on the table edit window. File names are limited to 8 characters (beginning with a letter and using only numbers and letters), and the default extension for lookup tables, ".lut" should be used. Accessing Data from Lookup Tables Once a Lookup Table is defined, by either entering it from the keyboard or loading it from a file, equations in the Workspace can access data by using one of four different functions: LOOKUP, LOOKUPLIN, LOOKUPVAL, or LOOKUPVAL2. The use of each function is described below. LOOKUP The LOOKUP function returns the value in the cell at a particular row or column:
18
19
x = LOOKUP(table_name,row,col) where: table_name is the name of the table, row is the table row number, col is the table column number, and row and col must be integers. As an example, the following function call evaluates the specific heat of silver at 600K from the table created above: cp_silver = LOOKUP(silver,2,3) LOOKUPLIN The LOOKUPLIN works similarly to LOOKUP, but if row and/or col is not an integer, IHT linearly interpolates to calculate the result: x = LOOKUPLIN(table_name,row,col) where: table_name is the name of the table, row is the table row number, col is the table column number, and row and col can be real numbers. As an example, the following function call evaluates the specific heat of silver at 700K (half-way between 600K and 800K) from the table created above: cp_silver = LOOKUPLIN(silver,2.5,3) LOOKUPVAL The LOOKUPVAL function takes the value passed in by val1 and searches for it in col1, linearly interpolating if necessary. If found it returns a value using the same interpolation from col2. x = LOOKUPVAL(table_name,col1,val1,col2) where: table_name is the name of the table, col1 is the table column number in which val1 is searched for, val1 is the value to be search for in col1, col2 is the column used to calculate the resultant, and col1 and col2 must be integers. Note that values in col1 should be in ascending order for the function to work properly. As an example, the following function call evaluates the specific heat of silver at 700K from the table created above: cp_silver = LOOKUPVAL(silver,1,700,3) LOOKUPVAL2
The LOOKUPVAL2 function performs a two-dimensional interpolation using column 1 and row 1. x = LOOKUPVAL2(table_name,val1,val2) where: table_name is the name of the table, val1 is the value to be looked up in column 1, val2 is the value to be looked up in row 1, and val1 and val2 can be non-integers This function would be especially useful in evaluating temperatures from the solution of a 2-D finite difference network like Example 4.2 of the text. The solution of the discretized equations for that problem looks like: 0 500 500 500 500 500 0.25 500 489.3 472.1 473.0 357.0 0.50 500 485.2 462.0 418.7 339.1 0.75 500 489.3 472.1 437.0 357.0 1.00 500 500 500 500 500
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
where the first row contains x-locations, and the first column contains y-locations. If this table were entered into a lookup table named FD_res, the function call: T = LOOKUPVAL2(FD_res,0.3,0.4) would return the value interpolated from the data at x=0.4 and y=0.3 (T=477.4). The value in the upper-left hand cell must be less than the value in the cell to the right (the first x value) and the cell below (the first y value) since the LOOKUPVAL2 function unknowingly uses this cell during interpolation. In this example, a value of -1 is sufficient. Using Lookup Tables to Graph Data Tables like the Lookup Table created above for Example 4.3 can be used to plot distributions in 1- and 2- dimensional problems that produce discrete data. To plot the temperature at a depth of y=0.8 in Example 4.3, the following equations can be entered into the Workspace: x_eval=0 y_eval=0.8 T_eval=LOOKUPVAL2(FD_res,y_eval,x_eval) After the solution is found for (x_eval,y_eval)=(0,0.8), the Explore feature can be used to evaluate the interpolating function from x=0 to x=1. This result can then be plotted using the Grapher. Distributions in the x-direction for different values of y can then be stored in the Browser, and the results can be used to create a composite plot of the temperature in the body.
Resetting the Solver

To delete all data associated with a Workspace except for the equations and data in the Workspace itself, the "Reset Data" item on the "Edit" menu can be selected. Selecting this item will return all of the following to their default values: Initial Guesses, Minimum and Maximum Bounds, and Initial Conditions,
and will delete all of the: Browser data, and Graphs
Text Commands
The appearance of text in the Workspace can be altered by selecting items from the "Text" menu on the menu bar of the Workspace. Text can be made bold, italic, superscript, or subscript by clicking on those items on the "Text" menu. To change the appearance of an item, highlight that item and choose the desired appearance attribute from the "Text" menu. Alternatively, if no text is highlighted, selecting the appearance attributes will toggle that appearance on or off. For example, to type a word in bold, select "Bold" from the "Text" menu and type the word. To turn off the bold attribute, select "Bold" again. Short-cut keystrokes for bold, italics,superscript, and subscript are CTRL-B, CTRL-I, CTRL-SHIFT-L, and CTRL-L. Note that the appearance of variables in equations does not in any way change the variable names; "Temperature" is the same variable as "Temperature".
Tools
Overview Rate Equations Thermal Resistances Finite Difference Equation Builder Convection Correlations Heat Exchangers Radiation Exchange Properties Examples Element ID's
Tools Overview
The IHT tools are intended to supplement system models developed from IHT models or typed in on the keyboard by supplying the user with equations for: Rate Equations, Thermal Resistances, Finite Difference Equations, Convection Correlations, Heat Exchangers, Radiation Exchange, and Thermophysical Properties.
Many of these Tools (such as the Finite Difference, Heat Exchanger, or Radiation Exchange equations) can often be used as "stand alone" Models. The transportability and combination of Tools is aided by the extensive use of ID's This permits control over variable subscripting without forcing the user to edit every instance of the variable in the Workspace. To "back up" when using the Tool Viewpads, press the escape key. This brings up the previously viewed pad or menu.
Models
Overview First Law Resistance Networks 1-D Steady-State Conduction Extended Surfaces Lumped Capacitance Transient Conduction Element IDs
Solution
Solver Browser Explorer Grapher
Notepad
Clicking on the "Notepad" item of the menu bar will launch the default editor specified by Windows (usually the program Write). This allows the user to paste items copied in IHT and Generate Reports or edit the items before they are printed or exported to another application. In addition, it can also be used to edit text being imported to IHT. Usually the editor can display text, and graphics such as Schematics and Graphs, but editors such as Write usually do not have the ability to resize graphics. To resize graphics or perform more advanced operations, data should be copied to a word processor.
Toolbar Items
Properties Correlations Rate Equations Browser Solver Explorer Grapher
Properties
Overview Using Properties Overview The Property Tool contains thermophysical properties of selected substances in the form of functions of temperature (and pressure for water) that can be copied into the Workspace. These functions evaluate properties at a temperature specified by the model equations. Often, this temperature is unknown. For such situations, the Solver will iterate until a solution has been found. The Properties Tool is comprised of a library of thermophysical properties for 11 different substances from Appendix A of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer20 including: Solids (Aluminum 2024, Copper, Silicon Nitride, and Stainless Steel AISI 302): thermal conductivity, specific heat, density, and thermal diffusivity as functions of temperature (except density). Gases (Air, and Helium): thermal conductivity, specific heat, density, thermal diffusivity, absolute and kinematic viscosity, and Prandtl number as functions of temperature assuming atmospheric pressure. Liquids other than water (Engine Oil, Ethelyne Glycol, R113, R12): thermal conductivity, specific heat, density, thermal diffusivity, absolute and kinematic viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion, and Prandtl number as functions of temperature. Water: saturation temperature, saturation pressure, specific volume, thermal conductivity, specific heat, density, thermal diffusivity, absolute and kinematic viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion, latent heat of fusion, and Prandtl number all as functions of temperature and quality.
Using Properties To use any of the Properties, select a substance from the pull down list on the "Properties" Viewpad21 from the "Tools" menu item or from the "Properties" button on the toolbar. The Viewpad window will include property function calls for the properties available for that substance. Two variable ID boxes below the window are for the property subscript, and the temperature subscript on the temperature at which the properties are evaluated. Fill these in if necessary, and copy the equations to the Workspace.
20
21
The Viewpads, or Model Viewpads, contain the essential information for building heat transfer models on specific topics. They often include a schematic of the physical system, a problem header, governing equations, and assigned variables.
Rate Equations
Overview Using the Rate Equations Overview Rate Equations are included to supplement models developed by the user. Fourier's law of conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and radiation exchange equations are all supplied for cartesian, radial, and spherical coordinate systems. In addition, the energy balance equation for flow through a constant temperature tube is provided. The following rate equations and geometries are included: Conduction Rate Equations: Plane Wall Hollow Cylinder Hollow Sphere Convection Rate Equations: Plane Surface Cylindrical Surface Spherical Surface Radiation Rate Equations, Fourth-Power Form: Plane Surface Cylindrical Surface Spherical Surface Radiation Rate Equations, Linearized Form: Plane Surface Cylindrical Surface Spherical Surface Tube Flow, Constant Surface Temperature Using the Rate Equations To apply any of the Rate Equations, select the type of equation and geometry from the "Rate Equations" selection of the "Tools" menu item. The selected equation will appear in the Tool Viewpad22, and below the equation(s) will be a series of variable ID's. Variable ID's are used extensively to give the user flexibility with her choice of variable names. After the ID's have been entered, copy the Rate Equation(s) into the Workspace. The Rate Equation Viewpads do not have an Assigned Variables23 list, and as such, the equations for unknown Property and geometry variables must be entered in the workspace.
22
23
Model Viewpads keep a running list of problem unknowns for each problem developed using the Model. The list of unknowns (referred to as Assigned Variables) can then be copied into the Workspace and filled in to complete the model equations.
Browser
Overview Data Sets Solution Statistics Viewing Variables Residuals Warnings Overview The solution Browser automatically appears after the Solver has converged (or completed the maximum number of iterations). It displays the values for all variables (known and unknown) in columnar spreadsheet format. After a variable has been swept (using the Explore button) or integrated (using the DER or INTEGRAL functions), each column24 shows a different solution or time step (up to 1000 such steps can be stored). Data from the Browser can be copied to a worksheet or other Windows application (see Cutting, Copying, Pasting, and Exporting). Each of the variables are color-coded. The meaning of each color is: Blue -- unknown variable Green -- known value Red -- independent integration variable Purple -- dependent integration variable
Each variable group is listed in the above order, and variables are displayed alphabetically within each group. Data Sets The Data Browser allows the user to view data and statistics stored after previous Solves and Explores. Data sets are labeled "Working Set", and "A" through "E" Each Solve or Explore places the resulting solution data in the Working Set. If data already exists in the Working Set, the user will be prompted to move it to another data set or to discard it. Data stored in other data sets can be viewed by clicking on the appropriate Tab25 at the bottom of the Browser. When viewing a solution stored in a particular data set, additional data, including equation residuals, statistics, and warnings, for that data set are available. More on these options is discussed below. Data from the current Browser data set can be deleted by selecting the "Delete" button on the Browser window. This removes the solution and supplemental data from the selected data set. This feature is important when saving sessions; large sets of unnecessary data stored in the Browser consume excessive disk space when saving sessions. Solution Statistics
24
25
Tabs are very similar to the Tabs on file folders. They are used to access pages hidden behind the current page being viewed. To access the page corresponding to a Tab, simply click on the Tab corresponding to that page.
Data set statistics can be viewed by selecting the "Stats" button on the Browser window. This brings up a window that includes a complete listing of all known (constants) and unknown variables as well as the number of equations in the Workspace. If the Workspace contains an incomplete set of equations (wherein the number of unknown variables is less than the number of equations), this window appears following the Error "Too Many Unknowns". This window is especially useful when diagnosing errors that occur when solving sets of equations. Viewing Variables Solution of complex model equations may include dozens of known and unknown variables, all of which will be displayed in the Browser. To reduce the number of variables and constants displayed in the Browser, select the "View" button. A dialog box26 will appear allowing the user to select which variables are "Displayed" or "Not displayed". To display (or hide) a particular variable or variables, select those variables and click on the right (or left) arrow. To display (or hide) all of the variables, select the double right (or left) arrow. Once a variable is hidden, it will also be hidden on subsequent solves. Residuals The residual27 for each equation from the current data set can be viewed by selecting the "Residuals" button on the Browser window. This will bring up a window displaying on each line: The line number in the Workspace in which the equation appears, The residual of that equation evaluated using variable values stored in the selected data set, and The equation.
This feature is especially useful when evaluating the validity of solutions. Equations with large residuals have not been satisfied, and this is a good indicator that either the equations in the Workspace are inconsistent or the Solver was not able to locate a solution. Typically, the Solver will warn the user if such an error has occurred. Warnings Solutions are sometimes returned with warnings, and the Browser displays these warning in one of two ways depending on the nature of the warning. Warnings that occur when inputs to external functions exceed the function's limitations are displayed in the Warning window. When this happens, the "Warnings" button is enabled, and columns in the Browser that include solutions that have warnings are flagged by a (w) in the column header. Click on the "Warnings" button for
26
27
The residual of an equation is calculated as follows: each of the terms in the equation is moved to one side of the equation so that the equation is of the form f(x)=0. The function f is then evaluated using the value of the variables from the latest solution step. An exact solution will have a residual of zero.
a list of warnings. In the case of an Explore, the warnings apply to the last Solve. Warnings can also be displayed in the Browser window in the area immediately below the solution data. A complete description of solver warnings and errors is included in the Solver Warnings section.
Solver
Overview How the Solver Works Initial Guesses Convergence Criteria Initial Conditions Solver Warnings Resetting the Solver Intrinsic Functions User-Defined Functions Lookup Tables Units
Solver Overview
The Solver (or engine) is the heart of IHT. Simultaneous algebraic or differential equations are first entered into the Workspace. The Solver checks the equations for syntax and completeness, and if there are syntax errors, the Solver identifies them in the Workspace along with an explanation of the error. If there are fewer equations than variables, the Solver warns the user and displays a list of knowns and unknowns. The Solver then requests Initial Guesses and minimum and maximum bounds for each independent variable, and proceeds to solve the equations numerically. If the Workspace includes differential equations, the Solver also requests an Initial Condition and limits of integration for each independent variable. Once a converged solution is found, the Solver places the solution results along with any errors or Warnings accumulated during the solution process into the Browser.
How the Solver Works

Solving Simultaneous Algebraic Equations Integration Integrating Differential Equations Evaluating Definite Integrals Solving Simultaneous Algebraic Equations To solve simultaneous algebraic equations, the IHT Solver uses a multi-equation form of the Newton-Raphson method (which is slightly modified to optimize step sizes). To solve for a single equation of the form: f(x) = 0 the Newton-Raphson method uses a first-order Taylor series approximation of f(x) about the point xi: f(xi+1) = f(xi) + (xi+1 - x) f'(xi) The series expansion is then solved for f(x)=0: xi+1 = xi - f(xi)/f'(xi). As the subscripts i and i+1 imply, the procedure is iterative; after each new guess for x is calculated, the function, f, and its derivative, f', are re-evaluated, and a new guess for x is calculated. The multi-equation form of the Newton-Raphson method works similarly except that the Taylor series expansion must be in terms of each independent variable. The assembled matrix of partial derivatives of each equation (in the form of f(x) = 0) with respect to each independent variable is called the Jacobian. If the vector of independent variables at the current and previous iterations are {xi+1} and {xi}, the Jacobian matrix evaluated at {xi} is [Ji], and the vector of equations evaluated at {xi} is {fi}, then the equation: [Ji] {xi+1} = [Ji] {xi} - {fi} can be solved for {xi+1}. Again, the procedure iterates until the solution has converged. Convergence is measured by evaluating the norm (calculated as the root-mean square) of the residuals28 of the equations. At the exact solution, the residual will be zero. The section on convergence criteria further explains how the Solver determines if a solution has converged and how to control convergence criteria. The partial derivatives in the Jacobian are calculated numerically; calculating the partial derivatives symbolically might aid in convergence of the solution, but there would be a substantial penalty in terms of computational effort to determine the derivatives, and the accuracy of the final solution would be nearly indistinguishable from the solution calculated using the numerical estimate of the Jacobian. In addition, calculating analytical derivatives of tabular data such as property functions is impossible.
28
Since the engine is an iterative solver, Initial Guesses for the variables are required. For simple problems, "1" can often be used for all of the initial guesses. For more complex problems, however, the user may have to provide more accurate estimates of the variable values. Integration The IHT Solver can integrate differential equations using the DER function. Given a differential equation of the form: dG/dt = f(x, G) An implicit Euler algorithm is employed to integrate the function f(x) over a specified interval [a,b]. The interval is divided into sub-intervals of length x, and the integration proceeds in a step-wise fashion from point a to point b using a first-order Taylor series expansion at the current location xi. If the integral of f(x) from point a to xi is Gi, then: Gi+1 = Gi + (xi, Gi, x) x is the value of the integral at the next x-location. The function represents the slope of the function f over the interval x and can be a function of both xi, and Gi. For the Modified-Euler algorithm, the derivative is calculated using a backward-difference formula: (xi, Gi, x) = (f(xi + 1, Gi + 1) - f(xi, Gi)) / x Because the equation for requires information at the next integration step, the procedure is iterative. This procedure continues until xi = b. The accuracy of the solution is dependent on the step size, x, and decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the solution. When performing a numerical integration, it is very important to insure that the step size is sufficiently small that the solution is independent of the step size. To evaluate a definite integral of the form: G = f(x)dx, the IHT Solver uses the Trapezoidal method over the specified interval [a,b]. The interval is divided into n sub-intervals of length x, and the integral can be expressed as: n G = (f(xi) + f(xi + 1)) x / 2 i=1 As with the integration of differential equations, the accuracy of the solution is dependent on the step size, x, and decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the solution. Integrating Differential Equations To integrate differential equations, the DER command is included in an equation(s) in the Workspace. Once the Solver recognizes this function, it requests Initial Conditions, Initial Guesses, and integration parameters, and integrates the equation(s). For example, to integrate the differential equation dy/dt = -y (which has the exact solution y = A exp(-t)), the following equation could be entered into the Workspace:
y = DER(-y, t) After pressing the solve button, the Solver requests initial conditions and integration limits and integrates the equation. The Lumped Capacitance Model uses the DER to calculate the transient temperature response of bodies. The Solver also requests the "Log Interval". This is the number of integration steps that the Solver will take before storing a solution in the Browser. This is an important value; because a small integration step size might be required over a long interval, but the Browser can only store 1000 steps. Note that this scheme can easily be extended to solve systems of simultaneous differential equations (such as with transient Finite Difference problems) as well as higher-order differential equations. For instance, to solve the second-order differential equation d y/dx = 2, (which has the exact solution y = x + Ax + B), the following equations could be entered into the Workspace: dydx=DER(y,x) d2ydx2=DER(dydx,x) d2ydx2=2 To integrate the above differential equation, the Solver needs initial conditions for both y and dy/dx. To specify conditions at points other than the lower limit of integration, the Shooting Method can be employed. Evaluating Definite Integrals The INTEGRAL function can be used to evaluate definite integrals. As an example, the enthalpy of copper (with a reference enthalpy h0 = 0 J/kg at 273 K) could be calculated by typing the following equations into the Workspace: h = INTEGRAL(cp, T) cp = cp_T("Copper", T) The second equation can be found from the Property Tool. For integration parameters, the initial condition (start value) must be 273, and the final value will be the temperature that the enthalpy is evaluated at. Reference: S. C. Chapra, R. P. Canale, Numerical Methods for Engineers, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Initial Guesses
Initial Guesses Minimum and Maximum Bounds Initial Guesses Because the IHT engine is an iterative solver, initial guesses for each dependent variable are required. After pressing the "Solve" button to begin the solution process, the Solver first checks the Workspace for errors. If no errors are found, the Solver requests initial guesses. The default initial guess for each dependent variable is 1, this value will suffice. Problems involving radiation exchange, free convection, variable thermophysical properties, and other more complex phenomena may require more accurate estimates of unknowns. For more information on selecting initial guesses, see the Solution Strategies and Hints section. An important feature of the Initial Guess window is the "Load" button. Pressing this button will copy values for each variable from the previous solution (if there is one). This can alleviate the tedious chore of filling in estimates for all of the variables. The "Reset" button returns the initial guesses back to 1. Minimum and Maximum Bounds The Initial Guess window also includes columns29 for minimum and maximum allowable values for each unknown variable. If at any time during the calculation of the solution, the value of a variable drops below its specified minimum or exceeds its maximum, it will be set equal to the minimum or maximum, respectively. This feature can be essential when solving non-linear equations (such as problems including radiation exchange or Nusselt number correlations). The solution of such problems often involves exponentiation with fractional powers which is only valid for positive numbers. More information on specifying minimum and maximum bounds can be found in the Solution Strategies and Hints section.
29
Convergence Criteria
Types of Convergence Criteria Setting Convergence Criteria Types of Convergence Criteria IHT considers two different criteria to check to see that a solution has converged. The first criteria is that the norm of the equation residuals30 (calculated as the root-mean square) is sufficiently small. This is checked after each iteration of the Solver, and the Solver stops iteration after the norm of the residuals has dropped below a specified value. The residuals for each equation of the solution can be viewed from the Browser. The other criteria the Solver checks is the maximum number of iterations. If that number of iterations has been reached before the norm of the residuals is sufficiently small, the iteration will stop. In this situation, the Solver will place the current solution in the Browser along with a Solver Warning that the maximum number of iterations was reached. Under these circumstances, the residuals should be checked to insure that an acceptable solution was found. Setting Convergence Criteria The maximum number of iterations can be changed from the "Maximum Iterations" item on the "Solution" selection of the menu-bar. The number of iterations can be up to 2.1E9, but when selecting the maximum number of iterations, it is important to remember that if the Solver cannot find a converged solution, it will proceed through all of the iterations before finishing which can be very time consuming if the maximum number of iterations is too large.
30
Initial Conditions
Initial Conditions Limits of Integration Initial Conditions If the Workspace contains the DER or INTEGRAL functions, the Solver displays the "Differential/Integral Equations" window instead of the "Initial Guesses" window. This window has buttons for initial guesses and initial conditions. Selecting the "Initial Conditions" button will bring up a window with initial conditions for each independent variable being integrated. The default value is 1, and all of the initial conditions can be returned to 1 by selecting the "Reset" button. Limits of Integration The "Differential/Integral Equations" window also includes boxes for the integration limits and step size: "Start" (lower integration limit), "Stop" (upper limit), and "Step" (time step). Recall from the section on how the solver works that the error decreases with step size x, so decreasing the integration step size increases the accuracy of the solution. Several solutions should be calculated with varying step sizes to insure that the solution is accurate.
Solver Warnings
Overview Fatal Errors Browser Messages Parsing Errors User Function Errors Overview The Solver can encounter numerous problems when attempting to solve a set of equations. These problem can be associated with the equation set, external functions used in the equations, poor initial guesses, etc. Below are lists of different classifications of errors along with specific errors that can occur. Fatal Errors If the Solver encounters a fatal error during the solution process (that is, an error that prevents any further calculations), the iteration process is stopped and an appropriate error message is displayed in a pop-up message box. The fatal Solver errors are as follows (the numbers are internal to the software only). 201,"General error." 202,"Error. Divide by zero." 203,"Error. Overflow." 205,"Error. Out of range." 206,"Error. Domain error (i.e., SQRT(-1))." 207,"Error. Sweep variable does not exist." 208,"Error. Equation set is empty." 209,"Error. Solver exceeded maximum number of iterations." 300,"Error. Assigned variable has been modified." 1000,"Error occurred in an external function." Browser Messages If a fatal error does not occur, results are placed in the Browser, and a Result message is displayed in the status line at the bottom of the Browser. These messages are as follows. 1,"Equation set successfully solved" 4,"Warning: equation set solved - solution may be unreliable" 5,"Error: solution did not converge within the allowable number of iterations" 6,"Internal Error" 8,"Warning: solution not progressing well" 10,"Equation set solved with warnings" Result Code 4 will occur in rare cases when trying to solve a minimization problem - usually involving more equations than unknowns, and should prompt the user to carefully examine the results. Result Code 6 is a "development only" message and should normally never be encountered at the user level" Result Code 10 is posted when input variables used by some external function have been overridden (clipped) by that function in the course of the last iteration. The need for such clipping Lookup Table Errors Limit Statement Errors External Function DLL Errors Data File Errors
arises frequently during the iteration process, since the majority of external functions impose some limits on their parameters (correlations based on tabular data, for example.) During the early phases of the solution process, depending on the initial conditions, some of the variables used in the external functions can exceed the allowable range, and the software will then clip these variables to the minimum (or maximum) allowable value to avoid Solver errors. This clipping will not have any effect on the accuracy of the solution of the system unless it happens as the Solver estimates the final result (at the last iteration). The purpose of the warning message is to indicate to the user that clipping has occurred and that the solution may be unreliable. To help the user identify the problem, the Warnings message box, activated by pressing the Warnings button on the Browser, lists the last 20 external function calls that have introduced clipping and identifies them by the name and location of the function in the workspace: "Out of Range error in function_ name line line_number". ( A possible solution would be to use a better initial guess). Parsing Errors 1,"General syntax error." 2,"External function not found." 3,"External function has an invalid return type." 4,"External function has an invalid argument." 5,"Specified Multisim script file does not exist." 6,"Variable name too long." 7,"Intrinsic function not found." 8,"Equation set name too long." 9,"Variable name not found." 10,"Equation set not found." 11,"Multiple independent variables specified in an equation set." 12,"Invalid derivative variable name specified in the DER() function." 13,"External function name too long." 14,"Number of unknowns exceeds number of equations." 15,"Unknown equation set option specified." 16,"Inconsistent equation set." 17,"Equation set contains no equations." 18,"Lower bounds exceeds upper bounds for a given variable." 20,"Invalid integral variable specified in the INT() function." 21,"Illegal equation specified in an equation set." 22,"Redefinition of a constant variable." 23,"Error encountered evaluating an expression for a constant variable." 24,"Illegal constant expression." 500,"Unknown parsing error." User Function Errors 31,"User function name too long." 32,"User function does not exist." 33,"User function attempts to use a previously undefined variable." 34,"Invalid use of the break statement in a user function." 35,"User function file does not exist." Lookup Table Errors 41,"Lookup table already exists." 42,"Lookup table name is too long."
43,"Lookup table exceeds specified size." 44,"Number of rows in the lookup table exceeds the number specified." 45,"Number of columns in the lookup table exceeds the number specified." 46,"Lookup table contains an invalid value." 47,"Lookup table not found." 48,"Specified position in the lookup table is out of range." 49,"Lookup table file not found." 50,"Invalid row or column specified in call to LOOKUPVAL() function." 51,"Invalid row or column specified in call to LOOKUPVAL2() function." Limit Statement Errors 81,"No variable specified in the limit statement." 82,"No value specified in the limit statement." 83,"Error evaluating the limit value." 84,"Lower bound exceeds upper bound in limit statement." External Function DLL Errors 100,"External function DLL not found." 101,"Path for external function DLL does not exist." Data File Errors 110,"Invalid data file name." 111,"Data file contains a corrupt signature id." 112,"Data file contains an invalid version id." 113,"Data file not found." 114,"Corrupt equation set data found in the data file." 115,"Corrupt variable data found in the data file."
Intrinsic Functions
Overview Function Table DER Function INTEGRAL Function Heat Transfer Functions Tfluid_avg Function hold_variable Function Overview Intrinsic functions are functions available to the user in the Workspace to perform standard calculations such as the square-root or sine of a value. The IHT Solver has a large library of intrinsic functions that can be categorized as: (1) general functions, and (2) heat transfer-specific functions. The general functions are similar to functions available to any programming language such as FORTRAN or C. Heat transfer functions are used to calculate Nusselt numbers and evaluate thermophysical properties, among other things, and are accessed by the Tools or Models related to those functions. In addition, the two functions, DER, and INTEGRAL are used to define differential equations and perform integrations, respectively. From the Workspace, functions are used in equations. Typically, the value of a function is assigned to a variable. In the following example, the square root of 9 is assigned to y: y = SQRT(9) The IHT Solver can also solve equations for function arguments. For example, for the equation: -1 = COS(x) the Solver would return a solution of x = 3.142. The argument of any function must be either a number or a single variable; equations cannot be included in the argument of an intrinsic function. To perform a calculation which requires evaluating an expression in the argument of an intrinsic function, the following can be done arg1 = x / (4 * alpha * time) ^ 0.5 theta = erf(arg1) Function Table Listed below are intrinsic functions similar to those found in programming languages such as FORTRAN or C that are available in IHT: Function ABS(x) SQRT(x) SIN(x) COS(x) TAN(x) ARCSIN(x) ARCCOS(x) ARCTAN(x) Argument real real (positive) real (radians) real (radians) real (radians) real real real Description Absolute value of x (real) Square root of x (real) Sine of x (real) Cosine of x (real) Tangent of x (real) Angle whose sine is x, in radians--first or fourth quadrant (real) Angle whose cosine is x, in radians--first or second quadrant (real) Angle whose tangent is x, in radians--first or fourth quadrant (real)
SINH(x) COSH(x) TANH(x) INVSINH(x) INVCOSH(x) INVTANH(x) LN(x) EXP(x) LOG(x) ERF(x) ERFC(x) J0(x) J1(x) I0(x) I1(x) K0(x) K1(x) DER Function
real real real real real real real real real real real real real real real real real
Hyperbolic sine of x (real) Hyperbolic cosine of x (real) Hyperbolic tangent of x (real) Inverse hyperbolic sine of x (real) Inverse hyperbolic cosine of x (real) Inverse hyperbolic tangent of x (real) Natural logarithm (base e) of x (real) Exponential of x (real) Base 10 logarithm of x (real) Error function of x (real) Complimentary error function of x (real) Bessel function of the first kind of order zero (real) Bessel function of the first kind of order one (real) Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order zero (real) Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order one (real) Modified Bessel function of the second kind of order zero (real) Modified Bessel function of the second kind of order zero (real)
The DER function is used to define differential equations. When this function is included in the Workspace, the Solver automatically integrates the equation(s). More on the integration of differential equations is included in the section on How the Solver Works. INTEGRAL Function The INTEGRAL function works much like the DER function. INTEGRAL(y,x) returns the integral of the variable y with respect to x. Note that the arguments of the INTEGRAL function must be variables and not other functions. For more on integrals, see the section on How the Solver Works. Heat Transfer Functions The second class of intrinsic functions are those specific to heat transfer. These functions include those copied from the models and toolpads and are used to calculate Nusselt numbers, thermophysical properties, and temperature distributions. These functions can be treated like all other intrinsic and user-defined functions. Tfluid_avg Function When encountering "stiff" problems (sets of simultaneous equations that have some equations that are very sensitive to a certain variable and other equations that are relatively insensitive to the same variable), the Solver may have difficulty determining the system solution, or can take many iterations to find that solution. This problem frequently arises when using variable thermophysical properties along with Nusselt Number correlations (especially free-convection and condensation problems). To alleviate this problem, IHT includes the function Tfluid_avg to calculate the film temperature that these thermophysical properties are evaluated at. When the Solver encounters this function, it "marks" the variable that the function is assigned to and removes it from the list of unknowns. The system is then solved using the initial guess for Tf. A new Tf is then calculated from the results, and if the two values differ significantly, this two-step iteration process is continued.
When calculating the film temperature, Tf, the following equation is placed in the Workspace: Tf = Tfluid_avg(Ts,Tinf) where Ts and Tinf are the surface and fluid temperatures. The order of the variables and variable names are unimportant. To avoid the problem of the Solver getting "stuck" in a loop, the number of iterations to calculate Tf is limited. If that limit is reached, the Solver will stop and report an excessive number of iterations. If this occurs, it may be remedied by re-solving using the "Load" feature for the initial guesses, or, if a sensible solution was not found, better initial guesses may have to be supplied by the user. hold_variable Function This function is similar to Tfluid_avg. The usage is as follows: x = hold_variable(xt) The variable to which this function is assigned, x, is removed from the list of unknowns, and the system of equations is solved using the initial guess for x. A new x is then calculated from the results, and if the current and previous values of x differ significantly, this two-step iteration process is continued. This function is an advanced feature that can be used to help the convergence of stiff systems. This function is an advanced feature that can be used to help convergence of stiff systems (equation sets for which Initial Guesses must be carefully chosen). Heres an example of the function use with the free convection vertical-plate correlation: NuLbari = NuL_bar_FC_VP(RaL,Pr) NuLbar = hLbar * L / k RaL = g * beta * deltaT * L^3 / (nu * alpha) deltaThv = abs(Ts - Tinfi) deltaT = hold_variable(deltaThv) // Eq 9.26 // Eq 9.25 // Hold-variable function
For this application, the Tfluid_avg function should be used for evaluating the properties at the film temperature. In most situations, convergence can be achieved using the default values (unity) for the Initial Guesses without an excessive number of iterations.
Units
The Solver makes no attempt to keep track of units, so it is very important for the user to be consistent. Results from Property functions and Convection Correlations are in SI units of kg, m, s, K. In addition, the Stefan-Boltzman constant is always specified in SI units [W/m K ]. Radiation calculations should always be carried out using absolute temperature units (kelvins or K). To express variables in non-standard units, the appropriate unit conversion can be entered in the Workspace. For example, if the wall temperature, Ts, is in (K), to express the temperature in Celsius units, add the supplementary equation to the Workspace: Ts_C = Ts - 273
Explorer
Overview Using Explore Overview Once a solution to a particular equation set has been found, parametric studies (or variable sweeps) may be performed to investigate the system's performance over a range of values for a particular variable or optimize designs with respect to a particular variable. The results of Explore sweeps can be graphically displayed using the IHT Grapher or can be exported to other applications. Using Explore After a solution for a set of equations has been found, parametric studies can be performed by selecting the "Explore" item on the "Solution" menu or by clicking on the "Explore" button of the tool bar. This action brings up the Sweep Settings window that includes the "Variable to Sweep", and the sweep "Starting Value", "Ending Value", and "Step". Choose the variable to sweep by typing it into the "Variable to Sweep" box or by clicking on the down arrow and selecting the variable from the list. Type in the starting and ending values and the step size, and select "OK". Note starting and ending values and step size must be such that the number of evaluations does not exceed 1000 (the maximum number of solutions that the Browser can store). After selecting "OK", the Solver will compute the solution for each value of the sweep variable and place the solution in the Browser. It is not always necessary to use the Solve feature to get a solution before going to Explore. Since Explore calls the Solver in the same way that selecting the "Solve" button does, that step is not always necessary. In such cases, however, it might still be necessary to provide the solver with appropriate initial guesses. To do this, select "Initial Guesses" from the Explore window. It is always a good idea to use Initial Guesses appropriate to the first value of the sweep variable. This gives the Solver a good starting point. As the Solver progresses through the variable sweep, it uses the solution from the previous step as an initial guess for the current step. Therefore, for complex sets of equations, using a small step size will sometimes aid in the convergence of the solution during an Explore. To perform parametric studies in two-dimensions, different variable sweeps of one variable with different values of another variable can be stored in the six data sets of the Browser. The results can then be combined in plots to demonstrate the effect of varying the two variables. Several of the Examples illustrate the use of the Explore feature.
Grapher
Overview Plot Data Scales Exploring Data in a Plot Window Overview The Graph feature of IHT allows visualization of relationships between different variables. Variables from any data set can be plotted on one Graph. This will allow comparisons of similar quantities from different Explores or integrations. To create a Graph after an Explore or integration, select the "Graph" item on the "Solution" menu or click on the "Graph" button of the toolbar. This will bring up the Plot Data window. All of the plot data including variables, legends, titles, and line styles can be defined from this window (these features are described in detail below). After selecting "OK" from the Plot Data window, a Plot Window appears named "Plot Window 1"; subsequent plots will be named "Plot Window 2" and so on. You may create as many different plot windows as your computer memory can store. Each of these window can be resized, edited, printed, and stored with with the Save Session as command. Printing Graphs is accomplished by first clicking on the "Print" item of the Graph toolbar or rightclicking on the plot window and selecting "Print" from the pop-up menu. A dialog window31 will appear requesting the number of copies and printing resolution. Paper size and orientation (portrait or landscape) can be changed by selecting the "Setup" button. To print the Graph, select "OK". Note that the plot will be sized to fit the page. To print a plot of a specific size, copy the plot to the clipboard32, paste it into the notepad or other word processor and print it from that application. Plot Data Once a plot window is created, the Plot Data window can be recalled by selecting the Edit button on the Plot window. The Plot Data window includes Tabs33 for adding or modifying "Variables", "Legends", "Titles", and "Lines". The Plot Data window can also be accessed by right-clicking on the plot window and selecting Edit from the pop-up menu. Each of the Tabs in this window are described below. Variables The dependent or x-axis variable and up to five independent or y-axis series can be selected from any of the six Browser data sets from the Variables Tab. To add a data series to the plot, simply select the dependent variable from the "X" axis pull-down list, and select the independent
31
32
33
variable(s) from the "Y" axis pull-down list(s). If the data is from a data set other than the Working Set, be sure to select the appropriate set from the Data Set pull-down list. The independent variables can be chosen from any combination of the Browser data sets; if variables chosen for the y-axis are from different data sets, they are each plotted against the xaxis values corresponding to their respective data set. Dependent variables are typically the sweep variable or an integration variable. To plot distributed data as a function of position (e.g. Finite Difference Model solutions), see the section on using Lookup Tables to Graph data. To hide a data series, click on the "x" in the box to the left of that series to remove the "x". Only series with this box highlighted will be displayed on the plot. Legends Legends are labels for each data series included in the plot and appear at the lower left-hand corner of the Plot Window. The default name for each legend is the variable name. To change this value, select the "Legend" Tab on the Plot Data window and fill in the new name in the appropriate box. The legend can be hidden by clicking on the "Show Legend" text at the bottom of this Tab. Titles Titles for the Graph, x-, and y-axes can be added or modified from the "Titles" Tab on the Plot Data window. Select this Tab and type in the desired labels for the Graph title, and x- and yaxes. The default value for the x-axis title is the dependent variable for each of the plot series selected in the "Variables" Tab. Lines The appearance of the lines representing each data series can be independently modified from the "Lines" Tab on the Plot Data window. The following features can be added or modified: Data markers (select a symbol type from 8 available at specified intervals or use no symbols), Line styles (select a line style from five available), Line width (must be zero for any line style other than solid), and Line color (choose from 16 available colors--note that the line color will only affect the screen view and output from color printers; black and white printouts will not distinguish different colors) Scales Several appearance features of the plot can be modified by clicking on the "Scales" button from the Plot window toolbar or by right-clicking on the Graph and selecting "Scales" from the pop-up menu. The plot scales, axes, gridlines, and tick marks for each axis can all be modified from this window. Plot Scales When a plot window is created, the plot range for the x- and y-axes are automatically scaled to include all of the data from the selected data series. To specify the plot range manually, click on "Auto Scale" from the "X-Scale" or "Y-Scale" Tab of the Plot Scales window. Doing this releases control on the "Minimum" and "Maximum" boxes in the Plot Scales window. The values in each of these boxes can now be modified; type in the minimum and maximum values to be displayed in the Plot Window. Log Axes
Data can often be better visualized by plotting on a semi-log or log-log Graph. To change the xand/or y-axis from a linear to a log scale, click on "Log" near the bottom of the Plot Scales Window. Note that "0" or negative numbers can not be represented on a log scale, so the "Minimum" value must always be greater than 0. Grid and Label Ticks Gridlines and Tick labels can also be modified from the Plot Scales window. To add gridlines to either axis, click on "Show Grid". The number of ticks can be adjusted from the "Number of Ticks" box by typing the new value in the box or by clicking on the up or down buttons to increase or decrease the current number. The "Label Every" box adjusts the interval between tick labels for that axis. This can be adjusted in the same manner as the "Number of Ticks". Exploring Data in a Plot Window An exciting feature of the IHT Plot Window is the "Explore" feature that displays the numerical (x,y) coordinates of any data point in any of the data series in a plot. To explore the values of data displayed on a plot window, click on the "Explore" button, or right-click on the plot window and select "Explore" from the pop-up menu. An empty Explore window will be displayed. To select a particular curve, click near one of its data points. Once you select the curve, use the slider in the explore window to traverse the points. You can also enter an index in the window to explore a particular data point. To remove the Explore window, click on "Explore" again.
Report Generation
Creating documentation for models developed in IHT is supplemented by: Problem statement and assumption lists copied from the model Viewpads34, Schematics35 copied from the model Viewpads, Graphs created by the Grapher, and Comments included in supporting equation copied from various Tools.
Unfortunately, saving graphic items such as Schematics and Graphs in the Workspace is not supported, but all of these items can be Exported to other Windows applications.
34
35
Post-Processing
Overview Browser Explorer Grapher
Post-Processing Overview
IHT includes several post-processing tools that allow the user to investigate and graphically display the results from the Solver. The Browser displays all of the solution values from the engine. These are displayed in spreadsheet format, and can be copied directly to a spreadsheet or word processor if desired. The Explore feature allows the user to sweep on a variable. By specifying the starting and ending value as well as the step for the sweep variable, the Solver evaluates the model equations for each combination. The results can also be viewed in the Browser. Multiple solutions (up to six) can be stored, and up to five data sets can be plotted using the Grapher.
Examples
Overview IHT Topics Illustrated in Examples Heat Transfer Topics Illustrated in Examples Overview The Examples item on the "Tools" menu contains 15 Examples from Fundamental of Heat and Mass Transfer36 included to illustrate the Models, Tools, and functionality of IHT. Some of the Examples are solved by two different methods in order to illustrate IHT features. To call up any Example, select that Example from the "Examples" item on the "Tools" menu. IHT Topics Illustrated in Examples Example Nos. 1.6b 3.1b 3.6a 3.8 5.2 5.3a Example Nos. 1.6a, 3.1a 1.6a, 3.1a 1.6a, 3.1a 8.5 3.6b 4.3 5.3b 7.2 7.4 8.5, 11.5 9.2 10.3 11.5 13.6 12.5 13.6 7.2, 7.4, 8.5, 9.3, 10.3, 11.5 Example Nos. 3.6b, 5.2 4.3
36
Model First Law - Isothermal plane wall Resistance Network 1D-SS Conduction - Plane wall Extended Surfaces - Heat rate, rectangular pin fin Lumped Capacitance Analysis Transient Conduction - Plane wall Tools Rate Equations - Conduction - Convection - Radiation exchange - Tube flow Thermal Resistance Finite-Difference Equations - 2D, Steady-state - 1D, Transient Correlations - External flow, flat plate - External flow, cylinder - Internal flow, turbulent, fully developed - Free convection, vertical plate - Condensation, vertical plate Heat Exchangers Radiation - Blackbody emissive power - Band emission factor - Exchange Analysis Properties IHT Features User-Defined Functions Look-Up Table
1.6b, 3.1b
Explore - Plot Window
Heat Transfer Topics Illustrated in Examples Ex no. Approach Heat transfer topics and content# e m t s Rate equations, energy balances, multimode analysis; steadystate conditions Thermal resistance network analysis One-dimensional, steady-state conduction; solutions to the heat diffusion equation Extended surface; straight pin fin; heat rate and temperature distribution Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction; finite-difference method of solution Transient conduction; generalized lumped capacitance analysis Transient conduction; plane wall with convection; series solution and finite-difference method of solution External flow, flat plate; local and average convection coefficient; transition effects; temperature-dependent properties External flow, cylinder in cross flow; temperature-dependent properties Internal flow with external convection; fully developed turbulent flow correlation; isothermal heating Free convection, vertical plate; radiation exchange effects, temperature dependent properties Condensation, vertical plate; temperature dependent properties Heat exchanger, effectiveness-NTU method; with internal convection Total emissivity determination from spectral emissivity distribution Diffuse, gray enclosure analysis; three surface enclosure with one reradiating surface; surface energy balances.
1.6 3.1 3.6 3.8 4.3 5.2 5.3 7.2 7.4 8.5 9.3 10.3 11.5 12.5 13.6 ___________________ # Key:
e - equations entered from the keyboard following Text development m - solution based upon calling appropriate Model into the Workspace t - solution built by calling appropriate Tools into the Workspace s - the Workspace was saved As A Session including Browser, Plot Windows, Lookup Tables, and User-Defined Functions
Extended Surfaces
Overview Fin Geometries Using the Heat Rate and Temperature Distribution Models Using the Performance Calculation Models Overview These Models address the topic of Extended Surfaces discussed in Chapter 3 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer37 at three levels. First, it provides fin analyses for temperature distributions and heat rates for uniform cross-sectional area fins. Second, it provides performance parameters--fin efficiency, heat rate and thermal resistance expressions--for common fin geometries. Third, it provides equations for fin arrays with different types of fins applied to two base configurations: plane and cylindrical surfaces. In addition, each Extended Surface Model has a detailed Schematic38 identifying the system features. Fin Geometries The Models include equations for heat rate and temperature distributions for rectangular straight and pin fins with four different types of tip conditions: specified temperature, specified convection process, adiabatic, and infinitely long. Other Models calculate performance characteristics for the following types of fins and fin arrays: Rectangular, triangular, and parabolic straight fins Rectangular, triangular, and parabolic pin fins Rectangular circular fins Arrays of rectangular straight, pin, and circular fins
Included in these Models are the calculation of fin efficiency and effectiveness, overall surface efficiency, and heat rate. These Model equations can be easily coupled with other Models or Tools to predict convective heat transfer from any surface with fins. This is especially useful in design problems involving fins because the calculations are tedious when done by hand. Using the Heat Rate and Temperature Distribution Models To use either the straight or pin fin heat rate and temperature distribution Models, begin by 39 40 copying the problem description and assumptions from the "Model" Tab on either Viewpad
37
38
39
40
The Viewpads, or Model Viewpads, contain the essential information for building heat transfer
accessed from the "Extended Surfaces" item on the "Models" pull-down menu. From the "Tip Conditions" Tab, select the fin tip boundary condition. The conditions available are: Convection heat transfer, Adiabatic, Prescribed temperature, or Infinitely long.
Once the tip condition has been selected, the equations in the "Energy Balance" Tab can be copied into the Workspace. These equations calculate the fin parameters m and M, the fin temperature at any location x (0 < x < L), the heat rate from the fin, and the performance parameters epsf (fin effectiveness), Rtf (fin resistance), and etaf (fin efficiency). Finally, copy the unknown variables from the "Assigned Variables41" Tab. After all of the equations have been copied into the Workspace, the unknown geometry variables, thermal conductivity, and variables related to the tip condition (temperature, convection conditions, or specified heat flux) can be filled in, and the equation set is complete. Several different steps can then be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An Extended Surfaces example is included in the Examples Tool. Using the Performance Calculation Models To use any of the Performance Calculation Models, select the desired geometry from the list accessed from the "Extended Surfaces" item on the "Models" menu. These geometries include: Straight fins with: Rectangular profiles, Triangular profiles, or Parabolic profiles Pin fins with: Rectangular profiles, Triangular profiles, or Parabolic profiles Rectangular fins with: Rectangular profiles Arrays of: Straight rectangular fins, Circular rectangular fins, or Pin rectangular fins
models on specific topics. They often include a schematic of the physical system, a problem header, governing equations, and assigned variables.
41
Copy the Model description and assumptions from the "Model" Tab into the Workspace. Then copy the equations in the "Energy Balance" Tab into the Workspace. These equations calculate the fin heat rate, and the performance parameters epsf (fin effectiveness), Rtf (fin resistance), and etaf (fin efficiency). Note that the fin resistance includes a contact resistance, and for fin arrays, the Model calculates the overall surface efficiency. Finally, copy the unknown variables from the "Assigned Variable Tab. After all of the equations have been copied into the Workspace, the unknown geometry variables, contact resistance, thermal conductivity, and convection conditions can be filled in, and the equation set is complete. Several different steps can then be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An Extended Surfaces example is included in the Examples Tool.
Heat Exchangers
Overview Using Heat Exchangers Overview The Heat Exchanger Tool provides the necessary equations to analyze several heat exchanger types described in Chapter 11 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer42. The geometries and flow conditions from Tables 11.3 and 11.4 of the text that are supported include: Concentric Tube Parallel Flow Counter Flow Shell and Tube One Shell Pass Cross Flow (Single Pass) Both Fluids Mixed Cmax (Mixed), Cmin (Unmixed) Cmin (Mixed), Cmax (Unmixed) All Exchangers, Cr=0
With the exception of the Cross Flow exchanger with both fluids mixed (which is only written in terms of effectiveness relations), all of the geometries and flow situations can be written in terms of effectiveness or NTU relations. Using Heat Exchangers To use any of the Heat Exchanger Tools, select the appropriate geometry and flow conditions from the "Heat Exchangers" selection of the "Tools" menu item. With the exception of the Cross Flow exchanger with both fluids mixed (which is only written in terms of effectiveness relations), select "Effectiveness relations" or "NTU relations" by clicking on the appropriate box in the lowerright hand corner of the Viewpad43. The appropriate equations will appear in the Viewpad window. Fill in the variable ID for the subscript on the overall transfer coefficient, U, and the area, A, and copy the equations to the Workspace. The Heat Exchanger Viewpads do not have an Assigned Variables44 list, and as such, the equations for unknown Property and geometry variables must be entered in the workspace. The
42
43
44
overall transfer coefficient, U, can be calculated using the Thermal Resistance and Correlation Tools.
First Law
Overview Physical Systems Using the Model Overview The First Law Model emphasizes the energy balance technique introduced in Chapter 1 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer45. The Models are restricted to steady-state conditions (Edotst = 0) for three one-dimensional geometries: the plane wall, the long cylinder (solid and hollow), and the sphere (solid and hollow). The equations for each Model include some or all of the following processes: radiation exchange, convection, applied heat fluxes, solar irradiation, and internal generation. Physical Systems The following physical systems are represented by the Models: Isothermal Plane Wall: Plane walls can be modeled with all of the forgoing processes at each surface (except solar irradiation which is only present at one surface). Non-isothermal Plane Wall: This Model is similar to the previous Model, except that conduction through the wall is permitted by including two separate surface temperatures in the Model equations. It does not, however, allow for volumetric heat generation, nor does it prescribe the temperature distribution through the wall thickness. For such problems, the 1-D Steady-State Conduction Models should be used. Isothermal Solid and Hollow Cylinders: These Models include all of the forgoing processes, but for the hollow cylinder, only convection and an applied heat flux are available at the inner surface. Isothermal Solid and Hollow Sphere: These Models include all of the forgoing processes, but for the hollow sphere, only convection and an applied heat flux are available at the inner surface.
Using the Models To use any of the First Law Models, select the appropriate geometry. Then copy the Model description and assumptions from the "Model" Tab46 into the Workspace and fill in the appropriate assumptions for the problem. Select the "Processes" Tab and click on the transport processes included for the particular problem at each surface. If necessary, also fill in the appropriate Control Surface and Element ID's. As the processes are selected, the energy balance equations in the "Energy Balance" Tab are updated to include those terms. Select the energy balance
45
46
equations from that Tab and drag them into the Workspace as well. Choosing processes also adds blue (hot) items to the Schematic47. These hot items include the required rate equations necessary to complete the Model equations. Click on the blue items in the Schematic to bring up pads including the rate equations and drag them into the Workspace. As the energy balance equations and rate equations are added to the Workspace, a list of unknowns is added to the "Assigned Variables48" Tab. Copy this list into the Workspace and fill in the known values for the problem. Note that each model assumes a set of known quantities and unknowns (usually temperatures). To solve for a variable that is listed as a known quantity, simply delete the equation specifying the value for that variable and write an equation specifying the value for a quantity selected as an unknown. Once the model equations have been set up in the Workspace, several different steps can be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An example of a first law model is included in the Examples Tool.
47
48
Finite-Difference Equations
Overview Building Finite-Difference Models Overview The Finite-Difference Tool assists the user to develop Finite-Difference networks to model conduction in one-dimensional, one-dimensional extended surface, and two-dimensional conduction systems with convection and applied heat flux at surfaces. The Finite-Difference function equations follow the treatment in Table 4.2 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer49 divided by the volume associated with the node. This allows the use of the same function for both transient and steady-state systems. If the steady-state nodal equation is of the form: 0.0 = fd_2d_psur_e(Tp,Tw,Tn,Ts,k,qdot,deltax,deltay,Tinf,h,q''a) the transient equation for the same node would be of the form: rho * cp * der(Tp,t) = fd_2d_psur_e(Tp,Tw,Tn,Ts,k,qdot,deltax,deltay,Tinf,h,q''a) This streamlines the equations and emphasizes that the functions are nodal energy balances on a per unit volume basis. Each of the three systems includes functions for the following nodal geometries and orientations: One-Dimensional Interior node Surface node (2) One-Dimensional Extended Surface Interior node End node Two-Dimensional Interior node Internal corner (4) Plane surface (4) External corner (4) Each surface node also includes an applied heat flux term that allows the user to specify a heat flux at that control surface, or add a Rate Equation. Building Finite-Difference Models To build a Finite-Difference network, first sketch the system, then discretize the geometry and number the nodes. For instance, Example 4.3 of the text uses the Finite-Difference method to calculate temperatures in a 1m by 1m firebrick clay column supporting a large furnace with a specified temperature on 3 sides and convection on the fourth side. The discretized geometry might look like: Ts Ts Ts Ts Ts
49
Ts Ts Ts Ts
T1 T3 T5 T7
T2 T4 T6 T8
T1 T3 T5 T7
Ts Ts Ts Ts
The node numbering takes advantage of the symmetry of the column thereby reducing the node numbers from 12 to 8. Finite-Difference function calls must now be created for each unknown nodal temperature, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, and T8. For example, node 1 is an internal node. To create a function call for this node, select "Finite-Difference Equations" from the "Tools" item on the menu bar then "Two-Dimensional" then "Steady-State". From the list of choices, select "Interior node with internal heat generation". A toolpad will appear with a Schematic50 of the node, a window including the Finite-Difference function, ID's for each of the nodes, and a window with a description of the node. In each of the ID boxes, fill in the appropriate node numbers: 1 for Tp, 2 for Te, s for Tw, s for Tn, and 3 for Ts. For convenience, the default ID's for each node represent compass directions: "n" is the north neighbor, "e" is the east neighbor, etc. Copy the nodal equation, and if desired, the description into the Workspace, and repeat this process for all eight nodes. Note that for nodes 7 and 8, it is important to select the correct orientation for the plane surface node: south orientation. Once all eight equations have been added into the Workspace, equations for all of the known quantities (deltax, deltay, k, qdot, h, q''a, and Tinf) must be created, and the model is ready to be solved. Associated with the surface nodes (7 and 8) are equations for the applied heat flux. The default value for q''a at each surface node is zero, but a constant value or rate equation could be used. The default subscript for q''a will always be the subscript for the current node. Results from Finite-Difference models can be plotted using Lookup Tables. The Finite-Difference equation builder requires that equations for each node must be entered in one at a time; there is no mechanism to automatically create function calls for a collection of similar nodes. This limitation can be overcome by copying and pasting function calls for similar nodes and editing the node numbers. The maximum number of Finite-Difference equations that can be supported in a single Workspace is 70.
50
Convection Correlations
Overview Using Convection Correlations Overview The Correlations Tool includes Nusselt number correlations for a variety of flow configurations experiencing free and forced convection, boiling, and condensation. Correlations are in the form of functions of pertinent dimensionless groups, physical dimensions, and properties. These are especially useful when combined with Models to provide estimates for the convection coefficient based upon appropriate conditions. The Correlations selected from Chapters 6-10 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer51 include: External flow Flow over a flat plate: Local laminar and turbulent flow Average laminar or mixed flow Flow over a cylinder Flow over a sphere
Internal flow Laminar, fully-developed flow: Constant wall flux Constant wall temperature Laminar, developing flow: Thermal entry length Combined entry length Turbulent, fully-developed flow
Free convection Vertical plate Horizontal plate: Hot surface facing upwards up or cold surface facing downwards Cold surface facing upwards up or hot surface facing downwards Horizontal cylinder Sphere
Boiling Nucleate pool boiling: Heat flux

51
Maximum heat flux
Film pool boiling Minimum heat flux
Film condensation On vertical plates: Laminar Laminar, wavy, or turbulent On radial systems: Single tube or sphere Vertical tier of tubes In horizontal tubes
Flow across a tube bank Aligned arrangement Staggered arrangement
Using Convection Correlations To use any of the Convection Correlations, select the correlation from the "Correlations" selection of the "Tools" menu item. Alternatively, press the "Correlations" button on the toolbar and select the desired correlation. The selected equation will appear in the Tool Viewpad52, and below the equation(s) will be a series of variable ID's. Variable ID's are used extensively to give the user flexibility with his choice of variable names. After the ID's have been entered, copy the correlation function and accompanying equation(s) into the Workspace. The Correlations Viewpads do not have an Assigned Variables53 list, and as such, the equations for unknown property and geometry variables must be entered in the workspace. Once the correlation and supporting equations have been copied from the toolpad to the Workspace, it is necessary to specify the appropriate thermophysical properties and characteristic lengths. The properties can easily be added using the Property Tool. While the list of correlations includes most of the more frequently used correlations, it is by no means inclusive. Numerous Nusselt number correlations have been published in the open literature and handbooks for a variety of flow and geometry situations. These correlations can easily be added to the IHT library by utilizing the User-defined functions. As always, care should be taken to validate the accuracy and suitability of each correlation for the specific application for which it is being used.
52
53
1-D Steady-State Conduction

Overview Physical Systems Using the Model Plotting Temperature Distributions in Composite Bodies Overview The 1-D Steady-State Conduction Models emphasize the energy balance technique introduced in Chapter 1 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer54 along with the temperature distributions derived from the 1-D conduction equation in cartesian, radial, and spherical coordinate systems in Chapter 3 and Appendix C. The Models are restricted to steady-state conditions (Edotst = 0) for three geometries: plane walls, long cylinders (solid and hollow), and spheres (solid and hollow). Physical Systems The following physical systems are represented by the Models: plane walls, solid and hollow cylinders, and solid and hollow spheres. A boundary condition selected from the following list must be specified at each surface: Constant wall temperature, Ts, Convection, Tinf, h, Applied heat flux, q''a (not available for solid cylinders or spheres), Adiabatic surface (not available for solid cylinders or spheres), Overall coefficient, U, Tinf, or Thermal resistance, Rt, Tinf.
Volumetric heat generation (qdot) can be selected for the systems, with the exception of solid cylinders or spheres, for which qdot is automatically included. To specify a mixed boundary condition, such as convection and radiation, the overall coefficient or thermal resistance option can be used in conjunction with parallel resistances created from the Thermal Resistance tool. Using the Model To use a 1-D Steady-State Conduction Model, select the appropriate geometry. Then copy the Model description and assumptions from the "Model" Tab55 into the Workspace and fill in the appropriate assumptions for the problem. Select the "BC" Tab and click on the appropriate boundary condition for each surface (only the outer surface for spherical and radial systems.) If necessary, also fill in the appropriate Control Surface and Element ID's. Note that changing boundary conditions updates the energy balance equations in the "Energy Balance" Tab to reflect the selected boundary conditions. Double-click on the energy balance equations from that Tab and drag them into the Workspace as well. As boundary conditions are specified for each
54
55
surface, a list of unknowns is added to the "Assigned Variables56" Tab. Copy the equations from this Tab into the Workspace and fill in the known values for the problem. Available from the Schematic57 are equations for the temperature (T_x), heat flux (q''_x), and total heat rate (q_x) distributions throughout the body. To use any of these distributions, click on the blue "hot" item in the Workspace. A toolpad with the appropriate equation will appear, and the equation can then be copied into the Workspace. Once the model has been solved, a variable sweep can be performed using the Explore feature and the results can be plotted to graphically display the distribution. Once the Model equations have been set up in the Workspace, several different steps can be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An example of 1-D Steady-State Conduction is included in the Examples tool. Plotting Temperature Distributions in Composite Bodies The 1-D Steady-State Conduction Models can easily be combined to create composite bodies that might be used to model composite walls (cartesian coordinate system), pipes with insulation (radial), or spheres with multiple layers (spherical). Models for these composite bodies can be created from multiple applications of the model equations making sure to change variable ID's for each layer. Once the equations have been Solved, distributions through the entire body can be Graphed in the following manner. First, perform separate variable sweeps in the x- or radialdirection for each section using the Explorer. Save the sweep for each section in a different data set in the Browser. Then, from the Graph edit menu, select the distribution from each data set that corresponds to that portion of the composite body.
56
57
Thermal Resistances
Overview Using Thermal Resistances Overview Thermal Resistance equations are included to supplement models using the resistance network analogy described in Chapter 3 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer58. These models can be generated by typing in the equations or using the Resistance Network Model. Conduction in cartesian, radial, and spherical coordinate systems, convection, and radiation exchange resistance equations are supplied. In addition, resistance equations for a single uniform crosssection fin, and rectangular and annular fin arrays are included. The following Thermal Resistances are supplied: Conduction Plane Wall Hollow Cylinder Hollow Sphere Surface Effects Convection Linearized Radiation Overall Coefficient Fin (Uniform Cross-Sectional Area) Adiabatic Tip Fin Arrays Rectangular Fins Annular (Circular) Fins Using Thermal Resistances To apply any of the Thermal Resistance Tools, select the type of resistance and geometry from the "Thermal Resistances" selection of the "Tools" menu item. The selected equation will appear in the Tool Viewpad59, and below the equation(s) will be a series of variable ID's. Variable ID's are used extensively to give the user flexibility with his choice of variable names. After the ID's have been entered, copy the thermal resistance equation(s) into the Workspace. The Thermal Resistance Viewpads do not have an Assigned Variables60 list, and as such, the equations for unknown Property and geometry variables must be entered in the workspace.
58
59
60
Transient Conduction
Overview Plane Wall, Cylinder, and Sphere Semi-Infinite Solid Overview The Transient Conduction Models include solutions to the one-dimensional transient conduction equation discussed in Chapter 5 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer61. Fourier and Fourier-Bessel series expansions calculate transient temperatures, heat fluxes, and total energy transfer for plane walls (cartesian coordinates), infinitely long cylinders (cylindrical coordinates), and spheres (spherical coordinates) for systems initially at temperature Ti suddenly subjected to convection. The semi-infinite Model calculates transient temperatures, heat fluxes, and total energy transfer for a semi-infinite solid initially at temperature Ti suddenly subjected to a specified surface temperature, an applied heat flux, or convection using the error function. Plane Wall, Cylinder, and Sphere To use the plane wall, infinite cylinder, or sphere Models, select the appropriate geometry from the Model Viewpad62 accessed from the "Transient Conduction" item on the "Models" menu. Begin by copying the Model description and assumptions from the "Model" pad into the Workspace. Then copy the equations from the "Equations" pad into the Workspace. These equations include the function calls for the Fourier or Fourier-Bessel series function to calculate the temperature and heat flux at a specified location and time and the total energy transfer at a specified time. Note that these functions are written in terms of the dimensionless groups Bi and Fo. Finally, copy equations for unknown quantities (Ti, dimensions, properties, and convective boundary conditions) into the Workspace from the "Assigned Variables63" Tab and fill in the values for these quantities. Once the Model equations have been set up in the Workspace, several different steps can be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An example of transient conduction in a plane wall is included in the Examples Tool. The principle of super-position can be used to calculate transient temperatures and heat fluxes from multi-dimensional bodies. As outlined in Section 5.8 of the text, product solutions can be
61
62
63
formed using the one-dimensional models described above to form solutions to two- and threedimensional problems. Semi-Infinite Solid To use the semi-infinite solid model, select "Semi-infinite solid" from the Viewpad accessed from the "Transient Conduction" item on the "Models" menu. Copy the Model description and assumptions from the "Model" pad into the Workspace. From the "Processes" Viewpad, select the boundary condition from the choices and fill in ID's if necessary. The choices for the boundary condition are specified surface temperature or heat flux, or convection. Then copy the equations from the "Equations" pad into the Workspace. These equations include the function calls for the error function solutions to calculate the temperature and heat flux at a specified location and time and the total energy transfer at a specified time. Finally, copy equations for unknown quantities (Ti, dimensions, properties, and boundary conditions) into the Workspace from the "Assigned Variables" Tab and fill in the values for these quantities. Once the Model equations have been set up in the Workspace, several different steps can be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An example of transient conduction in a plane wall is included in the Examples Tool.
Radiation Exchange
Overview Radiation Functions View Factors Exchange Analysis Overview The Radiation Exchange Tool includes equations and analyses from Chapters 12 and 13 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer64 including functions and sets of equations for: Blackbody spectral intensity, Wein's displacement law, Blackbody emissive power, Band emission factor, View factors, and Exchange analyses.
Radiation Functions The Radiation Tool includes functions for calculating primary radiation quantities such as: Blackbody spectral intensity, Wein's displacement law, Blackbody emissive power, and Band emission factor.
These functions can be combined with other models, or used alone to investigate fundamental aspects of radiation. To use any of the functions, select the function from the "Radiation Exchange" Tool menu (accessed from the "Tools" item on the menu bar). Enter the appropriate ID's, and copy the equations to the Workspace. Using the Explore feature to sweep on wavelength and/or temperature, many of the Graphs from the text can be reproduced. View Factors The Radiation Exchange Tools also include functions to assist in calculating View Factors. In particular, the summation rule and reciprocity relations can be written for a system of up to 5 surfaces using the "Enclosure Relations" item, and the following View Factor formulae are included: Small surface coaxial to circular disk
Two-Dimensional Geometries: Parallel plates with midline connected by perpendicular Inclined parallel plates of equal width and a common edge
64
Perpendicular plates with a common edge Three sided enclosures Parallel cylinders of different radius Cylinder and parallel rectangle Infinite plate and row of cylinders
Three-Dimensional Geometries: Aligned parallel rectangles Coaxial parallel disks Perpendicular rectangles with a common edge To use the Enclosure Relations Tool or any of the View Factor Tools, select the Tool from the "Radiation Exchange" Tool menu (accessed from the "Tools" item on the menu bar). Enter the appropriate ID's, and copy the equations to the Workspace. Radiation Exchange Analysis The Radiation Exchange Analysis Tools construct equations to calculate the net rate of radiation heat transfer between surfaces for the following geometries: Two-surface enclosures: General Case Large (infinite) plates Long (infinite) concentric cylinders Concentric spheres Small convex object in large cavity Three-surface enclosure with reradiating surface Radiation surface energy balance equations
To use any of the Enclosure Analysis Tools, select the Tool from the "Radiation Exchange" Tool menu (accessed from the "Tools" item on the menu bar). Enter the appropriate ID's, and copy the equations to the Workspace.
Solution Strategies and Hints

Model Building Initial Guesses Minimum and Maximum Bounds Radiation Calculations Variable Thermal Property Calculations Model Building An important strategy to follow when developing models of more complex systems is to build on a simplified model. For instance, when modeling systems that use heat transfer coefficients calculated from the Correlations Tool in conjunction with Property functions, begin by specifying a constant value for the heat transfer coefficient to debug the equations for the remainder of the model. Once this is working, add the Correlations and required thermophysical Property functions. This is also a useful way of getting appropriate Initial Guesses: use the "Load" feature on the "Initial Guesses" window to load values from the solution of the simplified model as initial guesses for values in the complex model. Initial Guesses For most simple problems, the initial guesses are unimportant, and the IHT default value of 1 will suffice. More complex problems, however, may require intelligent initial guesses to help the solver to reach the solution. For example, when modeling a system with some temperatures specified, a good estimate for unknown temperatures can usually be made. One good example is problem 9.17 from Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer65. In this problem, the surroundings and fluid temperatures on both the interior and exterior of a glass window are known. Intuition tells us that the glass temperature must be somewhere between those temperatures, and the average temperature would be an excellent initial guess. When solving convection problems with variable thermophysical properties, good initial guesses may not be enough for the Solver to determine a solution. In such cases, the special IHT function Tfluid_avg may be used. Minimum and Maximum Bounds There are several situations where minimum and/or maximum bounds should be specified. One such situation involves solving for unknown temperatures. Systems often include nonlinear equations (e.g. radiation equations, Nusselt number convection correlations, and thermophysical property functions) which require sensible limits on temperatures. In any complex problem, temperatures should always have minimum values of greater than zero, and when using thermophysical property functions, more stringent values might be employed to make sure that the property function is not evaluated outside of the valid temperature range. Any variable that appears in the denominator of an equation should be specified to be greater or less than zero to avoid division by zero. If the sign of the variable is unknown in advance, be aware that problems may arise during solution. Variables that are included in equations that calculate the variable raised to a fractional exponent
65
should be strictly greater than zero. This typically arises when calculating Nusselt numbers from correlations. In such cases, the Reynolds, Grashoff, Rayleigh, or other dimensionless number, should be restricted to strictly positive values. Radiation Calculations Solutions to multi-mode problems including radiation can often be facilitated by first setting the emissivity to zero to get an initial guess and then increasing the emissivity in steps to its specified value and using the "Load" feature to update initial guesses after each solution. This reduces the non-linearity of the equation set and provides appropriate initial guesses for the system that includes radiation exchange. Variable Thermal Property Calculations When using Nusselt number correlations that require good initial guesses (such as free convection, boiling, and condensation), begin by evaluating fluid properties at the free-stream temperature. Use the values from that solution as initial guesses for the model that evaluates the properties at the film temperature. If this approach does not work, the special IHT function Tfluid_avg may be used.
Lumped Capacitance
Overview Using the Model Overview The Lumped Capacitance Model provides equations for a generalized lumped capacitance analysis as discussed in Chapter 5 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer66 that includes: convection, radiation exchange, applied heat flux, and internal generation
from a general body with specified surface area and volume. The major distinction between this and other Viewpads67 is that the governing equation requires numerical integration. The storage term in the energy balance equation uses the intrinsic function DER to numerically approximate the time derivative of the body temperature. The Solver then integrates the differential equation when the user clicks on the Solve button. Using the Model To develop a Lumped Capacitance Model, select the "Lumped Capacitance" item from the "Models" menu item. Copy the Model description and assumptions from the "Model" Tab68 into the Workspace. From the "Processes" Tab, select the appropriate boundary conditions and internal generation (if desired). As these processes are selected, the energy balance equations in the "Equations" Tab are automatically updated. Once all of the processes have been selected, click on the "Equations" Tab and copy the governing equations into the Workspace. For each process selected (except applied heat flux and internal generation), a blue hot item will appear in the schematic. Click on each of these items and copy the associated rate equation into the Workspace. Finally, select the "Assigned Variables69" Tab and copy the problem unknown variables into the Workspace. After all of the equations have been copied into the Workspace, the unknown variables, including volume, surface area, thermophysical properties, and variables related to selected processes can
66
67
68
69
be filled in, and the equation set is complete. Several different steps can then be taken depending on the particular problem: Supplementary equations can be added from the Tools section or other Models, The Model Schematic can be copied into the Workspace, or The equations can be Solved.
An example of a Lumped Capacitance analysis is included in the Examples Tool.
Models Overview
IHT Models are intended to assist the user in simulating several common systems involving: First Law Resistance Networks 1-D Steady-State Conduction Extended Surfaces Lumped Capacitance Transient Conduction
Each Model contains basic equations that can be customized depending on processes selected by the user, and the Model Viewpads70 are organized consistent with methodologies featured in the text. Specifically, the Viewpads provide for: process identification (physical mechanisms), sketching the physical system with the processes, defining control volumes (CV) and control surfaces (CS), writing rate equations appropriate for the processes at the CS, and writing the conservation of energy requirement, either on a rate or time-interval basis.
Using these features with the contents of other Tools, such as Properties and Correlations, useful models can be constructed in a straightforward manner. Two important features of the Schematic71 in the Model Viewpad are the red- and bluehighlighted items. Red items in a Schematic indicate heat transfer processes (arrows) and control surfaces (dashed lines). The direction of the arrow indicates the positive flow of heat. Blue items in the Model Viewpad and elsewhere indicate items which when clicked provide additional information in the form of toolpads. In the Viewpad Schematic, clicking on these items will provide the corresponding rate equations which can be copied to the Workspace and used to assemble the models. To "back up" when using the Model Viewpads, press the escape key. This brings up the previously viewed pad or menu.
70
71
IHT Tutorial
This section walks the new user through Example 1.6 from Fundamentals of Heat Transfer72. The goal is to familiarize the user with the IHT Environment and outline a general problem solving strategy. Step-by-step instructions lead the user through the construction of a basic heat transfer model, solution for unknown variables, and graphical representation of a parametric study. For more specific information on the First Law Model, or particular features of the IHT Environment, the user can proceed to the appropriate sections in the On-Line Help window. Example 1.6 The coating on a plate is cured by exposure to an infrared lamp providing an irradiation of 2000 W/m . It absorbs 80% of the irradiation and has an emissivity of 0.50. It is also exposed to an air flow and large surroundings for which temperatures are 20 C and 30 C, respectively. (a) (b) If the convection coefficient between the plate and the ambient air is 15 W/m K, what is the cure temperature of the plate? Final characteristics of the coating, including wear and durability, are known to depend upon the temperature at which curing occurs. An air flow system is able to control the air velocity, and hence the convection coefficient, on the cured surface, but the process engineer needs to know how the temperature depends on the convection coefficient. Provide the desired information by computing and plotting the surface temperature as a function of h for 2 h 200 W/m K. What value of h would provide a cure temperature of 50 C?
Solution Step 1 Once IHT has been launched, click on the Models item of the menu bar, and from the pull-down menu, select "First Law Model". Several different geometries will be provided, including: plane walls, cylinders, and spheres. The plate geometry can be modeled by using the "Isothermal Plane Wall". The "Model" Tab of the First Law toolpad appears on top. Double-click on the text in this window and drag the text to the Workspace. The problem statement and governing assumptions for the problem can then be completed in the appropriate areas. This text forms the problem header and is an important part of documenting the problem solution. Select the "Processes" Tab. This Tab allows selection of the heat transfer processes considered in the problem. Notice that there are no numbers in the boxes labeling the control surfaces. Fill in "1" for the left surface, and "2" for the right surface. For this problem, the plate being cured undergoes convection, radiation exchange with the environment, and incident radiation; therefore, select the boxes for "Convection", "Fourth power form" of radiation exchange, and "Applied heat source" all for surface 1. Notice that as soon as one process is selected for surface 1, the other surface becomes insulated. Until a process is selected for that surface, it remains insulated since there will be no energy crossing control surface 2.
Step 2
Step 3
72
Step 4
Click on the "Energy Balance" Tab. Notice that the energy balance equations include all of the processes selected from the previous Tab. Any changes made in the "Processes" Tab will automatically be updated in this Tab. Double-click on the energy balance equations, and drag them to your Workspace. Once equations have been copied from the Viewpad to the Workspace, changing the selected processes will not update the equations in the Workspace. The equations must then be recopied. Now that the processes have been selected and the energy balance equations have been copied, the appropriate rate equations can be generated by clicking on the blue (hot) text in the Schematic73. Clicking on the "qrad1" button will provide the fourth power form of the radiation exchange equation, and clicking on the "qconv1" button will provide Newtons law of cooling for surface 1. Double-click on the text in each of these toolpads, and drag the equations to the Workspace. Select the "Assigned Variables" Tab. All of the required input variables for the model equations are included in this list. Double-click on the list and drag it to the Workspace. Now, the Model Viewpad is no longer needed, and that window may be closed. If the Schematic is required, it can be copied to the Workspace from the "Edit" pull-down menu. Unfortunately, Schematics copied into the Workspace cannot be saved, but they can be Exported to other applications. The values for the known variables (h1, Tinf1, eps1, Tsur1, qa1) can all be filled in the Workspace. Remember that since the problem involves radiation exchange, it is important to work in absolute temperature units (K or kelvins). The model development is complete. Click on the Solve button, and the Solver checks the model equations and prompts the user for Initial Guesses. Since the problem is relatively straight-forward, initial guesses of "1" will suffice. Once the Solver has converged, the Browser will automatically appear with the solution values of all of the problem variables displayed. The cure temperature of the plate should be 377 K. To complete part (b) of the Example, it is necessary to use the Explore feature of the post-processor to perform the variable sweep. After clicking on the Explore button, a window appears requesting the "Variable to Sweep", the "Starting Value", the "Ending value", and the "Step". From the problem statement, select h1 as the variable to sweep by clicking on the down-arrow and selecting h1, and fill in 2 and 200 as the starting and ending values. Two can be used for the increment, but IHT will accept almost any value provided that the number of evaluations does not exceed 1000. IHT now must either overwrite the previous solution, or move it to another data set. Select Data Set A to move the previous solution to this position. Once this has been done, the results of the sweep will be displayed in the Browser. The results of the variable sweep can now be plotted. Click on the Graph button of the toolbar, and the Plot Data window will appear. Since the problem asks for the variation of the cure temperature, T, as a function of the heat transfer coefficient, select h1 as the x-variable, and T as the y1-variable. Legends and Titles can be filled
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 8
Step 9
Step 10
Step 11
Step 12
73
in by clicking on the appropriate Tabs74. Click on the OK button, and the Graph is automatically generated. Step 13 To determine what value of the heat transfer coefficient will provide a cure temperature of 50 C, click on the Explore feature of the Plot Window. Cross-hairs will appear, and by clicking on the up left and right arrows of the scroll bar, the temperatures from the Graph can be displayed. The value of h1 should be approximately 51 W/m K. Alternatively, the model equations in the Workspace can be modified to make h1 the unknown instead of T. Delete the equation that specifies the value of h1, and in its place, type in the equation "T=323". Repeat the solution step, and the Browser will display the value of the heat transfer coefficient.
A solution to Example 1.6 is also included under the "Examples" item on the "Tools" pull-down menu.
74
ID's
ID's are used by all of the Model Viewpads75 and Tools to assist the user in writing variable names. By prompting the user for ID's on surfaces, bodies and variables, IHT helps to insure notation consistency in Model equations. The use of ID's also eases the difficult task of combining Models and Tools, especially when there are multiple uses of the same tool in one model (e.g. evaluating thermophysical properties at different surfaces.) Many of the Models and Tools will include default values in the ID boxes. These can be deleted and replaced if desired. Be sure to press "Enter" after inputting a new ID to insure that the equations and Schematics76 are updated.
75
76
Insert Generated Index here

Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are ID's used for in IHT?

What are ID's used for in IHT?

What do Viewpads contain?

What do Viewpads contain?

Interactive Heat Transfer Help Menu

Workspace Menu Items

A row is a horizontal set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

A column is a vertical set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

Cutting, Copying, Pasting, and Exporting

A row is a horizontal set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

A column is a vertical set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

A row is a horizontal set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

A column is a vertical set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

Resetting the Solver

and will delete all of the: Browser data, and Graphs

A column is a vertical set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

How the Solver Works

A column is a vertical set of cells in the Browser or a Lookup Table.

Explore - Plot Window

An Extended Surfaces example is included in the Examples Tool.

An example of a first law model is included in the Examples Tool.

Boiling Nucleate pool boiling: Heat flux

Maximum heat flux

Film pool boiling Minimum heat flux

Flow across a tube bank Aligned arrangement Staggered arrangement

1-D Steady-State Conduction

An example of transient conduction in a plane wall is included in the Examples Tool.

Solution Strategies and Hints

An example of a Lumped Capacitance analysis is included in the Examples Tool.

Insert Generated Index here

You might also like