LABORATORY MANUAL (2012-2013)

MODERN PHYSICS LABORATORY DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR-208016

Phy315: Modern Physics Laboratory

The laboratory course focuses on the experiments that led to the development of quantum mechanics including determination of fundamental constants and illustration of some of the significant modern phenomena of physics. It consists of about 15 different experiments of which at least six are compulsory. The experiments determine some of the fundamental constants (Planck constant, e/m of electron, gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, Boltzmann constant) or quantitatively demonstrate some of the concepts (quantum analog, Single photon interference) and applications (Thermionic emission, Solar Cells) of quantum physics. Also there are experiments that illustrate applications of thermodynamics (Johnson Noise, thermoelectric effect and Peltier effect), and non-linear dynamics (chaos). The lectures consist of introduction to error analysis and essential tools of modern experiments (vacuum and low temperatures), discussion of experiments leading to quantum mechanics and a brief introduction to other experiments carried out in the The laboratory runs twice for three hours in every week. We do allow students to prepare reports off the lab hours, however, we'll not assign a new experiment unless the report of one experiment before the last one is received. Thus at most one report backlog is allowed at any given time. A timely submission of the lab report helps in maintaining the quality of the report. This manual should help you in preparing for the lab before you start the experiment. We expect you to go through the write-up corresponding to your experiment before coming to the lab to perform the experiment. You will be provided with write-ups containing instructions on various experiments. You are also encouraged to read the matter from the references (if any) given in the write-ups or suggested by your instructor. On reaching the laboratory you should check the apparatus provided and ascertain if there are any shortages or malfunctions. Set up the equipment in accordance with the instructions. Proceed carefully and methodically. Remember that scientific equipments are expensive and quite susceptible to damage. So handle them carefully. If the apparatus is too complicated please ask the Instructor/TA or Lab staff to inspect it before you proceed with the actual experiment. It is more important to see what result you get with given apparatus rather than what is the correct result. The apparatus given to you is capable of a certain accuracy and your result may be completely acceptable even if it differs from the correct result. Further, you must learn to do things on your own even if you make mistakes some time. In case results are to be found graphically; each graph should occupy one complete sheet; the information as to quantities plotted, scale chosen and units should be mentioned clearly on each graph. Following is the recommended format of the Report: Lab reports are to be submitted before beginning a new experiment (at most one backlog allowed). The students are expected (but not required)to spend about two turns on one experiment. This is an experimental course and we test the originality and systematicness in carrying out the experiment and reporting the data, and thoroughness in analyzing them to reach the appropriate result. It 's a good practice to keep a separate lab-book with raw data and a photocopy of the relevant data pages should be attached to the report. The report may be divided into the following sections: 1. Your name (and partner's name), roll number, instructors name, date title or the experiment. 2. Aim/goal (no abstract). 3. Theory (Brief) or principle

4. Procedure/apparatus/method/schematics 5. Data /observations (However ugly, show the raw data) 6. Graphs/ Analysis, and calculations (includes error analysis) 7. Result and errors/conclusions 8. Suggestions/Precautions/Difficulties faced/discussion/comments Remember highest weightage in a report is given to points 5 and 6 as listed above. Also a hand written report is recommended over the computer printout (other than the graphs).

Project:
In the last one month of the semester after each group has finished a minimum required number of experiments a small project has to be chosen by student after brief literature search (eg., American Journal of Physics). These may be carried out in research labs, using central facilities or some simple experiments may be set-up in 315 lab itself.

ERROR ANALYSIS
To, Error is human; to evaluate and analyse the error is scientific. Introduction: Every measured physical quantity has an uncertainty or error associated with it. An experiment, in general, involves (i) direct measurement of various quantities (primary measurements) and (ii) calculation of the physical quantity of interest which is a function of the measured quantities. An uncertainty or error in the final result arises because of the errors in the primary measurements (assuming that there is no approximation involved in the calculation).For example , the result of a recent experiment to determine the velocity of light (Phys. Rev. Lett. 29 , 1346(1972)was given as C = (299.792.456.2 1.1) m/sec The error in the value of C arises from the errors in primary measurements viz., frequency and wavelength. Error analysis therefore consists of (i) estimating the errors in all primary measurements, and (ii) propagating the error at each step of the calculation. This analysis serves two purposes. First, the error in the final result ( 1.1 m/sec in the above example) is an indication of the precision of the measurement and, therefore an important part of the result. Second, the analysis also tells us which primary measurement is causing more error than others and thus indicates the direction for further improvement of the experiment. For example ,in measuring g with a simple pendulum, if the error analysis reveals that the errors in g caused by measurements of 1 (length of the pendulum) and T (time period) are 0.5 cm/sec2 and 3.5 cm/ sec2 respectively, then we know that there is no point in trying to devise a more accurate measurement of 1. Rather, we should try to reduce the uncertainty in T by counting a larger number of periods or using a better device to measure time. Thus error analysis prior to the experiment is an important aspect of planning the experiment. Nomenclature: (i) Discrepancy denotes the difference between two measured values of the same quantity. (ii) Systematic errors are errors which occur in every measurement in same way- often in the same direction and of the same magnitude for example, length measurement with a faulty scale. These errors can in principle, be eliminated or corrected for. (iii) Random errors are errors which can cause the result of a measurement to deviate in either direction from its true value. We shall confine our attention to these errors, and discuss them under two heads: estimated and statistical errors. II Estimated Errors Estimating a primary error: An estimated error is an estimate of the maximum extent to which a measured quantity might deviate from its true value. For a primary measurement, the estimated error is often taken to be the least count of the measuring instrument. For example, if the length of a string is to

be measured with a meter rod, the limiting factor is the accuracy in the least count, i.e. 0.1 cm. Two notes of caution are needed here. (I) What matters really is the effective least count and not the nominal least count. For example, in measuring electric current with an ammeter, if the smallest division corresponds to 0.1 amp., but the marks are far enough apart so that you can easily make out a quarter of a division, then the effective least count will be 0.025 amp. On the other hand if you are reading a vernier scale where three successive marks on the vernier scale (say, 27th, 28th, 29th) look equally well in coincidence with the main scale, the effective least count is 3 times the nominal one. Therefore, make a judicious estimate of the least count. (II) The estimated error is, in general. to be related to the limiting factor in the accuracy. This limiting factor need not always be the least count. For example, in a null-point electrical measurement, suppose the deflection in the galvanometer remains zero for all values of resistance R from 351 to 360. In that case, the uncertainty in R is 10 . Even though the least count of the resistance box may be less. Propagation of estimated errors: How to calculate the error associated with f, which is a function of measured quantities a, b and c? Let f = f (a, b, c) From differential calculus (Taylors series in the 1st order) (2) Eq. (2) relates the differential increment in f resulting from differential increments in a, b, c .Thus if our errors in a, b, c(denoted as are small compared to a, b, c, respectively, then we may say (3) Where the modulus signs have been put because errors in a, b, and c are independent of each other and may be in the positive or negative direction. Therefore the maximum possible error will be obtained only by adding absolute values of all the independent contributions. (All the are considered positive (1)

by definition). Special care has to be taken when all errors are not independent of each other. This will become clear in special case (V) below. Some simple cases: (i) For addition or subtraction, the absolute errors are added, e.g. If f = a+ b c, then

(ii) For multiplication and division, the fractional (or percent) errors are added, e.g., If f = ab/ c, then |

(iii) For raising to constant powers, including fractional powers, the fractional error is multiplied by the power, e.g., If f = a3.6, then | | | |

(iv) In mixed calculations, break up the calculation into simple parts, e.g., If f =a/b c3/2 ,then
( ) )

Since , So, | |

| |

| | |

| |

| ( )

| |

Note that the same result could have been derived directly by differentiation. (v) Consider f =ab/c a2. The relation for error, before putting the modulus signs, is ( ) Note that the ( ) ( )

factors in the first and fourth terms are not independent errors. Therefore, we must not

add the absolute values of these two terms indiscriminately. The correct way to handle it is to collect the coefficients of each independent errors before putting modulus signs, i.e., | | | | | |

III Statistical Errors Statistical distribution and standard deviation: Statistical errors arise when making measurements on random processes. e.g. counting particles emitted by a radioactive source. Suppose we have a source giving off 10 particles/sec. on the average. In order to evaluate this count rate experimentally, we count the number of particles for 2 seconds. Shall we get 20 counts? Not necessarily. In fact, we may get any number between zero and infinity. Therefore, in a measurement on a random process, one cannot specify a maximum possible error. A good measure of uncertainty in such a case is the standard deviation (s.d.) which specifies the range within which the result of any measurement is most likely to be. The exact definition of most likely depends on the distribution governing the random events. For all random processes whose probability of occurrence is small and constant. Poisson distribution is applicable, i.e.,

Where, Pn is the probability that you will observe a particular count n. when the expectation value is m.

It can be shown that if an infinite number of measurements are made, (i) their average would be m and (ii) their standard deviation (s.d.) would be m, for this distribution. Also if m is not too small then

68% or nearly two- thirds of the measurements would yield numbers with in one s.d. in the range m In radioactive decay and other nuclear processes, the Poisson distribution is generally valid. This means that we have a way of making certain conclusions without making an infinite number of measurements. Thus, if we measure the number of counts only once, for 100 sec, and the number is say 1608, then (i) our result for average count rate is 16.08/sec, and (ii) the standard deviation is which correspond to 0.401/sec. So our result for the count rate is (16.08 counts /sec-1 . The meaning of

this statement must be remembered. The actual count rate need not necessarily lie within this range, but there is 68% probability that it lies in that range. The experimental definition of s .d. for k measurements of a quantity x is Where (10)

is the deviation of measurement xn from the mean. However since we know distribution, we

can ascribe the s.d. even to a single measurement. Propagation of statistical errors: For a function f of independent measurements a,b,c, the statistical error is ( ) ( ) ( ) (11)

A few simple cases are discussed below. (i)For addition or subtraction , the squares of errors are added e.g. If f = a+ b c Then , . (12)

(ii) For multiplication or division, the squares of fractional errors are added, e.g. If f = ab/c, then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (13)

(iii) If a measurement is repeated n times, the error in the mean is a factor less than the error in a single measurement. i.e.,

Note that Eqs. (11-14) apply to any statistical quantities a,b etc. i.e., primary measurements as well as computed quantities whereas

Applies only to a directly measured number. Say, number of - particle counts but not to computed quantities like count rate. (IV) Miscellaneous Repeated measurements: Suppose a quantity f, whether statistical in nature or otherwise is measured n times . The best estimate for the actual value of f is the average f of all measurements. It can be shown that this is the value with respect to which the sum of squares of all deviations is a minimum. Further, if errors are assumed to be randomly distributed, the error in the mean value is given by

Where

is the error in one measurement. Hence one way of minimizing random errors is to repeat the

measurement many times. Combination of statistical and estimated errors: In cases where some of the primary measurements have statistical errors and others have estimated errors, the error in the final result is indicated as a s.d. and is calculated by treating all errors as statistical. Errors in graphical analysis: The usual way of indicating errors in quantities plotted on graph paper is to draw error bars. The curve should then be drawn so as to pass through all or most of the bars. Here is a simple method of obtaining the best fit for a straight line on a graph. Having plotted all the points (x1, y1),.. (xn , yn) , plot also the centroid ( x, y ). Then consider all straight lines through the centroid (use a transparent ruler) and visually judge which one will represent the best mean.

Having drawn the best line, estimate the error in slope as follows. Rotate the ruler about the centroid until its edge passes through the cluster of points at the top right and the bottom left. This new line gives one extreme possibility; let the difference between the slopes of this and the best line be corresponding to the other extreme. The error in the slope may be taken as

.Similarly determine

Where n is the number of points. The factor comes because evaluating the slope from the graph is essentially an averaging process. It should be noted that if the scale of the graph is not large enough, the least count of the graph may itself become a limiting factor in the accuracy of the result. Therefore, it is desirable to select the scale so that the least count of the graph paper is much smaller than the experimental error.

Significant figures: A result statement such as f = 123.46781.2331 cm contains many superfluous digits. Firstly, the digits 678 in quantity f do not mean anything because they represent something much smaller than the uncertainty .Secondly is an approximate estimate for error and should not need

more than two significant figures. The correct expression would be f = 123.51.2 cm. (V) Instructions 1. Calculate the estimated/ statistical error for final result. In any graph you plot, show error bars. (If the errors are too small to show up on the graph, then write them somewhere on the graph). 2. If the same quantity has been measured/ calculated many times, you need not determine the error each time. Similarly one typical error bar on the graph will be enough.

3. In propagating errors, the contributions to the final error from various independent measurements must be show. For example if

Then,
* 0.51 + 2.0 = 2.5 +

Therefore, f = 51.02.5. Here the penultimate step must not be skipped because it shows that the contribution to the error from b is large. 4. Where the final result is a known quantity (for example, e/m), show the discrepancy of your result from the standard value. If this is greater than the estimated error, this is abnormal and requires explanation. 5. Where a quantity is determined many times, the standard deviation should be calculated from Eq.(10). Normally, the s.d. should not be more than the estimated error. Also the individual measurements should be distributed only on both sides of the standard value. (VI) Mean and Standard Deviation If we make a measurement x1 of a quantity x, we expect our observation to be close to the quantity but not exact. If we make another measurement we expect a difference in the observed value due to random errors. As we make more and more measurements we expect them to be distributed around the correct value, assuming that we can neglect or correct for systematic errors. If we make a very large number of measurements we can determine how the data points are distributed in the so-called parent distribution. In any practical case, one makes a finite number of measurements and one tries to describe the parent distribution as best as possible. Consider N measurements of quantity x, yielding values x1, x2, ..xN. One defines Mean x *( )+ (1)

Which is equivalent to the centroid or average value of the quantity x. Deviations: The deviation di of any measurement xi from the mean x of the parent distribution is defined as di = xi - x . (2)

Note that if the x is the true value of the quantity being measured, di is also the true error in xi. The arithmetic average of the deviations for an infinite number of observations must vanish, by definition of x (Eq (1)).
* + * +

(3)

There are several indices one can use to indicate the spread (dispersion) of the measurements about the central value, i.e., the mean value. The dispersion is a measure of precision. One can define average deviation d as the average of the magnitudes of the deviations (absolute values of the deviations).

This can be used as a measure of the dispersion of the expected observation about the mean. However, a more appropriate measure of the dispersion is found in the parameter called standard deviation , defined as

(4)

is known as VARIANCE and STANDARD DEVIATION it is the root mean square (rms) of deviations. That is The expression derived from a statistical analysis is

is the square root of the variance. In other words

(5)

(6)

Where, the denominator is N-1instead of N. In practice the distinction between these formulae is unimportant. According to the general theory of statistics the reliability of a result depends upon the Number of measurements and in general, improves with the square root of the number. Significance: The mean , is a parameter which characterizes the information we are seeking when we perform an experiment. The mean is, of course, not the most probable value if the parent distribution is not symmetrical but nevertheless it is a reasonable parameter to characterize the distribution. In place of mean, one can characterize the distribution in terms of median or most probable value. It can be proved that if we use the average (mean) of the measured values for calculating the deviations, the sum of the square of the deviations is a minimum. The standard deviation is simply related to this minimum value of the square of the deviations and is used fir specifying error quantitatively. The standard deviation characterizes the uncertainties associated with our experimental attempts to determine the true value- mean value (defined by Eq.(1) for all practical purposes. , for a given finite number of

observations is the uncertainty in determining the mean of the parent distribution. Thus it is an appropriate measure of the uncertainty in the observations. (VII ) Method of Least Squares Our data consist of pairs of measurements (xi, yi) of an independent variable x and a dependent variable y. We wish to fit the data to an equation of the form (1) By determining the values of the coefficients a and b such that the discrepancy is minimized between the values of our measurements yi and the corresponding values y = f(xi) given by Eq. (1). We cannot determine the coefficients exactly with only a finite number of observations, but we do want to extract from these data the most probable estimates for the coefficients. The problem is to establish criteria for minimizing the discrepancy and optimizing the estimates of the coefficients. For any arbitrary values of a and b, we can calculate the deviations observed values yi and the corresponding calculated values (2) between each of the

If the coefficients are well chosen, these deviations should be relatively small. The sum of these deviations is not a good measure of how well we have approximated the data with our calculated straight line because large positive deviations can be balanced by large negative ones to yield a small sum even when the fit is bad. We might however consider summing up the absolute values of the deviations, but this leads to difficulties in obtaining an analytical solution. We consider instead the sum of the squares of deviations. There is no unique correct method for optimizing the coefficients which is valid for all cases. There exists, however, a method which can be fairly well justified, which is simple and straightforward, which is well established experimentally as being appropriate, and which is accepted by convention. This is the method of least squares which we will explain using the method of maximum likelihood. Method of maximum likelihood: Our data consist of a sample of observations extracted from a parent distribution which determines the probability of making any particular observation. Let us define parent coefficients a0 and b0 such that the actual relationship between y and x given by (3) For any given value of x = xi, we can calculate the probability Pi for making the observed measurement yi assuming a Gaussian distribution with a standard deviation [

for the observations about the actual value y(xi)

- ] is the product of these

The probability for making the observed set of measurements of the N values of yi probabilities [

- ]

(4)

Where the product is taken for i ranging from 1 to N. Similarly, for any estimated values of the coefficients a and b, we can calculate the probability that we should make the observed set of measurements

) ]

(5)

The method of maximum likelihood consists of making the assumption that the observed set of measurements is more likely to have come from the actual parent distribution of Eq. (3) than from any other similar distribution with different coefficients and, therefore, the probability of Eq. (4) is the maximum probability attainable with Eq. (5) The best estimates for a and b are therefore those values which maximize the probability of Eq.(5). The first term of Eq. (5) is a constant, independent of the values of a or b. thus, maximizing the probability P(a, b) is equivalent to minimizing the sum in the exponential. We define the quantity x2 to be this sum ( Where always implies ) [ ] (6)

consider this to be the appropriate measure of the goodness of fit.

Our method for finding the optimum fit to the data will be to minimize this weighted sum of squares of deviations and, hence, to find the fit which produces the smallest sum of squares or the least-squares fit. Minimizing x2: In order to find the values of the coefficients a and b which yield the minimum value for x2, we use the method of differential calculus for minimizing the function with respect to more than one coefficient. The minimum value of the function x2 of Eq.(6) is one which yields a value of zero for both of the partial derivatives with respect to each of the coefficients. [ [ ] in other words, errors in ys ] (7)

Where we have for the present considered all of standard deviation equal, are assumed to be same for all values of x. These equations can be rearranged to yield a pair of simultaneous equations since the sum runs from i = 1 to N.

(8)

Where we have substituted Na for

We wish to solve Eqs.(8) for the coefficients a and b. This will give us the values of the coefficients for which x2 , the sum of squares of the deviations of the data points from the calculated fit, is a minimum. The solutions are:

(9)

Errors in the coefficients a and b: Now we enquire what errors should be assigned to a and b. In general the errors in ys corresponding to different values of x will be different. To find standard deviation in a, say Sa, we approach in the following way. The deviations in a will get contributions from variations in individual yis. The contributions of the deviation of a typical measured value reproduced below to standard deviation Sa is found using Eq. 9

By differentiating it partially with respect to yi we get

.
by its average value

Since

is assumed statistically independent of Xn we may replace

Thus this contribution becomes

The standard deviation Sa is found by squaring this expression, summing over all measured values of y (that is, summing the index j from 1 to N) and taking the square root of this sum. Also it should be realized that , and The result of this calculation is

In a similar manner, the standard deviation of the intercept Sb can be found and

References: "Data reduction and Error Analysis", Philip. R. Bevington

Photoelectric Effect
Electrons are emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids or gases) as a consequence of their absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength, such as visible or ultraviolet radiation. Electrons emitted in this manner are often be referred to as photoelectrons. This was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. The understanding of the photoelectric effect by A. Einstein, proposing the concept light quanta in 1905, won him the Nobel prize in 1921. The photoelectric effect has now evolved into a more sophisticated technique called "photoelectron spectroscopy", which can systematically probe the density of states of electrons in conductors at various energies and thus helps in probing the band structure of solids and other phenomena. Physics of Photoelectric Effect: In the quantum theory of conductors the electrons occupy the states as found by band theory up to an energy called the Fermi energy. The electrons in conductors are also confined due to a surface potential barrier called work-function ( ), which is typically a few eV. When electromagnetic radiation strikes the surface it penetrates certain distance exciting the electrons. Some of these electrons try to come out of the surface as free electrons if they can overcome the work-function potential barrier. This is possible only if the energy of the photons is larger than the work-function. In this case the electrons come out with a kinetic energy T=Eph-W=hnu-W. Thus by probing the K.E. of the emitted electrons as a function of photon energy one can find the Plank's constant as well the work function of the conductor.

eV

FIg 1.1: Left figure shows the physical schematic of the phototube with the illuminated electrode (cathode), counter-electrode (anode), voltage source and the Ammeter. The right one shows the energy level diagram with the filled electronic states below Fermi energy of the two electrodes. The electrons that contribute to the photocurrent occupy the states in the cathode from its Fermi energy to below the Fermi energy.

In the given set-up one measures a quantity called stopping potential which is a measure of K.E. of electrons. Thus one measures the photo-current between the illuminated electrode (normally an Alkali metal like Cs) and a counter-electrode as a function of voltage between the two electrodes. The However since the electrons are ejected from different energy levels below the Fermi energy the electrons that contribute to the photocurrent are

from Fermi energy to temperature) can be written as,

below the Fermi energy (see fig above). The total photocurrent (at zero

Here is a constant dependent on photon density, illumination area and other parameters. Thus we see that there as there are no occupied states above the Fermi energy. So the . Remember

is no photocurrent for

stopping potential (i.e. the potential above which the photocurrent is zero) is given by

here is the work function of the second electrode and not that of the one which is illuminated. You can understand from the above description that by measuring number of electrons with different kinetic energies for a given photon energy how one can find the density of states of electrons at different energies in a conductor. In the actual experimental set-up in this lab we can measure the photocurrent as a function of voltage or we can measure the stopping potential directly. This is found by an analog circuit which keeps changing the voltage (by means of a feedback circuit) until the current becomes zero. One can use the stopping potential as a function of photon energy, which should be a linear relation (Einstein relation), to find the h/e value and the work function of the counter-electrode. Apparatus: There are two apparatus differing slightly in detail. The schematic of one is shown in Fig.2. The heart of the instrument is the Cs based phototube which is illuminated by monochromatic light with the wavelength selected by band filters using the white light from a tungsten-halogen (12V/35W) lamp. A detailed description of different parts is listed below. 1) Light source: Tungsten halogen 12V/35 W. By moving the light source (1) along the coattail guide, the distance between the light source and phototube can be adjusted. By vertically rotating the light body on its base, there is also possible to change the angle of the light beam irradiating on the photo tube. 2) Scale: It is a graduated scale. Its overall length is 400 mm. The centre of phototube vacuum is used as the zero point. The distance between light source and phototube may be adjusted from 10-40 cm along the guide 3) Receptor: The receptor is used for the installation of filters or diodes (LED) known wavelength. A lens is fixed in its back end to focus the light beams. 4) Plastic cover: Used to cover the receptor and protect the phototube from light when the instrument is not used. 5) Focus Lens: Used to make a clearer picture of the light source or LED diode on the cathode of phototube. Fig 2: Schematic of the photoelectric effect apparatus. See text for detailed description of the parts indicated by numbers.

6) Phototube cesium: It is a light vacuum tube and a sensitive component. 7) Dark space: The base of the vacuum phototube is housed in the dark space. In the front part, a receptor (pipe) is installed. 8) Power exit for LED: 5V output for the power supply of LED diodes. 9) Digital display screen: It displays the intensity of the current (A) or voltage (V) displaying in the indications screen. 10) Display mode switch: to select current ((A) or voltage (V) displaying in the indications screen. 11) Current multiplier: to adjust the current amplifier. There are four positions. x1 corresponds to 1 while x0.001 refers to 12) Light intensity switch: to regulate the intensity of the light source. Up is of STRONG, middle is of OFF, down is of WEAK. 13) Voltage adjuster: It is a potentiometer for regulating the acceleration voltage. 14) Voltage direction switch: It is a Switch for choosing voltage direction. provided. 15) Indicator light for power. 16) Power switch ON/OFF. In addition to color filters we also have a few monochromatic diodes with less spread in wavelength. The specifications of the filters and LEDs are as follows: 15V accelerated voltage is

Filters color RED ORANGE YELLOW (dark) YELLOW (light) GREEN BLUE Wavelength (nm) 625 - 635 575 - 585 545 - 555 505 - 515 515 - 525 465 - 475 color RED ORANGE GREEN BLUE

LEDs Wavelength (nm) 618 - 622 584 - 588 528 - 532 483 - 487

Operation: Turn on the power switch (16). Put the light source (1) at the position of 250 mm distance and set the light intensity switch (12) at lower position to select weaker intensity light. Loosen the screws on the dark cover (7), remove the dark cover (7) away. Change the distance between the light source (1) and the vacuum phototube (6), adjust the position of the phototube base to make a clear picture of the image of the light source (1) on the cathode board, then put the dark cover (7) and tighten the screws. Select the display mode of the digital screen with the display mode switch (10). When indicating presentation voltage, adjust the accelerate voltage adjustor (13) to get a stable voltage about .

Put the plastic cover (4) into the drawtube of the receptor (3), and let no light into the darkroom (7). Adjust the current multiplier (11) to choose x1, x.1, x.001 and keep the dark current less than 0.003mA. Change the light intensity switch (12) to get a different light intensity. That is strong off and weak. Setting the best work situation: the light must focus on the middle area of the phototubes cathode plate instead of on the

anode. The user can make arrangements to get a maximum current display with no changing of the other condition, and this is the best work situation. Up to now, all parts of the instrument have been tested and adjusted. For the best results, the first measurements must be warmed up (kept turned on) for at least ten minutes for stability before starting the measurements. (1) Slide the light source (1) 250 mm in position. Open the switch ON/OFF (16) and turn on the power. After 5 minutes pre heating, set the current multiplier (11) at the positionx1. (2) Insert the red color filter (625 nm 635 nm) into the drawtube of the receptor (3). Select the light intensity switch (12) at weak light ; Select the voltage direction switch (12) at weak light ; Select the voltage direction switch (14) at + position ; Select the current multiplier (11) at x1 or x0.1; Adjust the accelerated voltage adjuster (13) to intensify gradually the photo current until it reaches saturating , measure the voltage of saturate current . Use the display mode switch (10) for choosing current or voltage display while checking current or voltage. (3) Moving slowly the light source (1) to change the distance between the light source (1) and receiving filter, we can observe fall of the photo current. Quit the passing light from the entry hole by hand, photo current will disappear immediately, and then removed the hand, photo current appears immediately. The emergence of photocurrent forms very quickly and the process will not exceed the ever 10-9 sec. The same phenomena will appears when the light source (1) removes from the phototube. (4) Change the distance (R) between the light source (1) and the vacuum phototube (6), take down the value of R and the current (I), draw the I-I/R2figure, it will be a straight line. That shows the correlation between me and me/R2 or photocurrent and light intensity is direct ratio. (5) Set the voltage adjuster (13) to increase gradually until it reaches zero in the current, and then measure the electrical voltage (voltage cut-off). Use the display mode switch (10) of the screen (9) for selecting indication of current or voltage. (6) Insert the red color filter (625nm-635nm) into the drawtube of the receptor (3). Set the light intensity switch (12) at strong light. Set the voltage direction switch (14) at -. Set the display mode switch (10) at current display. Adjust the accelerate voltage to about 0 V.And set the current multiplier (11) at x.001. Adjust the accelerate voltage to decrease the photocurrent to zero, and take down the accelerate voltage value which is the close voltage Vj of 635 mm wavelength. Get the Vj of other four wavelengths by the same way. Input this five data of Vj and wavelength () to a calculator, its easy to get the planks constant (h) by linear regress equation. (7) For the measurements with LED light source , put it into the receptor (3) , and put its supply plug into the power exit for LED (8).Repeat the same process as the step 6 ) to get the planks constant (h) by linear regress equation.

Educational Experiments and applications Based on a detailed program, the instrument is used for the conduct of laboratory exercises in high school. Objectives of the laboratory exercise are: To estimate the trend off of the experiment, and calculate this project through the export of electrons.

To determinate the slope of the graph, and prove the kinetic energy of the electron in connection with the frequency of the incident radiation and constant Plank. The device can be used by pupils to achieve the following objectives: 1. For the experimental confirmation of the type of photoelectric equation of this form

2. For the calculation of the export project of electrons from basis. 3. For the calculation of the Planks constant. In order to achieve these objectives, it must calculate the trend off average voltage Va (V) of the electron. The calculation voltage cut-off is achieved, the indication of the decline trend that causes the photocurrent can be found, or measured directly by incorporating voltmeter is connected in parallel. INDICATIVE OF THE MEASUREMENTS RESULTS Using the six glass color filters and four LED, take the measurements results voltage (Vk) down as shown in the table below: Based on the results of measurements, we have three graphic representations of the photoelectric equation. The first (A) is the photoelectric equation with using the filters. The second (B) is the photoelectric equation with using the sources LED. The third (C) is the photoelectric equation with ten experimental results (6 filters and 4 LED). Safety Measures for Maintenance This instrument must be used in a dry environment indoors and far away from corrosive substances. The environment temperature must be between 0-40 0C. When it is put on the laboratory table, make sure the photo tube not face the stray light (such that (such as sunlight) directly. As soon as finish the experiment, please cover the entry hole with the black plastic cap to protect the phototube from ageing. If the sensitivity of photo tube reduces obviously, replace it with a new one. Save the instrument in a position away from dust moisture. Remove any dust on phototube, the focus lens and filters in time with absorbent cotton. When there is no solution to clean, please use alcohol and aether. During the experiment, it must avoid overloading. When the gauge of the current or voltage is unknown, adjusting the selector at a peak measurement. After use, do not forget to turn off the general switch, and to place the black cover into the entrance of the darkroom. The instrument does not require regular maintenance. In the event of significant deviations from the indicative measurements, make sure cleaning the filters, the focus lens and phototube.

Cavendish Experiment Introduction

The gravitational attraction of all objects toward the Earth is obvious. The gravitational attraction of every object to every other object, however, is anything but obvious. Despite the lack of direct evidence for any such attraction between everyday objects, Isaac Newton was able to deduce his law of universal gravitation. However, in Newton's time, every measurable example of this gravitational force included the Earth as one of the masses. It was therefore impossible to measure the constant, G, without first knowing the mass of the Earth (or vice versa). The answer to this problem came from Henry Cavendish in 1798, when he performed experiments with a torsion balance, measuring the gravitational attraction between relatively small objects in the laboratory. The value he determined for G allowed the mass and density of the Earth to be determined. Cavendish's experiment was so well constructed that it was a hundred years before more accurate measurements were made. Newtons law of universal gravitation:

with m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is

the distance between them and G= 6.67x 10-11Nm/kg2. The Gravitational Torsion Balance consists of two 38.3 gram masses suspended from a highly sensitive torsion ribbon and two 1.5 kilogram masses that can be positioned as required. The Gravitational Torsion Balance is oriented so the force of gravity between the small balls and the earth is negated (the pendulum is nearly perfectly aligned vertically and horizontally). The large masses are brought near the smaller masses, and the gravitational force between the large and small masses is measured by observing the twist of the torsion ribbon. An optical lever, produced by a laser light source and a mirror affixed to the torsion pendulum, is used to accurately measure the small twist of the ribbon. Three methods of measurement are possible: the final deflection method, the equilibrium method, and the acceleration method.

Head of torsion ribbon Zero adjust Knob

Grounding wire

Mirror on pendulum bob

Sight for leveling Large masses

Base with leveling feet

Figure 1: Assembled Gravitational Torsion Balance, ready to begin Henry Cavendishs classic experiment to determine the gravitational constant.

Equipment: Included: Gravitational Torsion Balance Support base with leveling feet 1.5 kg lead ball (2) Plastic plate Replacement torsion ribbon (part no. 004-06788) 2-56 x 1/8 Phillips head screws (4) Phillips screwdriver (not shown) Additional Required: laser light source (such as the PASCO OS-9171 He-Ne Laser) meter stick Torsion ribbon head

Zero adjust

1.5 kg lead

Knob

masses

Replacement torsion ribbon Plastic demons. plate Al. Plate Pendulum mirror 2-56x1/8 Phillips head screws

Largemass Swivel support Optical grade glass window Leveling sight Leveling feet

Figure -2: Equipment includes.

Equipment Parameters
Small lead balls Mass: 38.3 g + 0.2 g (m2) Radius: 9.53 mm Distance from ball center to torsion axis: d = 50 .0 mm Large lead balls Mass: 1500 g + 10 g (m1) Radius: 31.9 mm Distance from the center of mass of the large ball to the center of mass of the small ball when the large ball is against the aluminum plate and the small ball is in the center position within the case: b = 46.5 mm (Tolerances will vary depending on the accuracy of the horizontal alignment of the pendulum.)

Distance from the surface of the mirror to the outer surface of the glass window: 11.4 mm Torsion Ribbon Material: Beryllium Copper Length: approx. 260 mm Cross-section: .017 x .150 mm

Important Notes: The Gravitational Torsion Balance is a delicate instrument. We recommend that you set it up in a relatively secure area where it is safe from accidents and from those who dont fully appreciate delicate instruments. The first time you set up the torsion balance, do so in a place where you can leave it for at least one day before attempting measurements, allowing time for the slight elongation of the torsion band that will occur initially. Keep the pendulum bob secured in the locking mechanisms at all times, except while setting up and conducting experiments.

Equipment Setup Initial Setup

1. Place the support base on a flat, stable table that is located such that the Gravitational Torsion Balance will be at least 5 meters away from a wall or screen. Note: For best results, use a very sturdy table, such as an optics table. 2. Carefully remove the Gravitational Torsion Balance from the box, and secure it in the base. 3. Remove the front plate by removing the thumbscrews (Figure 3), and carefully remove the packing foam from the pendulum chamber.

Note: Save the packing foam, and reinstall it each time the Gravitational Torsion Balance is transported.

4. Fasten the clear plastic plate to the case with the thumbscrews. Do not touch the mirror on the pendulum.

Pendulum

Chamber Pendulum Bob

AVITATIO

TORSION

Aluminum plate Figure 3: Removing a plate from the chamber box.

Leveling the Gravitational; Torsion Balance

1. Release the pendulum from the locking mechanism by unscrewing the locking screws on the case. Lowering the locking mechanisms to their lowest positions (fig.4).

Figure-4: Lowering the locking mechanism to release the pendulum bob arms.

2. Adjust the feet of the base until the pendulum is centered in the leveling sight (figure -5). (The base of the pendulum will appear as a dark circle surrounded by a ring of light). 3. Orient the Gravitational Torsion Balance so the mirror on the pendulum bob faces a screen or wall that is at least 5 meters away.

Vertical Adjustment of the Pendulum

The base of the pendulum should be flush with the floor of the pendulum chamber. If it is not, adjust the height of the pendulum: 1. Grasp the torsion ribbon head and loosen the Phillips retaining screw (Figure 6a). 2. Adjust the height of the pendulum by moving the torsion ribbon head up or down so the base of the pendulum is flush with the floor of the pendulum chamber (Figure 6b). 3. Tighten the retaining (Phillips head) screw.

Torsion ribbon head

Torsion ribbon

Pendulum

Look through the sight to view the reflection of the pendulum bob in the mirror.

Pendulum bob must be centered over the mirror

mirror

Figure -5: Using the leveling sight to level the Gravitational Torsion Balance.

Note: Vertical adjustment is only necessary at initial setup and when you change the torsion ribbon or if someone has loosened the retaining screw by mistake; it is not normally done during each experimental setup.

Rotational Alignment of the Pendulum Bob Arms (Zeroing)

The pendulum bob arms must be centered rotationally in the case That is, equidistant from each side of the case (Figure 7). To adjust them: 1. Mount a metric scale on the wall or other projection surface that is at least 5 meters away from the mirror of the pendulum. 2. Replace the plastic cover with the aluminum cover. 3. Set up the laser so it will reflect from the mirror to the projection surface where you will take your measurements (approximately 5 meters from the mirror). You will need to point the laser so that it is tilted upward toward the mirror and so the reflected beam projects onto the projection surface (Figure 8). There will also be a fainter beam projected off the surface of the glass window. 4. Rotationally align the case by rotating it until the laser beam projected from the glass window is centered on the metric scale (Figure 9). 5. Rotationally align the pendulum arm: a. Raise the locking mechanisms by turning the locking screws until both of the locking mechanisms barely touch the pendulum arm. Maintain this position for a few moments until the oscillating energy of the pendulum is dampened. b. Carefully lower the locking mechanisms slightly so the pendulum can swing freely. If necessary, repeat the dampening exercise to calm any wild oscillations of the pendulum bob. c. Observe the laser beam reflected from the mirror. In the optimally aligned system, the equilibrium point of the oscillations of the beam reflected from the mirror will be vertically aligned below the beam reflected from the glass surface of the case (Figure 9).

d. If the spots on the projection surface (the laser beam reflections) are not aligned vertically, loosen the zero adjust thumbscrew, turn the zero adjust knob slightly to refine the rotational alignment of the pendulum bob arms (Figure 10), and wait until the movement of the pendulum stops or nearly stops. e. Repeat steps 4a 4c as necessary until the spots are aligned vertically on the projection surface. 6. When the rotational alignment is complete, carefully tighten the zero adjust thumbscrew, being careful to avoid jarring the system.

Hints for speedier rotational alignments:

Dampen any wild oscillations of the pendulum bob with the locking mechanisms, as described; Adjust the rotational alignment of the pendulum bob using small, smooth adjustments of the zero adjust knob; Exercise patience and finesse in your movements

Setting up for the Experiment

1. Take an accurate measurement of the distance from the mirror to the zero point on the scale on the projection surface (L) (Figure 8). (The distance from the mirror surface to the outside of the glass window is 11.4 mm.) Note: Avoid jarring the apparatus during this setup procedure. 2. Attach copper wire to the grounding screw (Figure 11), and ground it to the earth. 3. Place the large lead masses on the support arm, and rotate the arm to Position I (Figure 12), taking care to avoid bumping the case with the masses. 4. Allow the pendulum to come to resting equilibrium. 5. You are now ready to make a measurement using one of three methods: the final deflection method, the equilibrium method, or the acceleration method. Note: The pendulum may require several hours to reach resting equilibrium. To shorten the time required, dampen the oscillation of the pendulum by smoothly raising the locking mechanisms up (by turning the locking screws) until they just touch the crossbar, holding for several seconds until the oscillations are dampened, and then carefully lowering the locking mechanisms slightly.

Measuring the Gravitational Constant Over View of the Experiment The gravitational attraction between a 15 gram mass and a 1.5 kg mass when their centers are separated by a distance of approximately 46.5 mm (a situation similar to that of the Gravitational Torsion Balance ) is about 7 x 10
-10

Newtons. If this doesnt seem like a small quantity to measure,

consider that the weight of the small mass is more than two hundred million times this amount.

The enormous strength of the Earth's attraction for the small masses, in comparison with their attraction for the large masses, is what originally made the measurement of the gravitational constant such a difficult task. The torsion balance (invented by Charles Coulomb) provides a means of negating the otherwise overwhelming effects of the Earth's attraction in this experiment. It also provides a force delicate enough to counterbalance the tiny gravitational force that exists between the large and small masses. This force is provided by twisting a very thin beryllium copper ribbon. The large masses are first arranged in Position I, as shown in Figure 12, and the balance is allowed to come to equilibrium. The swivel support that holds the large masses is then rotated, so the large masses are moved to Position II, forcing the system into disequilibrium. The resulting oscillatory rotation of the system is then observed by watching the movement of the light spot on the scale, as the light beam is deflected by the mirror. Any of three methods can be used to determine the gravitational constant, G, from the motion of the small masses. In Method I, the final deflection method, the motion is allowed to come to resting equilibrium a process that requires several hours and the result is accurate to within approximately 5%. In method II, the equilibrium method, the experiment takes 90 minutes or more and produces an accuracy of approximately 5% when graphical analysis is used in the procedure. In Method III, the acceleration method, the motion is observed for only 5 minutes, and the result is accurate to within approximately 15%. Note1: 5% accuracy is possible in Method I if the experiment is set up on a sturdy table in an isolated location where it will not be disturbed by vibration or air movement.

Note2: 5% accuracy is possible in Method II if the resting equilibrium points are determined using a graphical analysis program.

METHOD I: Measurement by Final Deflection Setup Time 45 minutes; Experiment Time: several hours Accuracy: 5 % Theory With the large masses in Position I (Figure 13), the gravitational attraction, F between each small (m) and is neighboring large mass (m1) is given by the law of universal gravitation: F= G m1 m2/b2 Where b= the distance between the centers of the two masses. (1.1)

The gravitational attraction between the two small masses and their neighboring large masses produces a net torque (grav) on the system

grav = 2Fd

(1.2)

Since the system is in equilibrium, the twisted torsion band must be supplying an equal and opposite torque. This torque(band) is equal to the torsion constant for the band (k) times the angle through which it is twisted (), or

band = -k

(1.3)

Combining equations 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, and taking into account that grav = band, gives:

k = 2dGm1m2 /b2
Rearranging this equation gives an expression for G: (1.4) To determine the values of k and the only unknowns in equation 1.4 it is necessary to observe the oscillations of the small mass system when the equilibrium is disturbed. To disturb the equilibrium (from S1), the swivel support is rotated so the large masses are moved to Position II. The system will then oscillate until it finally slows down and comes to rest at a new equilibrium position (S2) (Figure 14). At the new equilibrium position S2, the torsion wire will still be twisted through an angle , but in the opposite direction of its twist in Position I, so the total change in angle is equal to 2. Taking into account that the angle is also doubled upon reflection from the mirror (Figure 15): S = S2 S1, 4 = S/L = S/4L or (1.5)

The torsion constant can be determined by observing the period (T) of the oscillations, and then using the equation:

(1.6) Where, I is the moment of inertia of the small mass system.

The moment of inertia for the mirror and support system for the small masses is negligibly small compared to that of the masses themselves, so the total inertia can be expressed as: (1.7) Therefore, K= Substituting equations 1.5 and 1.8 into equation 1.4 gives: (1.9) All the variables on the right side of equation 1.9 are known or measurable: r = 9.55 mm d = 50 mm b = 46.5 mm m1 = 1.5 kg L = (Measure as in step 1 of the setup) By measuring the total deflection of the light spot (S) and the period of oscillation (T), the value of G can therefore be determined. Procedure1. Once the steps for leveling, aligning, and setup have been completed (with the large masses in Position I), allow the pendulum to stop oscillating. 2. Turn on the laser and observe the Position I end point of the balance for several minutes to be sure the system is at equilibrium. Record the Position I end point (S1) as accurately as possible, and indicate any variation over time as part of your margin of error in the measurement. 3. Carefully rotate the swivel support so that the large masses are moved to Position II. The spheres should be just touching the case, but take care to avoid knocking the case and disturbing the system. (1.8)

Note: You can reduce the amount of time the pendulum requires to move to equilibrium by moving the large masses in a two-step process: first move the large masses and support to an intermediate position that is in the midpoint of the total arc (Figure 16), and wait until the light beam has moved as far as it will go in the period; then move the sphere across the second half of the arc until the large mass support just touches the case. Use a slow, smooth motion, and avoid hitting the case when moving the mass support. 4. Immediately after rotating the swivel support, observe the light spot and record its position (S1). 5. Use a stop watch to determine the time required for one period of oscillation (T). For greater accuracy, include several periods, and then find the average time required for one period of oscillation. Note: The accuracy of this period value (T ) is very important, since the T is squared in the calculation of G. 6. Wait until the oscillations stop, and record the resting equilibrium point (S2).

Analysis: 1. Use your results and equation 1.9 to determine the value of G. 2. The value calculated in step 2 is subject to the following systematic error. The small sphere is attracted not only to its neighboring large sphere, but also to the more distant large sphere, though with a much smaller force. The geometry for this second force is shown in Figure 17 (the vector arrows shown are not proportional to the actual forces). From figure 17-

The force, F0 is given by the gravitational law, which translates, in this case, to:

And has a component that is opposite to the direction of the force F :

This equation defines a dimensionless parameter, b that is equal to the ratio of the magnitude of to that of F. Using the equation F = Gm1 m2 /b2, it can be determined that: b From figure 17, Fnet = F - f = F - bF = F(1 - b) Where Fnet is the value of the force acting on each small sphere from both large masses, and F is

the force of attraction to the nearest large mass only. Similarly,

Where G is your experimentally determined value for the gravitational constant, and G0 is corrected to account for the systematic error. Finally,

Use this equation with equation 1.9 to adjust your measured values. METHOD II: Measurement by Equilibrium Positions Observation Time: ~ 90+ minutes Accuracy: ~ 5 %

Theory:
When the large masses are placed on the swivel support and moved to either Position I or Position II, the torsion balance oscillates for a time before coming to rest at a new equilibrium position. This oscillation can be described by a damped sine wave with an offset, where the value of the offset represents the equilibrium point for the balance. By finding the equilibrium point for both Position I and Position II and taking the difference, the value of remainder of the theory is identical to that described in method I. Procedure 1. Set up the experiment following steps 13 of Method I. 2. Immediately after rotating the swivel support to Position II, observe the light spot. Record the position of the light spot (S) and the time (t) every 15 seconds. Continue recording the position and time for about 45 minutes. 3. Rotate the swivel support to Position I. Repeat the procedure described in step 2. Note: Although it is not imperative that step 3 be performed immediately after step 2, it is a good idea to proceed with it as soon as possible in order to minimize the risk that the system will be disturbed between the two measurements. Waiting more than a day to perform step 3 is not advised. Analysis 1. Construct a graph of light spot position versus time for both Position I and Position II. You will S can be obtained. The

now have a graph similar to Figure 18. 2. Find the equilibrium point for each configuration by analyzing the corresponding graphs using graphical analysis to extrapolate the resting equilibrium points S1 and S2 (the equilibrium point will be the center line about which the oscillation occurs). Find the difference between the two equilibrium positions and record the result as S. 3. Determine the period of the oscillations of the small mass system by analyzing the two graphs. Each graph will produce a slightly different result. Average these results and record the answer as T. 4. Use your results and equation 1.9 to determine the value of G. 5. The value calculated in step 4 is subject to the same systematic error as described in Method I. Perform the correction procedure described in that section (Analysis, step 3) to find the value of G0. Note: To obtain an accuracy of 5% with this method, it is important to use graphical analysis of the position and time data to extrapolate the resting equilibrium positions, S1 and S2.

METHOD III: Measurement by Acceleration Observation Time: ~ 5 minutes Accuracy: ~ 15%

Theory With the large masses in Position I, the gravitational attraction, F, between each small mass (m2) and its neighboring large mass (m1) is given by the law of universal gravitation: F = Gm1m2 /b2 (3.1)

This force is balanced by a torque from the twisted torsion ribbon, so that the system is in equilibrium. The angle of twist, is measured by noting the position of the light spot where the reflected beam strikes the scale. This position is carefully noted, and then the large masses are moved to Position II. The position change of the large masses disturbs the equilibrium of the system, which will now oscillate until friction slows it down to a new equilibrium position. Since the period of oscillation of the small masses is long (approximately 10 minutes), they do not move significantly when the large masses are first moved from Position I to Position II. Because of the symmetry of the setup, the large masses exert the same gravitational force on the small masses as they did in Position I, but now in the opposite direction. Since the equilibrating force from the torsion band has not changed, the total force (Ftotal ) that is now acting to accelerate the small masses is equal to twice the original gravitational force from the large masses, or: Ftotal = 2F = 2Gm1m2 /b2 acceleration (a0) that is expressed in the equation: m2a0 = 2Gm1 m2 /b2 (3.3) Of course, as the small masses begin to move, the torsion ribbon becomes more and more relaxed so that the force decreases and their acceleration is reduced. If the system is observed over a relatively long period of time, as in Method I, it will be seen to oscillate. If, however, the acceleration of the small masses can be measured before the torque from the torsion ribbon changes appreciably, equation 3.3 can be used to determine G. Given the nature of the motion damped harmonicthe initial acceleration is constant to within about 5% in the first one tenth of an oscillation. Reasonably good results can therefore be obtained if the acceleration is measured in the first minute after rearranging the large masses, and the following relationship is used: G = b2a0 /2m1 (3.4) (3.2)

Each small mass is therefore accelerated toward its neighboring large mass, with an initial

The acceleration is measured by observing the displacement of the light spot on the screen. If, as is shown in Figure 19: s = the linear displacement of the small masses, d = the distance from the center of mass of the small masses to the axis of rotation of the torsion balance, S = the displacement of the light spot on the screen, and L = the distance of the scale from the mirror of the balance,

Then, taking into account the doubling of the angle on reflection, S = s(2L/d )

(3.5)

Using the equation of motion for an object with a constant acceleration (x = 1/2 at2), the acceleration can be calculated: a0 = 2s/t2 = Sd/t2L (3.6)

By monitoring the motion of the light spot over time, the acceleration can be determined using equation 3.6, and the gravitational constant can then be determined using equation 3.4. Procedure 1. Begin the experiment by completing steps 1-3 of the procedure detailed in Method I. 2. Immediately after rotating the swivel support, observe the light spot. Record the position of the light spot (S) and the time (t) every 15 seconds for about two minutes. Analysis 1. Construct a graph of light spot displacement (S= S-S1) versus time squared (t2), with t2 on the horizontal axis (Figure 20). Draw a best fit line through the observed data points over the first minute of observation. 2. Determine the slope of your best fit line. 3. Use equations 3.4 and 3.6 to determine the gravitational constant. 4. The value calculated in step 3 is subject to a systematic error. The small sphere is attracted not only to its neighboring large sphere, but also to the more distant sphere, although with a much smaller force. Use the procedure detailed in Method I (Analysis, step 3 ) to correct for this force.

Figure 20: Sample data and best fit line.

References: 1. M.H.Shamos, Great Experiments in Physics, (Henry Holt & Co. New York 1959) p. 75, contains
Cavendishs original paper.

2. B.E. Clotfelter, The Cavendish experiment as Cavendish knew it, Am. J. Phys 55, 210, 1987. 3. J.Cl. Dousse and C. Rheme, A Student Experiment for Accurate Measurements of the Newtonian
Gravitational Constant, Am. J. Phys 55, 706, 1987.

4. Y.T. Chen and A. Cook, Gravitational Experiments in the Laboratory, (Cambridge University
Press, 1993).

The Franck Hertz Experiment

Objective: Electrons are accelerated in a glass tube filled with mercury vapour. Depending on the acceleration voltage, a variable electron flux passes through the mercury vapor to the collector electrode. Equipments: COBRA3 Basic Unit(1), Power Supply, 12 V_(1),RS232 Data cable(1),Cobra3 Universal Plotter Software(1),Franck-Hertz Oven(1),Power supply unit for F.-H. tube(1),Power supply, 0600V-(1),DC measuring amplifier(1),Digital Thermometer(1),Ni Cr-Ni thermocouple(1), BNC cable(2), Short circuit plug(1),Plate, ceramic fiber(1),Connecting cords(12). Set- up: In accordance with Figs. 1 and 2. The power supply for the Franck Hertz tube is required to generate a 0 to -50 V rising voltage from a constant supply voltage (50V-). As long as the switch S (short circuit plug) is closed, the anode voltage is approximately 0.5 V. After the switch has been opened, the voltage increased logarithmically. Over a voltage divider (2x100 k) that is integrated in the control unit , the voltage across the cathode and the grid UA is divided in a ratio of 1:2(i.e.UA/2) so that it can be measured by the Cobra3 interface( Measuring range Analog IN2). Subsequent to the measurement, the divided voltage is multiplied by two to obtain the true voltage across the cathode and grid. Over the voltage divider that is also integrated in the control unit, the 012V voltage is split down in order to be able to apply it as counter voltage to the collector electrode on the Franck Hertz tube. When U=12 V, the split down voltage Us=3 V. The counter voltage can thus be regulated in the region from 0 to 3 V. Us=0.5V should be applied at the beginning of the experiment. The electron current that is conducted through the tube is on the order of 10-9A. It is amplified by the DC measuring amplifier (10 nA. 10 A measuring range) and feed to the Analog IN 1 Channel on the Cobra3 unit. Heat the oven up to approximately 1600C. The tip of the temperature sensor is located at an intermediate tube height, exposed to the air. After approximately 10 to 15 min, the apparatus is ready for measurements. Procedure: Start the Universal Plotter and set the parameters according to Fig.3. When the < Continue> icon has been clicked up on, two digital displays, which show the current voltage without permanently recording the values, become visible. Using the set knob on the DC measuring amplifier, set the voltage measured on the Analog channel with the switch S (short circuit switch) closed to approximately 0 V.

Then click on the Start measurement icon and open switch S (Pull the short circuit plug).It now takes approximately 1.5 minutes to complete the measurement. Finally, the digital panel for Analog channel IN2 indicates approximately 25 V. Now, approximately 50 V lie across the cathode and the grid. Click on the < Stop Measurement> icon.

Fig.1: Experimental setup.

Fig.2: Circuit diagram for the Franck-Hertz experiment.

Caution: During the measurement processes watch the tube! If a bright bluish light suddenly appears between the cathode and the grid, the tube has ignited. Shut switch S immediately (Plug in the short circuit switch!)to eliminate the intense light , which can damage the cathode . If this occurs, increase the oven temperature and restart the measurement.

Fig .3: Measurement Parameters. A weak greenish light that is arranged in horizontal layers is harmless: it shows the shock fronts of the electrons with the mercury atoms.

Convert the Analog channel IN 2 in the Analysis / Channel modification window, using the formula x: = x*2, into the true voltage that lay across the cathode and the grid during the measurement. (The voltage splitter ratio of 1:2 is mathematically reversed!). Change the unit of the Analog channel IN 1 into current in Measurement / Information / Channels window: Symbol, I; Unit, nA.

In the Measurement / Channel Manager window, select the following: for the x axis, Analog channel IN 2: and for the y axis, the current channel (Fig.5).

Fig.4: Measuring principle.

Fig. 5: Typical example of a Franck Hertz curve. The energy difference determined for the adjacent maxima is E = 4.95V. Results: (Fig.4) Electrons emerge from a heated wire (cathode, C) and are accelerated by a voltage to the grid (anode, A). The electrons can pass through holes in the grid to be detected by the collector electrode S as current. During their passage through the tube the electrons collide with gaseous mercury atoms. Above an acceleration voltage of 4.9 V, the kinetic energy of the electrons is sufficiently large to excite electrons in the outer shell of the mercury atom by inelastic collisions (energy level 6 3P1).

In this instant the colliding electron looses energy and can no longer move against the counter voltage US between the anode A and the collector electrode S. The current IS becomes clearly weaker. Now, with a further increase in acceleration voltage U A the kinetic energy again rises so that more electrons can reach the collector electrode S; current IS increases. With an even greater increase in the acceleration voltage, the voltage 2 X 4.9 V = 9.8 V is reached. Now, the electrons can excite the electrons in the shell of the mercury atom twice on their way from the cathode to the anode. Thereafter they can no longer reach the collector electrode S, and the current IS again drops. This procedure repeats itself when the acceleration voltage is repeatedly raised by 4.9 V. The IS (UA) graph (Fig. 5) shows maxima and minima that are equidistant from one another; the distance between them is measured.

The following equation is valid for the voltage UA between the anode and cathode: UA= U+ ( Where U Applied voltage A Work of emission at the anode
C

Work of emission at the cathode

Since voltage differences are analyzed in this case, the works of emission must on be further considered. According to classical theory the energy level of the electrons in an atom should be continuously distributed. All the energy coming from the outside in the form of impulses should thus be absorbable by the atom. In other words, it should not be possible for the electrons to reach the collector electrode since they are continuously broken in the layer of mercury vapour. However, this experiment demonstrates that the energy levels in the electron envelope of the mercury atom are discreet. This is the statement of quantum mechanics. Only when a specific kinetic energy has been reached can the free electrons give up an exactly defined fraction of their energy to the shell electrons of the mercury atom. The mercury atom ultimately releases the energy supplied by emitting a photon that carries exactly the quantity of energy previously added. With E = 4.9 eV, the following is true for the wave length of these photons:

Where,

C= 2.9979 x 108 m/s

, h = 4.136 x 10-15 eV,

It lies in the UV region. Remarks: In general the following are true: The low energy maxima and minima can be better observed at low tube temperatures. However, the tube ignites extremely easily under these conditions. The Higher energy maxima and minima can be better observed at high temperatures. At high temperatures the energy difference between a minimum and its adjacent maximum becomes continuously smaller. If the oven continues to heat up during the recording of the measure values, the high energy peaks on the curve can easily migrate downward. However , for the evaluation this effect is inconsequential as only the voltage differences of the peaks are measured and not their amplitudes. If an older power supply that has no output jack for UA/2 is used for the Franck Hertz tube ; the following equipment is required: Switch box(1),Resistor in plug in box , 100 k (2),Connection cord(2) References: G. Rapior, K. Sengstock and V. Baeva, New Features of Franck-Hertz Experiment. Am. J. Phys. 74(5), 423-28 (2006). J.S. Huebner, Comments on the Franck-Hertz Experiment. Am.J. Phys. 44,302-03(1976). H. Haken and H.C. Wolf, The Physics of Atoms and Quanta,6th Ed. SpringerHeidelberg,P.305(2000).

NiCr- Ni Table of operative temperatures, tolerances and EMF values in mV at different temperatures for thermocouples NiCr- Ni DIN 43710

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

mv/0C

Toll.in 0 C

0 100 200 300 400 500

0 4.10 8.13 12.21 16.40 20.65

.40 4.51 8.54 12.63 16.82 21.07

0.80 4.92 8.94 13.04 17.24 21.50

1.20 5.33 9.34 13.46 17.67 21.92

1.61 5.73 9.75 13.88 18.09 22.35

2.02 6.13 10.16 14.29 18.51 22.78

2.43 6.53 10.57 14.71 18.94 23.20

2.85 6.93 10.98 15.13 19.36 23.63

3.2 7.33 11.39 15.55 19.79 24.06

3.68 7.73 11.80 15.98 20.22 24.49

4.10 8.13 12.21 16.40 20.65 24.91

0.041 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.043

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

24.91 29.14 33.30 37.36 41.31 45.16 48.89

25.34 29.56 33.71 37.76 41.70 45.54 49.25

25.76 29.97 34.12 38.16 42.09 45.92 49.62

26.19 30.39 34.53 38.56 42.48 46.29 49.98

26.61 30.81 34.93 38.95 42.87 46.67 50.34

27.03 31.23 35.34 39.35 43.25 47.04 50.69

27.45 31.65 35.75 39.75 43.63 47.41 51.05

27.87 32.06 36.15 40.14 44.02 47.78 51.41

28.29 32.48 36.55 40.53 44.40 48.15 51.76

28.72 32.89 36.96 40.92 44.78 48.52 52.11

29.14 33.30 37.36 41.31 45.16 48.89 52.46

0.042 0.042 0.041 0.040 0.039 0.037 0.036

Chaos Experiment
Object: - To study chaos in the diode- R-L circuit. Theory: Chaos typically refers to unpredictability or disorder mathematically, chaos means an a periodic deterministic behavior. Chaotic systems look random but actually they are deterministic systems, governed by non-linear equations. Hence such systems are very sensitive to the initial condition. All chaotic systems, exhibit self-similarity i.e. the chaotic behavior resembles itself at all scales. The Logistic Map and Frequency Bifurcations: We are used to the notion that physical systems are described by differential equations that can be initial condition. This is not true in complex systems governed by non-linear equations. A typical example is the flow of fluids. At low velocity one can identify individual streamlines and predict their evolution. However, when a particular combination of velocity, viscosity, and boundary dimensions is reached, turbulence sets in and eddies and vortices are formed. The motion becomes chaotic. Many chaotic systems exhibit self similarity: that is when the flow breaks into eddies break into smaller eddies and so on. Such scaling is universal; it is observed in all chaotic systems. A particularly simple case is that of systems that obey the logistic map introduced in connection with population growth. Designate by Xj the number of members of a group may be the population on an island, the bacteria in a colony, etc. The index j labels a population on an interval (such as a day or a year) or the successive generations of the population. If the reproduction rate in one generation is , then it would hold that (1) However the population will also decrease due to deaths.In particular if the food supply on the island is finite the death rate will be proportional to x 2j. Thus the evolution1 is governed by the map (2) We use the term map, because given xj we can find xj+1 uniquely .Both and s are assumed nonnegative. We see immediately that if >1 and s=0 the population will grow exponentially, while if <1 the population will tend to 0. The map of Eq. (2) can be rescaled by introducing for all j. Then yj obeys the logistic map

(3)

The above map has the interesting property that if the reproduction rate for one generation is restricted in the range 0 < < 4, Then yj remains bounded between 0< yj < 1. We are interested in the fate of the group after many generations, namely in the value of yj as j . We find, as already stated, that: If 1, as j yj 0 the population decays to 0.

If 1 < < 3, as j

yj y y* the population tends to a stable point y*, namely. (4)

With solutions y*=0, In this case the solution y* = 0 is unstable, because if y0 = ( infinitesimal) y will tend to (1- 1/). When > 3, the system behaves in a very different manner. As soon as > 3 but < 3.4495. the population alternate between 2 stable values. When > 3.4495. the population alternates between 4 stable values until > 3.54., where it alternates between 8 stable values; for > 3.56. the population alternates between 16 stable values, and this continues at ever more closely spaced intervals of . We say that there is a bifurcation2 at these specific values of . These results can be easily checked with a pocket calculator or a simple program. Table 1 gives some typical result for = 2.8, =3.2, and =3.5, and the stable points are shown in the graphical construction of Fig.1. What is plotted in Fig.1. is yfinal vs yinital. The continuous curve is the equation of the logistic map yf = yi (1-yi). In Fig. 1a the cures

Table 1: Example of stable point of the Logistic Map ------------------------------------------------------------------------ =2.8 =3.2 y* =0.6429.. y* =0.5310.. y* =0.7995.. =3.5 y* =0.3828. =0.5009.. =0.8269.. =0.8750.. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure1: Plot of the logistic map: for (a)=1.0, =2.8; =2.8 there is one stable point at y*=0.6429..(b) for =3.2; there are two stable points at y*=0.7995.and y*=0.5130. see the text for details of the path leading to the stable points. For =2.8 and =1.0 are shown, while in Fig.1b the curve for =3.2.The lines for yf = yi are also drawn. We can follow the path from some initial value y0 =0.1 in Fig.1a to the stable point (indicated by a circle). Given yo we find y1 = yf at the intersection with the curve. However, y1 must now be used as an input, yi, so we use the yf = yi line to locate yi and proceed to find y2 and so on. The process converges to the circled point at y* = 0.6429.. It is also evident that the same construction for the =1 curve will lead to y* = 0.0. In Fig.1b we now find the two stable points at y* = 0.7995 and y* = 0.5130. The map requires that one stable point leads to the next and vice versa. When > 3.5699 the population no longer reaches a stable point but takes on an infinity of values in the range 0 < y <1. We say that the system behaves chaotically. This persists in the remainder of the range 3.5699. < < 4.0, but one finds regions of stability where an odd number of stable points exist. The dependence of the bifurcations on is shown in Fig. 2. Where the scale is highly nonlinear in order to shown enough detail; the vertical scale given values yj* (j ) of the stable point.

Fig.2. The stable points of the logistic map as a function of . The scale is highly nonlinear in order to clearly show the bifurcations. The black parts of the plot indicate the chaotic region. Note, however the thin white lines, which indicate islands of stability The remarkable discovery by M. Feigenbaum in 1975 was that all systems that exhibits chaos follow the same(universal) that the deference n =n+1 - n of the values of the parameter at witch bifurcations(period doubling) occur converges rapidly as n . In particular as n the ratio,

(5) is a universal constant. Also, the amplitude at the stable point (while bifurcating) exhibits universal behavior. If yn and yn (2)are the two stable point of a given branch at the bifurcation value n ,and y*n =y*n(1) y*n(2)
Then, (1)

lim y*n / yn+1 = 2.5029078 n

(6)

Here, and are universal constant and are called Feigenbaum constant.

This indicates that as increases the system replicates itself after rescaling by a factor 1/, as shown in Fig.2; typical intervals3. y*2 and y*3 are indicated. In this experiment, we study the chaotic behavior in a diode-R-L circuit, driven at its resonant frequency. Here the diode is a non-linear device; hence bifurcation and chaos are natural for this system. The effect was first reported by Linsay4 and was analyzed in details by Rollins and Hunts5. The circuit is shown below.

Fig.3: The diode-R-L CIRCUIT Here, the source is assumed to be sinusoidal of amplitude V0 ,hence, Va = V0 Cost Then, for half the cycle, there is appositive voltage across the diode, during it conduct and appears as an EMF. (
V b(t)

= -Vf

During the other half, the diode dose not conduct draws a charging current, and the voltage at b follows the frequency of the source. It can be calculated by

( ) (

) )

With and A, B, are constants.

The behavior of current and voltage are shown in Fig.4. Clearly, the amplitude of Vb will change with every cycle. Then depending on =V0 /VF, Vb repeats with a period T0,2T0,4T0 and so on fill it becomes chaotic. Observation: To perform the experiment you should use a 1N 40007 diode , a inductance L=..mH and a resistance R=. ,The source frequency F=..kHz. As you increase the V0 slowly, you can observe the bifurcation (in Vb) by an oscilloscope. The Y-t and the X-Y traces of the bifurcations should be attach and the data obtained is given as following. Bifurcation V0(in V) Vb(inV) n

Fig.4: The current and voltage in the diode R-L circuit shown as a function of time. Experimental Results The circuit is set up as shown in Fig. 3. A function generator is used to drive the circuit. A fairly hefty variable inductance (L=10 mH) is used since the diode capacity is small. The series resistance was R 50 ohm. The diode should not be too slow (such as are rectifier diodes) nor too fast. Good results were obtained with a 1N4007 diode; other diodes, namely 1N4001 and 1N5404, gave qualitatively similar (but quantitatively different) results. The first step is to tune the inductor to find the resonant frequency of the circuit. In this case it was found that 0/2 = 71.5 kHz 1/ (2LC). In Figs.5a-5d are shown the voltage across the diode Vb and the driving voltage V0. For V0< 0.875V, Vb has the same periodicity as V0. However just above V0= 0.875 V , Vb alternates between two different values as shown in Fig. 5a. The effect is clear, but not very pronounced, because the data have been taken only slightly above the first bifurcation. Fig. 5b corresponds to V0= 2.033V where the second bifurcation sets in. The period of Vb is now four times that of V0. Again the difference between the two high level states is very small and that between the two low level states is not observable. The next scope traces, Fig. 5c, correspond to V0 = 2.280V and were taken right after the third bifurcation. The period of Vb is now eight times that of V0 and similar comments apply as to the distinguishability of the different states. A fourth bifurcation was observed at V0 = 2.340 V. Finally Fig.5 d shows Vb when V0 2.355 V where chaos was observed to set in.

Fig. 5: Oscilloscope traces of the voltage, Vb, across the diode (upper trace ) and of the driving voltage V0 ( lower trace ) . The driving frequency is 71.5 kHz. (a) Immediately after the first bifurcation. Note that the upper trace is bimodal and has period 2 T0. (b) Immediately after the second bifurcation. Note that the large peaks are bimodal; the period is 4 T0. (c) Immediately after the third bifurcation; the period is now 8 T0. (d) Chaotic behavior. A plot of the bifurcations obtained for this diode is shown in Fig.6. The error in determining the exact bifurcation voltage6 is + 5mV. We summarize the results in Table 2.

Fig.6: Plot of Vb Vs V0 as measured for the 1N4007 diode . The bifurcations are clearly observed. Some Vb spacings are also indicated. Chaos sets in at V0 = 2.355 V.

Table 2: Bifurcation Data from Measurements of Chaos

Bifurcation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Chaos

V0(mV) 875 2033 2280 2340 2355

From these data we calculate the Feigenbaum number . We have 2- 1 = 1158 7 mV 3-2 = 247 7mV 4- 3 = 60 7mV

and therefore (1) =

These results are consistent with the asymptotic value given in eq. (5). Even though input from only the first four bifurcations was used. The determination of the second Feigenbaum number is not possible with the present data. As pointed out previously, the intervals yn* must be selected appropriately, but even then (see Fig.6) the ratios of yn* seem much larger than . This is due in part to the fact that one has not reached the asymptotic regime of Eq. (6) and in part to discontinuous jumps in Vb at certain values7 of V0 . However, it is evident from the data that the system replicates itself after each bifurcation. Furthermore, the spacing between stable points in every branch decreases in subsequent bifurcations by a multiplicative factor ; this factor seems to converge toward feigenbaums . We also note that for the 1N4001 diode it was possible to observe islands of stability in the chaotic region.

Notes and References:

1

The first study of these issues is due to the English sociologist T. R. Malthus (1766-1834) Henri Poincare in 1900 had noticed such behavior in mechanical systems and named it the

exchange of stability.
3

The intervals yn*must be chosen appropriately as is also evident from Fig.2. P.S. Linsay , Phys. Rev. Lett. 47, 1349(1981). R. W. Rollins and E.R. Hunt , Phys. Rev. Lett. 49 , 1295 (1982); R.W. Rollins and E. R. Hunt ,

Phys. Rev. A29, 3327 (1984).

6

A more precise determination of the voltage at which bifurcation occurs can be made when a

signal analyzer (FFT) is available. In this case the onset of period doubling is evident from the appearance of sub harmonics in the frequency spectrum.
7

Some diodes show marked hysteresis associated with these discontinuities. N. B. Tufillaro, T. Abbott and J. Reilly, An Experimental Approach to Nonlinear

Dynamics and Chaos, Addison-Wesley, New York, 1992.

9

M. Hasler, Electrical circuits with chaotic behaviour, Proceedings of IEEE,

Vol. 75, No. 8, pp. 10091021, August 1987.

10

S. Prentiss, The Complete Book of Oscilloscopes, McGraw Hill, New York, 1992. C. W. Wu and N. F. Rulko, Studying chaos via 1-d maps: a tutorial IEEE

11

Trans. Circ. Syst. I, Vol. 40, No. 10, pp. 707721, October 1993.
12

M. J. Ogorzalek, Chaos and Complexity in Nonlinear Electronic Circuits, World

Scientific Series on Nonlinear Science, Vol. 22, 1997.

Characterization of Solar Cell

Objectives: 1. Find Io and n from Dark I-V. 2. Find Voc .Isc and FF from illuminated I-V. 3. Find the efficiency of the solar cell. Introduction: Crystalline Si p-n Solar Cell: A solar cell or a photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor device to convert light into electricity. The cell consists of a p-n junction of a semiconductors material having a band gap Eg. When the cell is exposed to light, a photon with energy, less than Eg makes no contribution to the cell output. However a photon with energy, greater than Eg contributes an energy Eg to the cell output and the excess over Eg is dissipated as heat. Theory: Dark current of a p-n junction is given by,

Where n is the ideality factor and varies from n=1 to n=2 . Is is the dark saturation current and V is the applied voltage. Hence k is Boltzmann constant and T is the operating temperature of junction. Ec
/ n Ec / - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -Ef Ev / / Ev / p /

Ef- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Fig-1:

Band diagram of a p-n junction

When light of energy greater than or equal to Eg is shown on the cell, electron hole pairs are generated because of absorption of light. Due to the inbuilt field in the p-n junction the photo generated electrons and holes get separated and contribute to the current output if the cell is short circuited. Under open circuit condition a voltage is generated across the solar cell called the open circuit voltage. The equivalent circuit of the solar cell and the band diagram of a p-n junction under illumination are shown in fig.2.

\ (a)

(b) Fig.2: (a) Equivalent circuit of a solar cell and (b) The diagram of a p-n junction under illumination.

The I-V characteristics of an ideal solar cell is given by

The I-V characteristics of a real solar cell is given by

Here the current source IL results from the photo generated carriers. Is is the diode saturation current and RL the load resistance. Rsh and Rs are the shunt and series resistances of the solar cell. The I-V characteristic under illumination is as shown in Fig-3.

Fig. 3: I-V characteristics under dark (0-0-0) and under illumination (____).

For an ideal solar cell Rs =0 and Rsh= . It can be seen that a shunt resistance even as low as 100 ohm does not appreciably change the power output of the device. Whereas a series resistances of only 5ohm reduces the available power to less than 30% of the optimum power with Rs=0. We can thus neglect the effect of Rsh. The output current and output power are given by,

P = | IV| = The Fill factor, FF is defined as

+1) + I

Where, Isc and Voc are shown in Fig. 3. The Conversion efficiency, , is defined as the ratio of max. Power output to the incident power (Pin).

The fill factor can be determined graphically.

Fig. 4: Connections for Dark characteristics of the solar cell.

Fig. 5: Electrical circuits for measuring I-V characteristics under illumination.

Connect the circuit as shown in fig.4. Measure I-V characteristics under dark. Now connect the circuit as shown in fig-4. Measure the intensity of the light, measure Voc and Isc. Take the I-V characteristics by varying the resistance under illumination. Referenence: Physics of Semiconductor devices. SM Sze. IInd edition. Thin Film Solar Cells: K.L. Chopra and S. R. Das

Rydberg Constant
Objective: Determination of Rydberg constant. Apparatus: Hydrogen discharge tube together with induction coil, spectrometer, prism, grating Introduction: The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are obtain by solving the Schrodinger Equation; we get (M.K.S.Unit) The frequency v0 of emitted light is given by (2) Different transitions can be arranged into series known after their corresponding discovers nf =1 , ni=2,3,4 Lyman series (ultraviolet) nf =2 , ni=3,4,5 Balmer Series (Visible) nf =3 , ni-=4,5,6.. Paschen Series (Infrared) nf =4 , ni= 5,6,7 Brackett Series (Infrad) nf =5 , ni=6,7,8. Pfund Series (Far infrared) From Eq. (1) and (2) we get the inverse wavelength. [ Rydberg constant R is defined as [ ] (4) (5) ] (3) (1)

So that its theoretical value is Procedure:

The object of the experiment is to determine R using Eq. (4). For Balmer series of lines .An electric discharge tube is used to excite hydrogen atoms to higher levels and a grating spectrometer is used to measure the wavelength of the emitted radiation. Ensure the following standard adjustment in the spectrometer. The telescope is focused for infinity. The collimator is adjusted as to give a parallel beam. The turntable is leveled. The turntable is so placed as to make the plane of the grating normal to the incident beam. (The last two adjustments are made by making sure that a particular image, say the red one in first order, is observed at the same angle and the same height on the left and right sides). (1) (2) (3) (4)

Use a narrow slit and illuminate it by Hydrogen discharge tube and measure the angular Positions of diffraction images on both sides of the direct image .in all visible orders. (You should be able to see at least three colors in the first and second orders. Try also to locate at least one image in third order).Calculate the wavelength using the formula. (6) Where d is the spacing of the grating (grating has 15,000 lines /inch), m the order of diffraction, and is the angle of diffraction which is measured .Calculate R from Eq. 4 and compare it with the theoretical value obtained from Eq. 5. Note: To observe all diffraction images switch off all lights in the room. References: 1. B. L. Worsnop And N.T.Flint : Advanced Practical Physics for students (for adjustment of the spectrometer). 2. D. D. Halliday and R. Resnick:Physics Part II (For grating ),P.1123-1134. 3. A. Beiser: Concepts of Modern Physics (Ch.7) or R. B. Leighton :Principles of Modern Physics (For theory of Hydrogen atom ).

Laser Speed of Light Experiment

Objective: Measuring the speed of light by the modulated laser method. Equipments: Diode Laser with power adapter, Component Carrier (2), Lens,+127mm(1), Laser Alignment Bench(1), Light Receiver(1), Stainless steel pads(4), Cable, coaxial, RCA male to BNC male(1),Cable, coaxial, 3.5mm phone plug to BNC male(10), Cable, coaxial, BNC to male(1), Concave Mirror Assemble(1.) and Function Generator (wide range), Oscilloscope (60MHz), Tape measure. Introduction: The velocity of light in free space is an important and intriguing constant of nature. Whether the light comes from a laser on a desktop or from a star that is hurling away at fantastic speeds, the velocity of light will yield the same constant value. In more precise terminology, the velocity of light is independent of the relative velocities of the light source and the observer. As Einstein first presented in his Special Theory of Relativity, the speed of light is critically important in some surprising ways: 1. The velocity of light establishes an upper limit to the velocity that may be imparted to any object. 2. Objects moving near the velocity of light follow a set of physical laws drastically, not only from Newtons Lows, but from the basic assumptions of human intuition. It is not surprising that a great deal of time and effort has been invested in measuring the speed of light. Some of the most accurate measurements were made by Albert Michelson between 1926 and 1929. Michelson measured the velocity of light in air to be 2.99712 x 108 m/sec. from this result; he deduced the velocity in free space tube 2.99796 x 108 m/sec. Equipment Setup: 1. Stick four stainless steel strips to the front of the receiver. 2. Mount the laser on its L-shaped bracket with the bracket bent away from the laser. 3. Arrange the laser, lens, receiver and component carriers on the laser alignment bench. 4. Place the alignment bench on a horizontal surface. You will need 10 to 20m of space in the laser. 5. Mount the mirror on the tripod and it a few meters in the front of the laser. 6. Mark the position of the mirror on the floor with tape. (Attach a plumb bob to the tripod, so that you mark a point directly below the mirror.

7. With tape, mark the floor at regular intervals to about 10-20 meters from the laser. Allow for at least 10 different intervals within the allotted space. 8. Using the BNC male to-male cable, connect the TTL output of the function generator to channel 1 of the oscilloscope. 9. Using the phone plug-to-BNC male cable, connect the power jack of the laser to the output of the function generator. 10. Using the RCA male-to-BNC male cable, connect the video output of the receiver to channel 2 of the oscilloscope. 11. Set the function generator for a square wave, and press the dc offset button. Turn the output and DC offset knobs completely counterclockwise. 12. Turn the laser switch to the on position. 13. On the function generator, turn up the DC offset knob until you see laser light. Do not look directly into the laser light! 14. Align the laser, mirror, lens and receiver so that the laser is focused onto the video sensing element of the receiver. 15. Set the scope to dual trace: a) Set channel 1 to 1v/div., DC. b) Set channel 2 to1 v/div., AC. c) Set the trigger to channel 1. d) Set the trigger level to about 2.5 volts. e) Set the time base to 50 ns/div. 16. Adjust the alignment of the laser, mirror, lens and receiver to maximize the sine wave signal on channel 2 17. Adjust the DC offset and amplitude of the function generator to maximize the signal channel 2. Diode laser- The diode laser emits an intense, narrowly-focused beam of light. In this experiment, the diode laser is powered by a function generator, which modulates the light intensity at approximately 3MHz. the laser is equipped with adjustment screws for precisely aiming the light at the mirror. Concave mirror-The concave surface of the mirror help to focus the light as it is reflected. The mirror is also equipped with adjustment screws for aiming the light back to the receiver.

Light Receiver-The receiver is designed for receiving audio and video signal transmitted via modulated light. Since the light receiver is sensitive to very high-frequency modulation, it is ideally suited to the experiment, in this manual. There are two sensitive element on the receiver, in this experiment, you will use only will use only the one labeled Video. +127mm lens- the lens is used to focus the light onto the sensitive element of receiver. Experiment 1: Modulated laser method for measuring the speed of light: In this experiment, you will measure the speed of light using a laser modulated at a very high frequency and an oscilloscope. You will measure the time, t that elapses while the light signal travels a known distance, d, and you will calculate the speed of light, which is defined as d/t. The light signal, originating at the laser, will travel to mirror and back to the light receiver. You will vary d by moving the mirror and measuring the corresponding effect on t with the oscilloscope. t changes as d varies. Therefore, you will actually measure an elapsed time t relative to an arbitrary (but constant) baseline. This elapsed time can be expressed mathematically as: (1) Where, tk is an unknown constant. For the same reason, you can also measure d instead of d where d The equation of a line fitted to a plot of d vs. t (3) Where, c represents the slope of the line. The combinations of equation 1, 2, and3 yields (4) Where, K is another arbitrary constant. In equation 4, it is evident that the slope c, equals d/t, which is the speed of light. Procedure: 1. Adjust the alignments of the laser and mirror and the positions of the lens and receiver to maximize the signal. (Adjust the receiver up, down, left, and right on the carrier, but do not change the position of the carrier on the bench.) 2. On the oscilloscope, adjust the scale and vertical position of the signal to maximize the signal trace. Do not change the horizontal position of the trace. (2)

3. Record the position of mirror (relative to its initial position) and the phase of the signal in Table 1. If your oscilloscope is equipped with cursors, use them to measure the phase. Otherwise, estimate the phase to of smallest division on the time scale. 4. Move the mirror back to the next mark and repeat steps 1 through 4.

Table 1 Mirror Position(m) Phase(s)

Analysis: Plot t vs. d( Remember that d is two times the mirror position. The slope of the best-fit line is the speed of light. Note: You can plot your data and obtain the best-fit line using Data Studio. For instructions, see Appendix B of this manual. References: 1. 2. A. A. Tyapkin, Lett. Nuovo Cimento, 7, 15, pp. 760-4, (1973). H. Lorentz, Lectures on Theoretical Physics, V.1 pp. 14-19 (1927).

3. J. Larmor, Aether and Matter, Cambridge University Press (1900). 4. A. Michelson, E. Morley, Am. J. Sci, 34, 203, pp. 333345 (1887). 5. M. Ruderfer, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 5, 5, pp.191-2 (1960). 6. K. Turner, H. Hill, Bull Am. Phys. Soc., 8, pp. 28 (1963). 7. D. Champeney, et. al., Phys. Lett., 7,4 ,pp.241-3 (1963). 8. M. Ruderfer, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 7, 9, pp. 361 (1961).

THIN FILM DEPOSITION WITH HHV UNIT

Operation Procedure: 1. Switch ON the power supply and main MCB of the system. Close all valves (Hivac-Valve (HV) and Combination-Valve (CV) in closed position). 2. Close the chamber properly and switch on the Rotary pump. 3. Put CV to Roughing. 4. Wait till the vacuum reaches ~0.05 mbar in GH2. 5. Change CV to Backing. 6. Put water supply ON and switch ON the Diffusion Pump (DP). 7. Wait for around 20 mins, GH1 should show ~0.05 mbar now. 8. Change the CV to Roughing for 1-2 mins to get back ~0.05 mbar in GH2. Change the CV back to Backing (~ 0.05 at GH1). 9. Put LN2 in the cold-trap. 10. Open the HV. 11. Wait for ~30 min. Expected vacuum is ~10-5 mbar. 12. Before deposition, attach the Digital Thickness Monitor (DTM) to the system. 13. For deposition select the particular source. Check that electrodes safety-shutter is closed. Switch ON the LT. Be careful, high current flows through the system now-on. 14. Increase the current slowly at a rate of 2 Amp/Min. till deposition temp is reached. 15. Monitor the rate of deposition on the DTM (Preferably use shutter). 16. After deposition, decrease current at a rate of 2 Amp/Min. 17. After reaching back 0 Amp, wait 10 min and close the HV. Switch OFF the DP. 18. After ~20 mins, as the DP heater cools down, Put CV to Close, switch OFF the Rotary pump and close water supply. 19. Deposition process is now complete. Vent the chamber to take the samples. 20. Leave the system back to vacuum using Rotary in Roughing mode.

Never do the Following: 1. Never put the CV on the Roughing when HV is Open (after step 10 above). This might spoil the system permanently. 2. Never close the water supply when the DP is ON. 3. Never handle the valves roughly. Operate the valves slowly. Special Reminders: 1. The system should not be operated in any case till you get the required permission. 2. Clean the chamber properly during uploading the substrates. 3. Always keep the system in vacuum. Remind yourself to keep it in vacuum before leaving the lab. 3. Always close the water supply after all the processes. 4. Note the date, operation, task, sample positions, students actively present etc. in the LogBook. Any unusual incidence MUST be written down in detail in the Log-Book. (I) Objective: High Vacuum deposition and characterization of metallic thin film. (II) Motivation: Most scientists work with their samples in a vacuum system. The reasons for this are several fold: first, many samples react with the gases in ordinary room air which means they must be kept in a clean environment; second, the experimental probes used to measure sample properties may depend on electron or other beams that simply could not exist outside a vacuum. Overall, the quality of the thin film grown and the measurements done are of extremely high quality under vacuum. (III) The Instrument: (IIIa) System Overview: The system, illustrated in Figure 1, contains the essential elements typically required to obtain high vacuum. The most common and reliable systems utilize three pumping devices: The rotating mechanical pump, the diffusion pump, and the cold trap. Other system components, such as valves and baffles, aid or control the action of these pumps. The rotary pump serves as a primary source for creating vacuum. However, they can reach only upto ~ 10 -3 mbar. The Diffusion pumps using hot oil have the advantage of reaching ~ 10-7 mbar and has no moving parts although they must be backed by a rotary pump. The cold trap reduces pressure by

condensing, or freezing out, onto its cold surfaces, condensable vapors that may exist in the system. It also prevents oil vapor from the diffusion pump from diffusing back, or "back streaming", into the system. By removing "condensables" such as water vapor, a trap actually serves as a pump.

Figure.1: The vacuum system illustrating the essential elements.

(IIIb) The Two Modes of Operation (Roughing and Backing): Exposure to atmosphere when at operating temperature will result in decomposition of diffusion pump oil. It is therefore necessary to employ a bypass line around a heated diffusion pump when evacuating a chamber from atmospheric pressure to a "rough" vacuum prior to connecting the chamber to the diffusion pump; hence, the terms "roughing line" and "roughing valve". The foreline valve and the hi-vac valve (Figure 2) serve to isolate the diffusion pump, the baffle and cold trap from the object being roughed. During roughing the roughing valve is open. When roughing has been completed (at ~20 mtorr), the roughing valve is closed before the foreline valve and the hi-vac valve are opened. The manifold vent valve admits air to the port manifold to "break" the vacuum and make possible the removal of objects after they have undergone vacuum

processing. The roughing valve and the hi-vac valve must be closed during this operation if the pumps on the vacuum system are still in operation. The mechanical pump vent valve serves to admit atmosphere to the roughing line, thus bringing the mechanical pump to atmospheric pressure.

Figure.2: The two modes of operation of the system.

(IIIc) Details of Roughing Pump and Diffusion Pump: * Roughing (Rotary) Pump: It is capable of reducing pressure to about 10 millitorr. A typical mechanical pump is shown schematically in Figure 3(a). Mechanical pumps physically "sweep" the air from the system, usually with a rotary device as shown. The rotor is eccentric to the pump cavity. The rotating vane (or sweep) is kept in contact with the walls of the pump cavity by means of a compression spring. Rotating vane, positive displacement pumps have large gas handling capacities, but cannot achieve high vacuum. They are used for two purposes: to remove ("rough") the bulk of the air from a system which is initially at atmospheric pressure, and, once this is accomplished, to "back" the diffusion pump, (see below), since a diffusion pump cannot exhaust against atmospheric pressure. Hence, mechanical pumps are often called roughing pumps, backing pumps or forepumps.

Figure.3. (a) the rotary vane pump and (b) the backing pump in action.

* Diffusion Pump: It is capable of reducing system pressure to the region of 10-7 torr. A diffusion pump has a maximum pressure against which it can exhaust; this is usually in the mtorr region. The maximum exhaust pressure is also known as the "tolerable forepressure". The rotary pump noted above provides and maintains this exhaust pressure for the diffusion pump. Fast pumping action is achieved through the use of high speed jets of oil vapor which collide with gas molecules and compress them in the direction of the mechanical pump (see Figure 3(b)). The term "jet" is used to refer to both the vapor stream and to the nozzles from which the vapor issues. The oil pool at the bottom of the pump is heated, causing oil vapor to be forced up the jet stack. The vapor strikes the umbrellas, and is projected downward and outward through the nozzles of the jet stack. In passing through the narrow jets, the oil vapor flows at a very high velocity (near that of sound). The high speed vapor jet collides with gas molecules giving them a downward direction toward the foreline. The oil molecules condense on the walls of the pump which are cooled either by an air stream or by water, and flow back to the bottom pool. Thus, a continuous cycle of vaporization, condensation and re-evaporation takes place.