Computer hardware

1st year production department

Faculty of Engineering Production Engineering Department 1st Year Production Engineering

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Report 2

Computer Hardware

Presented to: Dr Arm Entail

Prepared by: Abd elrahman Adel Abd elrahman Moustafa mahmoud yousry Mohamed Radii Date: 21 March 2007

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

1-A microprocessor
is a programmable digital electronic component that incorporates the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semi conducting integrated circuit (IC). The microprocessor was born by reducing the word size of the CPU from 32 bits to 4 bits, so that the transistors of its logic circuits would fit onto a single part. One or more microprocessors typically serve as the CPU in a computer system, embedded system, or handheld device. Microprocessors made possible the advent of the microcomputer in the mid-1970s. Before this period, electronic CPUs were typically made from bulky discrete switching devices (and later small-scale integrated circuits) containing the equivalent of only a few transistor s. By integrating the processor onto one or a very few large-scale integrated circuit packages (containing the equivalent of thousands or million s of discrete transistors), the cost of processor power was greatly reduced. Since the advent of the IC in the mid -1970s, the microprocessor has become the most prevalent implementation of the CPU, nearly completely replacing all other forms. The evolution of microprocessors has been known to follow Moore's Law when it comes to steadily increasing performance over the years. This law suggests that the complexity of an integrated circuit, with respect to minimum component cost , doubles every 24 months. This dictum has generally proven true since the early 1970s. From their humble beginnings as the drivers for calculators, the continued increase in power has led to the dominance of microprocessors over every other form of computer; every system from the largest mainframes to the smallest handheld computers now uses a microprocessor at its core.

a) First types
The 4004 with cover removed (left) and as actually used (right). As with many advances in technology, the microprocessor was an idea whose time had come. Three projects arguably delivered a complete microprocessor at about the same time, Intel's 4004, Texas Instruments' TMS 1000, and Garrett Ai Research's Central Air Data Computer. In 1968, Garrett was invited to produce a digital computer to compete with electromechanical systems then under development for the main flight control computer in the US Navy's new F-14 Tomcat fighter. The design was complete by 1970, and used a MOS-based chipset as the core CPU. The design was smaller and much more reliable than the mechanical systems it competed against, and was used in all of the early Tomcat models. However, the system was considered so advanced that the Navy refused to allow publication of the design until 1997. For this reason the CADC, and the MP944 chipset it used, are fairly unknown even today.

b) 16-bit designs
Microprocessors, including an Intel 80486DX2 and an Intel 80386.
The first multi-chip 16-bit microprocessor was the National Semiconductor IMP-16, introduced in early 1973. An 8-bit version of the chipset was introduced in 1974 as the IMP-8. During the same year, National introduced the first 16-bit single-chip microprocessor, the National Semiconductor PACE, which was later followed by an NMOS version, the INS8900.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

Other early multi-chip 16-bit microprocessors include one used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the LSI-11 OEM board set and the packaged PDP 11/03 minicomputer, and the Fairchild Semiconductor Micro Flame 9440, both of which were introduced in the 1975 to 1976 timeframe.

c) 64-bit designs in personal computers

While 64-bit microprocessor designs have been in use i n several markets since the early 1990s, the early 2000s have seen the introduction of 64-bit microchips targeted at the PC market The move to 64 bits by PowerPC processors had been intended since the processors' design in the early 90s and was not a major cause of incompatibility . Existing integer registers are extended as are all related data pathways, but, as was the case with IA -32, both floating point and vector units had been operating at or above 64 bits for several years. Unlike what happened with IA-32 was extended to x86-64, no new general purpose registers were added in 64-bit PowerPC, so any performance gained when using the 64-bit mode for applications making no use of the larger address space is minimal.

d) Multicore designs
AMD Athlon 64 X2 3600 Dual core processor
A different approach to improving a computer's performance is to add extra processors, as in symmetric multiprocessing designs which have been popular in servers and workstations since the early 1990's. Keeping up with Moore's Law is becoming increasingly challenging as chip making technologies approach the physical limits of the technology. In response, the microprocessor manufacturers look for other ways to improve performance, in order to hold on to the momentum of constant upgrades in the market.

A multi-core processor is simply a single chip containing more than one microprocessor
core, effectively multiplying the potential performance with the number of cores (as long as the operating system and software is designed to take advantage of mor e than one processor). Some components, such as bus interface and second level cache, may be shared between cores. Because the cores are physically very close they interface at much faster clock speeds compared to discrete multiprocessor systems, improving overall system performance. In 2005, the first mass-market dual-core processors were announced and as of 2006 dual-core processors are widely used in high -end servers and workstations while quad -core processors for servers are beginning to become availabl e

2-Microprocessor architecture
a) Microprocessor clock frequency: Most
CPUs, and indeed most sequential logic devices, are synchronous in nature. That is, they are de signed and operate on assumptions about a synchronization signal.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

This signal, known as a clock signal, usually takes the form of a periodic square wave. By calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a CPU's many circuits, the designers can select an appropriate period for the clock signal.

b) MIPS: MIPS, for Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages , are a RISC microprocessor
architecture developed by MIPS Technologies. By the late 1990s it was estimated that one in three RISC chips produced were MIPS based designs. MIPS designs are used in SGI's computer product line; many embedded systems such as the Series2 TiVo; Windows CE devices; Cisco routers; and video game consoles like the Nintendo 64 and Sony PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and PlayStation Portable handheld system .

c) BUS
Youre furious! You just bought an expensive digital camcorder only to find out that it Cant connect to your computer because your computer apparently doesnt have a Fire wire port. Dont worryyou can easily add a Fire wire port to the computer by buying an expansion card. Expansion cards allow you to add more gizmos and capabilities to a computer. You can also use expansion cards to replace a component of a computer that breaks, like a Modem. Expansion cards plug into expansion slots on a computers motherboard. A computer talks to its expansion cardsand everything else on the motherboard Through its bus. A computers bus is an electronic pathway that carries information Between devices in a computer. Two factors determine how information flows through the bus: the bus width and the bus speed.

d) Cache: A memory cache increases a

computers performance by storing the most recently used Data. There are two types of cache: Internal Cache (also called primary or L1 cache) When the computer needs data it first looks in the internal cache. The internal cache Is inside the CPU and is the fastest possible way for the computer to get information. The internal cache can normally only contain a very small amount of information. External Cache (also called secondary or L2 cache) If the computer doesnt find the data in the internal cache, it then looks in the External cache. The external cache is slower than the internal cache, but much faster than the normal RAM

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

memory. The external cache normally holds much more information than the internal cache, but still not as much as the main memory (RAM).

3-How a Laser printer works

The primary principle at work in a laser printer is static electricity , the same energy that makes clothes in the dryer stick together or a lightning bolt travel from a thundercloud to the ground. Static electricity is simply an electrical charge built up on an insulated object, such as a balloon or your body. Since opposite ly charged atoms are attracted to each other, objects with opposite static electricity fields cling together.

The basic components of a laser printer

A laser printer uses this phenomenon as a sort of "temporary glue." The core component of this system is the photoreceptor, typically a revolving drum or cylinder. This drum assembly is made out of highly photoconductive material that is discharged by lig ht photons. Initially, the drum is given a total positive charge by the charge corona wire, a wire with an electrical current running through it. (Some printers use a charged roller instead of a corona wire, but the principle is the same.) As the drum re volves, the printer shines a tiny laser beam across the surface to discharge certain points. In this way, the laser "draws" the letters and images to be printed as a pattern of electrical charges -- an electrostatic image. The system can also work with the charges reversed -- that is, a positive electrostatic image on a negative background.

The laser "writes" on a photoconductive revolving drum .

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

After the pattern is set, the printer coats the drum with positively charged toner -- a fine, black powder. Since it has a positive charge, the toner clings to the negative discharged areas of the drum, but not to the positively ch arged "background." This is something like writing on a soda can with glue and then rolling it over some flour : The flour only sticks to the glue -coated part of the can, so you end up with a message written in powder . With the powder pattern affixed, the drum rolls over a sheet of paper, whi ch is moving along a belt below. Before the paper rolls under the drum, it is given a negative charge by the transfer corona wire (charged roller). This charge is stronger than the negative charge of the electrostatic image, so the paper can pull the toner powder away. Since it is moving at the same speed as the drum, the paper picks up the image pattern exactly. To keep the paper from clinging to the drum, it is discharged by the detach corona wire immediately after picking up the toner. Finally, the printer passes the paper through the fuser, a pair of heated rollers. As the paper passes through these rollers, the loose toner powder melts, fusing with the fibers in the paper. The fuser rolls the paper to the output tray, and you have your finished page. The fuser also heats up the paper itself, of course, which is why pages are always hot when they come out of a laser printer or photocopier. So what keeps the paper from burning up? Mainly, speed -- the paper passes through the rollers so quickly that it doesn't get very hot. After depositing toner on the paper, the drum surface passes the discharge lamp. This bright light exposes the entire photoreceptor surface, erasing the electrical image. The drum surface then passes the charge corona wire, which r eapplies the positive charge. Conceptually, this is all there is to it. Of course, actually bringing everything together is a lot more complex. In the following sections, we'll examine the different components in greater detail to see how they produce te xt and images so quickly and precisely.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

A photoconductive drum is initially charged Then a high intensity laser beam is used to discharge selected areas on the drum. These discharged areas correspond to the white areas of the printed document. Toner is attracted to parts of the drum with a high charge. The drum rotates and transfers the toner to the paper which has an even greater electrical charge. 6. Finally a heater fixes the toner onto the paper.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

4- CD-ROM & DVD & DVD Format

a) CD-ROM
Another type of drive almost all computers have is a CD-ROM drive (CD-ROM stands For Compact Disc-Read Only Memory). CD-ROM drives play CDROM discsthe same kind of compact discs you can play in your stereo system. CD-ROMs can store lots of information: a single CDROM can hold more than 600 Megabytes (MB) of datamore than an encyclopedia set! Unlike a hard drive, most CD-ROMs can only read informationyou cant save, or record anything on them (thats what the ROM in CD- ROM stands for: Read Only Memory!) On the other hand, CD-RW drives can read and Write (or burn) to special CD-R and CD-RW discs (the RW in CD-RW stands for Rewritable.) The CD-ROM drive is usually labeled D on most computers. The speed of a CD-ROM drive determines how quickly the computer can read information stored on the CD-ROM. The faster a CD-ROM drive spins, the faster your computer can run programs, and the better the programs will run and videos and sound Will be. The original CD-ROM drive was no faster than an audio CD player, so the speed Of all subsequent CD-ROM drives is measured by how many times faster they are than the original, 1x CD-ROM drive. Todays CD-ROM drives are up to sixty times (60x) faster than original.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

b) DVD

Next generation DVD drives are quickly replacing CD-ROM drives in newer computers. A DVD (stands for Digital Versatile Disc) disc looks just like a CD-ROM, but it can store more than 4 Gigabytes (GB) of informationas much as seven CDs. There are even rumored to be future DVD discs that can hold up to 17 Gigabytes! Unfortunately there Still really isnt a lot of software that is available on DVD discs. Most people simply use their DVD drive to watch DVD movies. The CD-ROM drive is usually labeled D or E on most computers.

New re-writable DVD drives, that can record or burn information to special type of DVD discs have recently become available the market. Unfortunately for the consumer, the greedy DVD manufacturers couldnt agree on a universal recordable DVD standard, so there are several different competing formats out there. Hopefully consumers will eventually make the decision for the DVD manufacturers, like they did between Bet Amax and VHS videotapes. Until then there isnt really any clear answer which recordable and Rewritable DVD format to go with, although DVD+RW and DVD-RW discs work in most new DVD drives and players. We can tell you that recordable DVD-RAM format Is almost universally not compatible with most DVD players. Table 2-13: DVD Formats tries to make sense of all the available formats.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

c) DVD Format

Description The original, standard DVD, ROM stands for Read -Only Memory. What this means is that you can only read information from a DVD; you cant add new information in a way. If you have a DVD-RW drive you can permanently store information on a DVD-R (DVD-Recordable) disc. The information you write or burn to a DVD-R is permanent and cant be changed or erased. DVD-RW drives can also write to DVD -RW discs

DVD Format DVD-ROM

DVD-R

If you have a DVD-RW drive you can use DVD-RW (Rewritable) discs, which can be re-written to up to 1,000 times. You can also modify and erase information on a DVD-RW disc. DVD-RW discs have some compatibility problems with older DVD Players and DVD ROM drives. DVD-RW drives can also write to DVD -R discs.

DVD-RW

DVD+R If you have a DVD+RW drive you can permanently store information on a DVD+R (DVD Recordable) disc. The information you write or burn to a DVD+R Is permanent and cant be changed or erased. DVD+RW drives can also write to DVD+RW discs. If you have a DVD+RW drive you can use DVD+RW (Rewritable) DVD+RW discs, which can be rewritten to up to 1,000 times. You can also modify and erase information on a DVD+RW disc. DVD+RW discs have some compatibility problems with older DVD Players and DVD ROM drives. DVD+RW drives can also write to DVD+R discs. DVD-RAM is a rewritable DVD format that can be re-written too many times. DVD-RAM discs are beginning to look like an orphan format, since they wont work in most DVD players. DVD-RAM

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

5-Monitories
A) CRT MONITORS
Cathode Ray Tube or CRT monitors are the oldest form of display for PC computer systems. Many of the earliest computers had their displays output to a standard composite video signal to be displayed on a regular TV. As time progressed, so did the level of technology used for computer displays. With the advent of LCD flat screen monitors, the days of the CRT monitor are numbered except for specialized applications.

Monitor Size and Viewable Area

All CRT monitors are sold based on their screen size. This is typically listed based on the diagonal measurement from the lower corner to the opposite side u pper corner of the screen in inches. The viewable or visible area of the monitor will be approximately .9 to 1.2 inches smaller than the tube diagonal.

Resolution
All CRT monitors now are referred to as mortising monitors. The monitor is able to adjust the electron beam such that it is capable of displaying multiple resolutions at varying refresh rates. Here is a listing of some of the more commonly used resolutions along with the acronym for that resolution: SVGA = 800x600 XGA = 1024x768 SXGA = 1280x1024 UXGA = 1600x1200

b) LCD Monitor :( Liquid crystal display).

Liquid crystal is neither solid nor a liquid some substances in this state sort like solid and also sort like liquid. They are affective by electric current and sensitive to temperature. Appling an electric current to these liquid crystals will untwist them to varying degrees depending on the currents voltage.

How LCD work:

Each pixel consists of a layer of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters. Without the liquid crystals light passing through one would be blocked by the other. If the liquid crystals are completely untwisted light passing through them will be polarized perpendicular to the second filter and thus completely blocked and the pixel will appear unlit by controlling the twist of the liquid crystals in each pixel lights can be allowed to as through by varying amounts and illuminating the pixel.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

Computer hardware

1st year production department

Color: in color LCD each individual pixel is divided into three sub p ixels
which are colored red, green and blue.

LCD features and attributes:

Native resolution: each pixel addressed using affixed matrix of horizontal and vertical dots. View angle: between 120 and 170 degrees. Brightness: LCD monitor produced between 250and 350 cd/m 2 Response rate: how fast monitors pixel can change color (faster is better).

C) Plasma Monitors
Like LCD panels, the plasma is a 'flat -panel' display, and like the LCD, a gas mixture is placed between two glass plates. However, similarity to t he LCD ends there, as a different technology is used to create the plasma display.

Technology:
Plasma uses red, green and blue phosphor material as a light source similar to a conventional CRT-based TV. The phosphors and a mixture of inert gases are permanently sealed between two sheets of glass. Voltage is used to break down the gas plasma mixture, which causes ultra -violet radiation to be emitted. The radiation activates color phosphors, which then emit visible light at the target pixels. ..

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

10

Computer hardware

1st year production department

6-HD (hard disk)

A hard drive or hard disk is a computers main storage device. Most hard drives are Tucked away in the system unit of a computer and hidden from view. Although you normally cant see a computers internal hard drive you can usually hear it whirring inside when you start the computer or a program. An external hard drive sit outside the computers system unit and plugs into a USB, Fire wire, or SCSI port. The hard drive is like the file-cabinet portion of your desk. And files really are saved in folders on a computer, so this really is the perfect analogy. Most computers have a single hard drive located inside of the computer case labeled C. When a computer has more than one hard drive they are labeled D, then E, and so on. Unlike RAM, a hard drive retains its information even when you turn the computer off. So whats stored on a hard drive? Lets take a look Operating System Files A computers operating system, like Windows XP, is stored on the hard drive. Program Files Program files are the programs you work with, like your word processor, your Internet software or your games. Programs usually comes on floppy disks or CDRoom's, to use it first install, or copy, it to your hard drive in order to use the program. Data Files Whenever you create a document or data file on your computer, like a word Processing document, the computer stores it in its temporary memory (RAM.) You must save your documents to the hard drive or they will be lost when you turn off your computer. Most hard drives are connected to a computers motherboard through something called an IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) connection. You can also connect CD-ROM and DVD drives to an IDE connection. A slight problem with IDE is that it only supports a total of four devices or drives. This isnt a big deal for most home users, but it is if youre a Business and need a server with lots of hard drives. So theres another way to connect Hard drives to a computer: through a SCSI (pronouncedget thisskuzzy) port. SCSI connections are often faster than IDE and they can connect up to seven devices instead of four.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

11

Computer hardware

1st year production department

OK, so what else do you need to need to know about hard drives? Hard Disk Size (or Capacity) How much information (how many programs and data) a hard drive can store is Measured in bytes, just like RAM. Hard drive sizes in newer computers range from 20 Megabytes (MB) all the way up to 200 Gigabytes (GB)! How big a hard drive should you get when you buy a computer? Normally try to get at least 40 Gigabytes If youre a home or small business user. More is better in hard drives, because programs keep getting bigger. Average Access Time A hard drives average access time is how fast it can find information. Average access Time is measured in milliseconds (ms), or 1/1000 of a second. The lower the access speed, the faster the hard drive. Most new computer has an average access time of 8 to 15 ms.

7-Basic DRAM operation

Before a computer can perform any useful task, it copies applications and data from the hard disk drive to the system memory. Computers use two types of system memory cache memory and main memory. Cache memory consists of very fast static RAM (SRAM) chips. Main memory consists of DRAM chips that can be packaged in a variety of ways on dual inline memory modules (DIMMs) for the notebook, desktop PC, and server markets. Each DRAM chip contains millions of memory locations, or cells that are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns (Figure 1). On the periphery of the array of memory cells are transistors that read, amplify, and transfer the data from the memory cells to the memory bus. Each DRAM row, called a page, consists of several DRAM cells. Each DRAM cell on a page contains a capacitor capable of storing an electrical charge for a very short time. A charged cell represents a 1 data bit, and an uncharged cell represents a 0 data bit. The capacitors discharge over time so they must be recha rged, or refreshed, thousands of times per second to maintain the validity of the data. These refresh mechanisms are described later in this section. . Representation of a single DRAM chip on a DIMM

a) SDRAM technology
FPM and EDO Drams are controlled asynchronously, that is, without a memory bus clock. The memory controller determined when to assert signals and when to expect data based on

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

12

Computer hardware

1st year production department

absolute timing. The inefficiencies of transferring data between a synchronous system bus and an asynchronous memory bus resulted in longer latency. Consequently, JEDECthe electronics industry standards agency for memory devices and modulesdeveloped the synchronous DRAM standard to reduce the number of system clock cycles required to read or write data. SDRAM uses a memory bus clock to synchronize the input and output signals on the memory chip. This simplified the memory controller and reduced the latency from CPU to memory. In addition to synchronous operation and burst mode access, SDRAM has other fea tures that accelerate data retrieval and increase memory capacity multiple memory banks, greater bandwidth, and register logic chips.
SDRAM DIMM with two notches

b) Advanced SDRAM technologies

Despite the performance improvement in the overall s ystem due to use of SDRAM, the growing performance gap between the memory and processor must be filled by more advanced memory technologies. These technologies, which are described on the following pages, boost the overall performance of systems using the latest high-speed processors (Figure 8).
. Peak bandwidth comparison of SDRAM and advanced SDRAM technologies

c) Double Data Rate SDRAM

Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM is advantageous for systems that require higher bandwidth than can be obtained using SDRAM. To develop DDR SDRAM, designers made enhancements to the SDRAM core to increase the data rate. These enhancements include perfecting, double transition clocking, strobe -based data bus, and SSTL_2 low voltage signaling. At 400 MHz, DDR increases memory bandwidth to 3.2 GB/s, which is 400 percent more than original SDRAM?
Data transfer rate comparison between SDRAM (with burst mode access) and DDR SDRAM

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

13

Computer hardware

1st year production department

The 184-pin DRR SDRAM Registered DIMM. The DDR SDRAM DIMM has one notch instead of the tw o notches found on SDRAM Dims

d) DDR-2 SDRAM
DDR-2 SDRAM is the second generation of DDR SDRAM . It offers data rates of up to 6.4 GB/s, lower power consumption, and improvements in packaging . At 400 MHz, DDR-2 increases memory bandwidth to 3.2 GB/s, which is 400 percent more than original SDRAM ? DDR-2 SDRAM achieves this higher level of performance and lower power consumption through faster clocks, 1.8-V operation and signaling, and simplification of the command set. The 240-pin connector on DDR-2 is needed to accommodate differential strobes signals. Table summarizes the various types of DDR and DDR II SDRAM and their associated naming conventions.

Type

Component naming convention

Module naming convention

Bus speed

Peak bandwidth

DDR DDR266 DDR333 DDR400 DDR-2 DDR2-533 DDR2-667 DDR2-800

DDR200 PC2100 PC2700 PC3200 DDR2-400 PC2-4300 PC2-5300 PC2- 6400

PC1600 133 MHz 166 MHz 200 MHz PC2-3200R 266 MHz 333 MHz 400 MHz

100 MHz

1.6 GB/s

2.1 GB/s 2.7 GB/s 3.2 GB/s 200 MHz 3.2 GB/s

4.3 GB/s 5.3 GB/s 6.4 GB/s

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

14

Computer hardware

1st year production department

8-Motherboard architecture
In computers, the front side bus (FSB) or system bus is the physical bi -directional data bus that carries all electronic signal information between the central processing unit (CPU) and other devices within the system such as random access memory (RAM), AGP video cards, PCI expansion cards, hard disks, the memory containing the system BIOS, etc. Some computers have an L 2 or L3 memory cache external to the CPU connected via a back side bus. This bus and the cache memory connected to it are faster than accessing the system RAM via the front side bus.

a) A chipset is a group of integrated circuits ("chips") that are designed to work together, and are usually marketed as a single product. In computing, the term chipset is commonly used to refer to the specialized motherboard chips on a computer or expansion card. When discussing personal computers (PCs) based on recent Intel Pentium-class systems, the term "chipset" often refers to the two main motherboard chips: Northbridge and Southbridge. The manufacturer of a chipset often is ind ependent from the manufacturer of the motherboard. Examples of manufacturers of PC motherboard chipsets include NVIDIA, ATI, VIA Technologies, Sis and Intel. b) A memory address is a unique identifier for a memory location at which a CPU or other device can store a piece of data for later retrieval. In modern byte -addressable computers, each address identifies a single byte of storage; data too large to be stored in a single byte may reside in multiple bytes occupying a sequence of consecutive addresses. Some microprocessors were designed to be word-addressable, so that the typica l storage unit was actually larger than a byte. Examples include the Texas Instruments TMS9900 and the National Semiconductor IMP-16, both of which used 16 bit words.

Management Information Systems 2006/2007

15