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1 Understanding Knowledge Chapter 2

This chapter discusses different types of knowledge including explicit and tacit knowledge, shallow and deep knowledge, and procedural versus episodic knowledge. It defines key terms like knowledge, intelligence, learning, experience, and common sense. It also examines how humans reason, including deductive, inductive, analogical, and case-based reasoning. Experts are distinguished from novices by their greater experience and use of heuristics developed over time.

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143 views11 pages

1 Understanding Knowledge Chapter 2

This chapter discusses different types of knowledge including explicit and tacit knowledge, shallow and deep knowledge, and procedural versus episodic knowledge. It defines key terms like knowledge, intelligence, learning, experience, and common sense. It also examines how humans reason, including deductive, inductive, analogical, and case-based reasoning. Experts are distinguished from novices by their greater experience and use of heuristics developed over time.

Uploaded by

linshuja
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Understanding Knowledge

Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Overview
Definitions Cognition Expert Knowledge Human Thinking and Learning Implications for Management

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Definitions
Knowledge: Understanding gained through experience or study know-how Intelligence: Capacity to acquire and apply knowledge; thinking and reasoning; ability to understand and use language Memory: Ability to store and retrieve relevant experience at will; part of intelligence

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Key Attributes of Intelligence Behaviors

Ability to understand and use language. Such language understanding is not so easy for the computer. Prior knowledge and common sense also enter the picture. Memory or storing and retrieving relevant experience at will. How this is all done is unclear. Learning is knowledge or skill acquired by instruction or study. We have yet to see some success in machine learning. People learn from experiencenot computers
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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Definitions
Learning: Knowledge acquired by instruction or study; consequence of intelligent problem solving Experience: Relates to what weve done and to knowledge; experience leads to expertise Common Sense: Unreflective opinions of ordinary people Heuristic: A rule of thumb based on years of experience
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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Fact and Rule


A fact is a statement that relates a certain element of truth about a subject matter or domain. A rule describes a sequence of relations relative to the domain or subject matter.

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Knowledge and Common Sense


Knowledge is a persons range of information, embracing a wider sphere than information. Knowledge includes common sense, perception, and experience. Common sense is unreflective opinions of ordinary people. It comes to them naturally. Lack of it makes knowledge-based systems brittle.
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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Experience and Heuristics


Experience is closely related to knowledge. We use experience to change facts into knowledge, which separates novices from experts. Experience is the factor that changes unrelated facts into expert knowledge. Heuristics is a rule of thumb based on experience. So, heuristics takes experience as the bases for rules of thumb.

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Data, Information, and Knowledge


Data are unprocessed facts.
The meaning one brings to the evaluation of data becomes information which, in turn, could add to ones knowledge 211-10-2345

Information is an aggregation of data that makes decision making easier.


It is reformatted or processed data. Knowledge is understanding of information based on its perceived importance or relevance to a problem domain. A financial analysis report that begins with account number 211-10-2345

Knowledge is understanding of information based on perceived problem domain


A financial analyst might say that all indicators tell me that Id better pull out of XYZ stock before year end.
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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Nonalgorithmic (Heuristic)

Nonprogrammable

ISDOM

KNOWLEDGE

INFORMATION

Algorithmic

DATA

Programmable

From Data Processing to Knowledge-based Systems

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Types of Knowledge
Shallow (readily recalled) and deep (acquired through years of experience) Explicit (codified) and tacit (embedded in the mind) Procedural versus episodical (chunked)

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Knowledge as Know-How
Know-how distinguishes an expert from a novice Experts represent their know-how in terms of heuristics, based on experience Know-how is not book knowledge; it is practical experience

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Reasoning and Heuristics


Humans reason in a variety of ways: Reasoning by analogy: relating one concept to another Formal reasoning: using deductive or inductive methods Case-based reasoning: reasoning from relevant past cases

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning


Deductive reasoning: exact reasoning. It deals with exact facts and exact conclusions
For example, IF Fred is taller than Nancy AND Nancy is taller than Sarah, THEN Fred is taller than Sarah. This type of reasoning is used in knowledge bases to capture this type of human expertise.

Inductive reasoning: reasoning from a set of facts or individual cases to a general conclusion
For example, IF Henry is an avid fisherman, an avid hunter, and an avid mountain climber, THEN Henry likes outdoor sports. This type of reasoning is used in knowledge automation systems when experts cannot 2-14 easily articulate their knowledge.

Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Episodic Knowledge and Semantic Knowledge

Episodic knowledge is knowledge based on experiential information chunked as an entity and retrieved from longterm memory on recall. It is synonymous with deep knowledge.
For example, a professor with years of consulting experience tends to teach by scenarios or by examples. Such a person doesnt have to think long about citing an episode to illustrate a point.

Semantic knowledge is highly organized, chunked knowledge that resides in the experts long-term memory and represents concepts, facts, and relationships among facts.
For example, a professor teaching networking would explain openly and clearly the network concepts, types of cables and their functions, how PCs are connected to a server, etc. These are all facts, relationships, and realities based on experience.
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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

From Procedural to Episodic Knowledge

Procedural and declarative knowledge are considered shallow knowledge. By contrast, semantic and episodic knowledge are viewed as deep knowledge. For example, a causal relationship between a loose battery cable and dim headlights is declarative or shallow knowledge. But since a car with a loose battery cable and dim headlights can conceivably start the car and in few miles the car goes dead, it takes an experienced mechanic to foresee the potential danger. Such experience would be based on semantic knowledge, which is less shallow, or 2-16 deeper knowledge.

Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

FROM PROCEDURAL TO EPISODIC KNOWLEDGE


Shallow Knowledge Procedural Knowledge Knowledge of how to do a task that is essentially motor in nature; the same knowledge is used over and over again. _______________________________________________ Declarative Knowledge Surface-type information that is available in short-term memory and easily verbalized; useful in early stages of knowledge capture but less so in later stages. _______________________________________________ Semantic Knowledge Hierarchically organized knowledge of concepts, facts, and relationships among facts. _______________________________________________ Episodic Knowledge Knowledge that is organized by temporal spatial means, not by concepts or relations; experiential information that is chunked by episodes. This knowledge is highly compiled and autobiographical and is not easy to extract or capture. 2-17

Deep Knowledge

Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Tacit and Explicit knowledge


Explicit knowledge: knowledge codified and digitized in books, documents, reports, memos, etc. Explicit knowledge is what you see, read, or access knowledge codified in documents, books, or other repositories. Tacit knowledge: knowledge embedded in the human mind through experience and jobs Tacit knowledge is knowledge used to create explicit knowledge; the mind-set of individuals that includes intuitions, values, and beliefs that stem from experience. Tacit and explicit knowledge have been expressed in terms of knowing-how and knowing-that, respectively
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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Knowledge as an Attribute of Expertise


An expert in a specialized area masters the requisite knowledge The unique performance of a knowledgeable expert is clearly noticeable in decision-making quality Knowledgeable experts are more selective in the information they acquire Experts are beneficiaries of the knowledge that comes from experience

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Chapter 2: Understanding Knowledge

Human Learning
Learning occurs in one of three ways: Learning by experience: a function of time and talent Learning by example: more efficient than learning by experience
Learning by example incorporates specially constructed examples rather than a broad range of experience.

Learning by discovery: undirected approach in which humans explore a problem area with no advance knowledge of what their objective is.
It is difficult to teach and will be years before we can benefit from this approach.
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Understanding Knowledge
Chapter 2

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