Cosine

The cosine function is one of the basic functions encountered in trigonometry (the others being the cosecant, cotangent, secant, sine, and tangent). Let be an angle measured counterclockwise from the x-axis along the arc of the unit circle. Then is the horizontal coordinate of the arc endpoint.

The common schoolbook definition of the cosine of an angle in a right triangle (which is equivalent to the definition just given) is as the ratio of the lengths of the side of the triangle adjacent to the angle and the hypotenuse, i.e., (1)

A convenient mnemonic for remembering the the definition of the sine, cosine, and tangent is SOHCAHTOA (sine equals opposite over hypotenuse, cosine equals adjacent over hypotenuse, tangent equals opposite over adjacent). As a result of its definition, the cosine function is periodic with period obeys the identity . By the Pythagorean theorem, also

(2)

Min Re Im
-2*Pi -2*Pi

Max
2*Pi 2*Pi

The definition of the cosine function can be extended to complex arguments using the definition (3)

where e is the base of the natural logarithm and i is the imaginary number. Cosine is an entire function and is implemented in Mathematica as Cos[z]. A related function known as the hyperbolic cosineis similarly defined, (4)

The cosine function has a fixed point at 0.739085... (Sloane's A003957), a value sometimes known as the Dottie number (Kaplan 2007). The cosine function can be defined analytically using the infinite sum (5)

(6)

or the infinite product

(7)

A close approximation to

for

is (8)

(9)

(Hardy 1959), where the difference between The cosine obeys the identity

and Hardy's approximation is plotted above.

(10) and the multiple-angle formula (11)

where

is a binomial coefficient. It is related to

via (12)

(Trott 2006, p. 39). Summation of from to can be done in closed form as

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

Similarly, (18)

where

. The exponential sum formula gives (19)

(20)

The sum of

can also be done in closed form, (21)

The Fourier transform of

is given by (22) (23)

where

is the delta function.

Cvijovi and Klinowski (1995) note that the following series (24)

has closed form for

(25)

where

is an Euler polynomial. is given by (26)

A definite integral involving

for

where

is the gamma function (T. Drane, pers. comm., Apr. 21, 2006).

SEE ALSO: Cis, Dottie Number, Elementary Function, Euler Polynomial, Exponential Sum Formulas, Fourier

Transform--Cosine, Hyperbolic Cosine, Inverse Cosine, Secant, Sine, SOHCAHTOA, Tangent, Trigonometric Functions, Trigonometry
RELATED WOLFRAM SITES: http://functions.wolfram.com/ElementaryFunctions/Cos/ REFERENCES: Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). "Circular Functions." 4.3 in Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, 9th printing. New York: Dover, pp. 71-79, 1972. Beyer, W. H. CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p. 215, 1987. Cvijovi, D. and Klinowski, J. "Closed-Form Summation of Some Trigonometric Series." Math. Comput. 64, 205-210, 1995. Hansen, E. R. A Table of Series and Products. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Hardy, G. H. Ramanujan: Twelve Lectures on Subjects Suggested by His Life and Work, 3rd ed. New York: Chelsea, p. 68, 1959. Jeffrey, A. "Trigonometric Identities." 2.4 in Handbook of Mathematical Formulas and Integrals, 2nd ed. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp. 111-117, 2000. Kaplan, S. R. "The Dottie Number." Math. Mag. 80, 73-74, 2007. Project Mathematics. "Sines and Cosines, Parts I-III." Videotape.http://www.projectmathematics.com/sincos1.htm. Sloane, N. J. A. Sequence A003957in "The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences." Spanier, J. and Oldham, K. B. "The Sine and Cosine Washington, DC: Hemisphere, pp. 295-310, 1987. Functions." Ch. 32 in An Atlas of Functions.

Tropfke, J. Teil IB, 1. "Die Begriffe des Sinus und Kosinus eines Winkels." In Geschichte der Elementar-Mathematik in systematischer Darstellung mit besonderer Bercksichtigung der Fachwrter, fnfter Band, zweite aufl. Berlin and Leipzig, Germany: de Gruyter, pp. 11-23, 1923. Trott, M. The Mathematica GuideBook for Symbolics. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2006. http://www.mathematicaguidebooks.org/. Zwillinger, D. (Ed.). "Trigonometric or Circular Functions." 6.1 in CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 452-460, 1995.

Referenced on Wolfram|Alpha: Cosine

Slope http://www.mathwarehouse.com/algebra/linear_equation/sl ope-of-a-line.php Slope of Linear Functions

The concept of slope is important in economics because it is used to measure the rate at which changes are taking place. Economists often look at how things change and about how one item changes in response to a change in another item. It may show for example how demand changes when price changes or how consumption changes when income changes or how quickly sales are growing. Slope measures the rate of change in the dependent variable as the independent variable changes. The greater the slope the steeper the line. Consider the linear function: y = a + bx b is the slope of the line. Slope means that a unit change in x, the independent variable will result in a change in y by the amount of b. slope = change in y/change in x = rise/run Slope shows both steepness and direction. With positive slope the line moves upward when going from left to right. With negative slope the line moves down when going from left to right. If two linear functions have the same slope they are parallel. Slopes of linear functions The slope of a linear function is the same no matter where on the line it is measured. (This is not true for non-linear functions.)

An example of the use of slope in economics Demand might be represented by a linear demand function such as Q(d) = a - bP Q(d) represents the demand for a good P represents the price of that good. Economists might consider how sensitive demand is to a change in price.
This is a typical downward sloping demand curve which says that demand declines as price rises.

This is a special case of a horizontal demand curve which says at any price above P* demand drops to zero. An example might be a competitor's product which is considered just as good.

This is a special case of a vertical demand curve which says that regardless of the price quantity demanded is the same. An example might be medicine as long as the price does not exceed what the consumer can afford.

Supply might be represented by a linear supply function such as Q(s) = a + bP

Q(s) represents the supply for a good P represents the price of that good. Economists might consider how sensitive supply is to a change in price.

This is a typical upward sloping supply curve which says that supply rises as price rises.

An example of the use of slope in economics The demand for a breakfast cereal can be represented by the following equation where p is the price per box in dollars: d = 12,000 - 1,500 p This means that for every increase of $1 in the price per box, demand decreases by 1,500 boxes. Calculating the slope of a linear function Slope measures the rate of change in the dependent variable as the independent variable changes. Mathematicians and economists often use the Greek capital letter D or as the symbol for change. Slope shows the change in y or the change on the vertical axis versus the change in x or the change on the horizontal axis. It can be measured as the ratio of any two values of y versus any two values of x.

Example 1 Find the slope of the line segment connecting the following points: (1,1) and (2,4)

x1 = 1 y1 = 1 x2 = 2 y2 = 4

Example 2 Find the slope of the line segment connecting the following points: (-1,-2) and (1,6) x1 = -1 y1 = -2 x2 = 1 y2 = 6

Example 3 Find the slope of the line segment connecting the following points: (-1,3) and (8,0) x1 = -1 y1 = 3 x2 = 8 y2 = 0

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